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HBEC1103
Introduction to Early
Childhood Education
INTRODUCTION
HBEC1103 Introduction to Early Childhood Education is one of the courses
offered by Faculty of Education and Languages at Open University Malaysia
(OUM). This course is worth three credit hours and should be covered over
15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This is a core course for all learners undertaking Bachelor of Early Childhood
Education (with Honours) programme.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Explain the basic concepts in early childhood education and the importance
of the past to early childhood professional;
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 2 discusses the importance of the past and some historical figures as well
as their influence on early childhood education.
Topic 3 discusses the meaning of learning and explores the major theories of
learning and development.
Topic 9 discusses some aspects relating to children with special needs including
children with disabilities which cover physical disabilities and learning
disabilities, gifted and talented children.
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Azizah Lebai Nordin. (2007). Pendidikan awal kanak-kanak teori dan amali
(3th ed.). Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya.
Morrison, S. G. (2001). Early childhood education today (8th ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Morrison, S. G. (2009). Early childhood education today (11th ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
INTRODUCTION
A child is generally defined as a person who has yet to attain adulthood, and
who has a set of characteristics that distinguishes them from adults. The Child
Act 2001 (Act 611) in Malaysia categorises a child as a person who is under the
age of 18, placing them below the legal age of majority.
(a) In the first stage, from birth to three years of age, the child is called a
„baby‰ and thereafter „toddler‰.
(b) The second stage, is from three years onwards, and the child is called a
„preschooler‰. However, the extent of this stage, whether to the age of
five years or seven years varies from country to country, depending on the
age when formal schooling commences (Gordon & Browne, 2004 ).
Nevertheless, the globally accepted and adopted definition of the early stages of
childhood encompasses the first eight years of life (Morrison, 2007). Now that
you are able to identify children and their basic stages of development, in this
first topic we will begin learning about Early Childhood Education. You will read
about its concept, some key terms in Early Childhood Education and the role of
professionals of early childhood education.
The term „education‰ has a wide connotation. A number of images can come to
mind when this word is heard. It could be a picture of children sitting diligently
at desks in a classroom, or sprawled across the floor writing in journals or
furiously colouring pictures. What comes to your mind when you hear the word
„education‰? Children happily traipsing outdoors collecting plants for a science
project, or looking up at the sky? Or do you see a baby chewing on a toy or
curiously crawling about and experiencing his or her surroundings? Each and
every picture would be correct as all these experiences can and in fact are a part
of a childÊs education.
Take for example the rapt fascination of the infant with a simple ray of light, the
intent focus of a toddler when transferring water from one container to another
(Figure 1.1), the determination of the preschooler in completing a jigsaw or the
diligence of the elementary child to replicate a bridge or structure. With these,
one can also envision the childÊs motivation, struggles and persistence. All these
elements together with focus, determination, commitment, and interest are
essential for learning, which sometimes is not easy.
Caring is both a feeling and a set of actions (Tronto, 2001). Human beings have a
strong sense, feeling and caring about self, others, places and things. This sense
of caring extends to action and as such caring for young children involve both
feeling and action. The norm is that fondness, feelings and care grow as we take
care of babies and children.
People need to care to retain their humanity (Jones, 2007). However, the majority
consider the acts of caring to be „womenÊs work‰. Very often, such work,
whether it be caring for children, the elderly or the sick, is grossly underpaid and
undervalued. The care of young children should in fact be in the hands of
qualified and trained men and women who also deserve fair wages for all this
important work.
In Malaysia, child care centres are governed by the Child Care Centre (Act 308)
which generally revolves around the aspects of caring for the young child.
Meanwhile, preschool education is defined under the Education Act 1996:
Section 2 which states that preschool education consists of educational
programmes for children between four to six years old. Compared to this,
developed countries place both child care programmes and early childhood
education (prior to the commencement of formal schooling) together as one
under Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) or Early Childhood
Education and Care (ECEC).
„⁄. For young children, ÂcareÊ and ÂeducationÊ are interdependent and
inseparable. In order to encourage and facilitate an increased educational
component of childcare, there should be a securing of greater interaction and co-
ordination between the education, care and health sectors. Children should be
brought up and nurtured in provisions that fully integrate care and education‰.
This is affirmed by Penn (2003) who stated that children who have had
educational input in their care tend to show cognitive gains when they get to
school as cited in Evans (2003). The educational component in their care appears
to be beneficial.
Arguing and emphasising on the need for provisions that fully integrate care and
education in the UK, Ball (1994) lamented, „Those whose primary concern is the
health of the child need to understand that good early learning is a critical part of
healthy growth; those whose primary concern is education need to understand
that good teachers should know, but must care. Education without care doesnÊt
work!‰
The best foundation for learning and for success in school is play in early
childhood. Physically, a childÊs gross motor skills are developed as he learns to
reach, grasp, crawl, run, climb and balance. Fine motor skills and dexterity are
honed when he handles toys and other objects. As he interacts and plays with
other children, and even adults, language capacity expands. Cooing games with
parents and other adults eventually evolve into language ability and the sharing
of stories.
Learning to cooperate, negotiate, take turns, and play by the rules, all of which
are fostered by play, are all important lifetime skills. All in all, positive play
experiences are instrumental in the development of the childÊs emotional well-
being. Through play and imagination, a child can fulfil wishes and overcome
fears of unpleasant experiences. Play helps the child to master his or her
environment. When children feel secure, safe, successful and capable, they
acquire important components of positive emotional health. Sharing play
experiences also can create strong bonds between parents and children.
Another issue that needs to be taken into consideration is the important fact that
child development experts and child psychologists have determined that the first
six years of a childÊs life is the most crucial and rapid stage of development in the
life of a human person. Child psychologists believe that the years between birth
and four years of age is the time when more than half of the intellectual
development of children takes place with a further one-third completes the
development of the child upon reaching the age of eight. Additionally,
neuroscience research of childrenÊs brains showed that intelligence develops
from birth as quoted by Bredekamp and Copple:
„In the first 3 years of life, children learn, or fail to learn, how to get along with
others, how to resolve disputes peacefully, how to use language as a tool of
learning and persuasion, and how to explore the world without fear. Brain
research reveals that most of the connections that will be maintained
throughout life are formed during childhood.‰
(Bredekamp & Copple,1997)
The complex connection or the network of neurons in the brain of the human are
patterned through and by the collection of each and every experience gained.
When the child interacts with his environment and with people, every experience
creates new patterns towards the formation of the network of synapses in the
brain. It is this network that absorbs and interprets new experiences and feelings
and forms the foundation and basis of the mind that can think and remember.
The more stimulation the child receives, the wider and more complex the
network and connection of neurons in the brain. Simultaneously, the more a
particular synapse is stimulated, the faster it will be for the neuron to transmit
impulses across and recall information, thus creating a permanent pathway.
ACTIVITY 1.1
1. What do you understand by the term „Early Childhood
Education‰? Discuss the answer with your classmates.
2. List some of the reasons you think, a society should educate its
children. Discuss in a group.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
Each and every child care service or learning centre should have its own mission
statement or philosophy to abide by. Individual centres would most likely adopt
different approaches to childrenÊs learning but there would undoubtedly be
common elements in the overall philosophy.
(b) Empowerment ă Empowering the child will help him or her to develop a
strong and healthy sense of self as capable and confident learners.
(c) Engagement ă Drawing the child into the lesson and engaging their
attention and participation is important for a meaningful learning
experience. This will also result in a higher probability to lead to further
experimentation and new learning outcomes. This can be easily and
effectively accomplished through child-initiated play that is interesting and
satisfying. The educators must also play alongside the children to stimulate
their thinking while enhancing creativity.
Administrators in this field are responsible for the overall operation and
implementation of the programmes. With diverse roles and responsibilities
ranging, they are responsible for ensuring that all aspects of the centre, from the
programmes itself, the staff, the health and safety issues and everything else are
carried out according to regulations and standards. Effective management also
includes good governance.
In Malaysia, all centres for early childhood care and education must operate
under a license from the Department of Social Welfare of the Ministry of Women,
Family and Community Development whereas kindergartens or preschools must
be licensed by the Ministry of Education. These licences are only granted to
persons who are deemed fit to deal with children while the centres must meet the
regulation guidelines for early childhood care and education.
ACTIVITY 1.2
List all the terms used in Early Childhood Education that you have
learned in this section. What does each term or phrase mean to you?
Can you include your own ideas into a definition? Write it down. Find
the terminology and its meaning from the internet. Present your
findings.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
Professionals maintain high standards for themselves and also promote such
standards to their colleagues and students. Continued improvement, expansion
of skills and knowledge are part of their daily life. A multi-dimensional, qualified
teacher who embodies these characteristics and qualities is a key component of
quality programme (NAEYC, 2013).
Various empirical researches have revealed that the key to producing good
outcomes for children within the setting of early childcare and education is the
knowledge and skill of their educators (Russell, 2012).
Caregivers and educators who have completed more years of formal education
and undergone specialised training in early childhood education or child
development are able to provide a richer and more meaningful experience to the
young children (Connor, Morrison, & Slominski, 2006).
Highly trained and qualified practitioners providing high quality early learning
and developmental experiences for children translates into long term economic
and social benefits. These children are also less likely to be involved in crimes as
they grow into adulthood (Schweinhart et al., 2005).
However, it must be said that experience alone is not enough to provide effective
care. The formal education and specialised training of a practitioner are among
the most critical elements to ensure positive outcomes for the children.
With these in mind, core knowledge that enhances the necessary skills (see
Figure 1.2) must be included in the content of training for early childhood
education practitioners.
(a) Personal and social skills should be reflected in the educators and
caregivers of young children. They should be:
(ii) Well-educated;
(vi) Have an inquiring mind and be cognizant of the need for further
personal and professional development; and
ACTIVITY 1.3
Think of a teacher who had a great influence on you. Write a one page
statement describing the characteristics of this teacher and some
examples of how he or she was a role model. Share your story with
your classmates in a small-group discussion.
SELF-CHECK 1.3
2. What do you think are new roles for early childhood professionals
today?
Ball, C. (1994). Start right: The importance of early learning. London: RSA.
Ball, D. L., & Forzani, F. M. (2008). Challenges and contexts of teaching practice.
Panel paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational
Research Association, New York, NY.
Connor, C. M., Morrison, F. J., & Slominski, L. (2006). Preschool instruction and
childrenÊs emergent literacy skill growth. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 98, 665ă689. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.98.4.665
Hevey, D., & Curtis, A. (2010) Training to work in the early years. In Pugh, G.
(Ed.) Contemporary Issus in the Early Years: Working Collaboratively for
Children. London: Paul Chapman Publishing.
McNamee, A., Mercurio, M., & Peloso, J. M. (2007). Who cares about caring in
Early Childhood Teacher Education Program. Journal of Early Childhood
Education, 28(3), 277ă288.
Miller, L. (1999). Teaching and learning about play, language and literacy with
preschool educators in Malaysia. International Journal of Early Childhood,
31(2), 55ă64.
Morrison, S. G. (2007). Early childhood education today (10th ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Morrison, S. G. (2009). Early childhood education today (11th ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Schweinhart, L. J., Montie, J., Xiang, Z., Barnett, W. S., Belfield, C. R., & Nores, M.
(2005). Lifetime effects: The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study Through
Age 40. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Press.
INTRODUCTION
Just as history helps us to shape the future, it would be ideal to look at the history
of early childhood education to help us understand the current early childhood
education development. There is so much to learn from the past. The ideas,
practices, philosophies and principles can be a base for todayÊs context. The
applications used in the past can also help todayÊs early childhood educators in
the implementation of teaching strategies.
Theories related to the growth and development of children, which form the
basis of educational practices are learned from history. The ideas of famous
educators, philosophers and thinkers of the past offer valuable insights into how
we can best implement todayÊs modern practices. The history, development and
theories of early childhood education have great influence on the present
curriculum, teaching strategies and methods (Brewer, 1992). For the Muslim
community, Islamic influence in early childhood education also needs to be given
emphasis and priority in the curriculum and teaching strategies (Islamic
Foundation for Education and Welfare, 1997; Ibn Khaldun Centre for
Development Studies as cited in Nor Hashimah Hashim & Yahya Che Lah, 2003).
In this topic, we will return to the past to learn from great educators of the past,
exploring their ideas and theories that shaped early childhood education as we
know it today.
Luther stressed on the need to build schools to teach children to read. For him,
the main purpose of school was to teach religion and faith. Although the main
focus of most schools eventually moved away from the focus of religion, LutherÊs
two main purposes of schooling, namely reading and religion, still influence the
curriculum.
Music and physical education were two areas he asserted must be part of the
curriculum. His belief and conviction that the family was the most important
institution of childhood education was accepted by most educators. To him, the
primary goal of education and schooling was to teach socialisation, religion and
morals.
The first book written by John Amos Comenius was a picture dictionary called
Orbus Pictus (The World of Pictures, 1658) to help teach children. This was a
guideline for teachers that included training of the senses and the study of nature
(see Figure 2.3).
Comenius believed that each and every one of the senses should be involved in
the process of learning for maximum effect; for example both showing an object
and explaining what it is.
Comenius also believed that learning activities are crucial and hence a school is a
childÊs workshop where he can work with complete attention and rapt interest.
Locke assumed that there were no innate ideas in the process of human learning.
This belief formed the basis of his theory of the mind as a blank tablet, or „white
paper‰. As Locke explains:
Let us suppose the mind to be, as we say white paper void of all characters,
without ideas. How comes it to be furnished? Whence comes it by that vast
store which the busy and boundless fancy of man has painted on it with an
almost endless variety? Whence has it all the materials of reason and
knowledge? To this I answer, in one word, from experience; in that all our
knowledge is founded, and from that it ultimately derives itself.
Morrison (2009)
Using this idea, Morrison (2009) expounded that the primary role of influencing
environmental factors is evident in programmes in which early education is
encouraged and promoted as a way to overcome or compensate for a poor or
disadvantaged environment. Partly founded on the assumption that everyone is
born with the same general capacity for mental development and learning,
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 IDEAS AND THEORIES THAT INFLUENCE ECE 23
In view of LockeÊs belief that experiences determine the nature of the individual,
sensory training became a prominent feature in the application of this theory to
education. LockeÊs theories and beliefs had a strong influence on others,
especially on Maria Montessori, who formulated her system of early education
based on sensory perceptions.
RousseauÊs theory advocated that education should reflect this natural goodness,
allow and provide for the spontaneous interests and activities of the children
because their inherent nature is good.
All that we lack at birth and need when grow up is given to us by education.
This education comes to see us from nature, from men or from things. The
internal development of our faculties and organs is the education of nature⁄ It
is not enough merely to keep children alive. They should learn to bear the
blows of fortune; to meet either wealth or poverty, to live if need be in the
frosts of Iceland or on the sweltering rock of Malta.
Morrison, 2009
His ideas and beliefs about childhood education include the following:
(a) The true goal of education should not be primarily a vocational one;
(c) ChildrenÊs view of the external world is quite different from that of adults;
(d) Based on his belief in the inherent goodness of children and their ability to
choose what they need to learn, free play is an important part of childhood
education;
(e) The use of concrete rather than abstract materials should be used in the
teaching of young children;
(f) The various stages of education should coincide with the distinct phases of
development of a childÊs mind; and
(c) Third, Pestalozzi felt that education was meant to stimulate the childÊs
potential through experiences that could meaningfully enhance his or her
innate intellectual, moral, and physical capacities.
Pestalozzi shared and expounded on his ideas in education in 1801 in the book
„How Gertrude Teaches Her Children‰. Using the method of moving from the
easy to the more difficult, he also emphasised the importance of an integrated
curriculum that would holistically develop the child and promote that education
had to be of the hand, the head and the heart. PestalozziÊs theories on education
and caring have stood the test of time and are in fact the basis of many common
teaching practices of early childhood education right till today.
In 1816, he opened a school for infants in New Lanark. This school was intended
as a care centre for about a hundred children, aged between 18 months to 10
years old, belonging to the workers in his cotton mills. Following this, a similar
school was opened in London in 1818. The opening of these infant schools was
partly motivated by OwenÊs intention to differentiate the children from their
parents who were largely uneducated. Consequently, he also set up a night
school for his workers to educate and transform them into „rational beings‰.
And so the young children went to his nursery and infant schools. The older
children who worked in the factory also had, for most part of the day, to attend
his secondary school which Owen called the Institution for the Formation of
Character.
At school, the programme included dance, song and outdoor play and also
covered reading, writing, arithmetic, sewing, geography, natural history, modern
and ancient history. Owen left this legacy on the infant schools in England and
they eventually developed into the kindergartens of today.
This idea that children learn through play was as radical a notion during
FroebelÊs time as the idea that children do not need to play to learn today. From
his close relationship with Pestalozzi and his readings of Rousseau, came his
decision to open a school to implement his ideas. As a result of his close
relationship with Pestalozzi and his reading of Rousseau, Froebel decided to
open a school where he could implement his ideas. In the process, he earned the
title of Father of the Kindergarten.
Froebel left a significant mark and influence through his formula for the
„kindergarten system‰ through which he stressed the importance of play and the
use of „gifts‰ (play materials) and „occupations‰ (activities). Kindergarten
paraphernalia comprised the things which attracted children such as pets, blocks
and finger plays. His observance of children led to his understanding of how
they learn and what they are attracted to and like to do.
His main theories and ideas include the following fact (Tassoni & Hucker, 2000):
(a) Both the outdoors and the indoors are good learning environments for
children. Outdoor activities should be used to encourage an interest in
natural sciences;
(c) Symbolic and imaginative play are important elements and show a high
level of learning and cognitive development; and
Montessori was the first female physician in Italy and she worked in the slums of
Rome with children who were poor and children who were mentally retarded.
This experience piqued her interest in looking for educational solutions for
children who were deaf, paralysed and termed as „idiots‰. As time passed, her
belief that these mentally impaired children could be trained and taught to
become more competent and be able to live fuller lives instead of just being „kept
safe‰.
She set out to gather the thoughts and ideas of others to find the key to unlock
and develop the right educational programmes for handicapped children. In
1907, Montessori established a pre-school Casa de Bambini or ChildrenÊs House,
and her first class comprised of 50 children aged between two to five years old.
This school stemmed from the invitation of the director general of the Roman
Association for Good Building to organise schools for the young children of
families who occupied the tenement houses constructed by the association. Her
school had one employee, a young woman with no training or background on
educating children.
Both a concept and a philosophy of child development and a plan for guiding
growth, MontessoriÊs method is founded in the belief that education begins at
birth and the early years are of the utmost importance. The most crucial period of
life is the initial time from birth to the age of six years old, it is the period when a
personÊs intelligence, his greatest asset, is formed and developed. This being so,
the founding principle which should be the ultimate basis of early childhood
education is to assist the natural development of the child.
ACTIVITY 2.1
SELF-CHECK 2.1
Look at the list of the ECE thinkers and philosophers. Discuss the
contributions of each one of them. Cite at least one example of how each
viewpoint can be applied in the classroom for early childhood
education today.
Ć The programmes of early childhood education which are used today are
based on the ideas and philosophies of the past.
Ć How children are taught and how society responds to their needs is
dependent on how they are seen and viewed.
Morrison, S. G. (2009). Early childhood education today (11 ed.). Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
Nor Hashimah Hashim, & Yahya Che Lah. (2003). Panduan pendidikan
prasekolah. Malaysia: PTS Professional.
Tassoni, & Hucker. (2000). Planning play and the early years. Oxford, England:
Heinemann Child Care.
INTRODUCTION
Learning. We use this word every so often, but do we really know and
understand what it means? Human beings take learning for granted, as a given
ability, but more often than not, we are not aware of how learning occurs. This
said, as early childhood education professionals, your beliefs and understanding
about how children learn will greatly influence your teaching and the curriculum
you choose.
Stop for a while, and think about learning and what it is all about. Some associate
the ability to learn as a sign of intelligence while others think it is all about school
children bringing home sterling report cards. Very often, for a lot or parents, the
question on their lips is „What did you learn at school today?‰ (Morrison, 2009).
3.1.1 Learning
Learning refers to cognitive and behavioural changes that result from
experiences. So we can deduct that learning occurs when there are changes in
behaviour resulting from experiences and interaction with the environment.
Thus the experiences that are planned and provided for children within a certain
curriculum should rightly be based on the core definition of what learning is all
about and on theories of how children actually learn.
Woolfolk (2005) stated that we can generally say that something has been learned
when experiences cause a relatively permanent change in the behaviour patterns
or the state of knowledge of an individual. These changes must have been
brought about through experiences and interaction with the environment to
qualify and be defined as learning.
This brings about another question. Is there a difference between learning and
development?
Bruce and Meggit (1999) stated that development refers to the general way in
which a child progresses, often in relation to time. To cite an example, a two-year
old boy can run and jump but he would usually not be able to hop and skip yet.
This adheres to what we know of the physical development stages of a child,
which we can say, is somewhat naturally ordained.
3.1.2 Theories
Now, let us talk about theory. What exactly is „theory‰? Broadly defined, a
theory is a set of assumptions or principles that organise, analyse, predict, or
explain specific events, behaviours or processes. Functionally, theories are used
to explain a particular phenomenon. For example, with reference to human
development, theories are used to explain human behaviour from birth through
old age. Theories offer insights into the nature and behaviour of children at
different stages of development and growth, helping us to understand how they
think, and why they act as they do. Knowing and thoroughly understanding
these theories provides early childhood education professionals to better work
with these young children and their parents as well.
In education field, for a long time, educators and students of education are
exposed to numerous learning theories. These theories are rooted from
paradigms or categorisation such as constructivism, cognitivism, behaviourism,
maturational theory, humanism and other paradigms. In the following sections,
we will discuss some learning theories related to early childhood education
based on the different paradigms.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Look back and think about situations and experiences which helped
you learn something. Was there anything that made learning a difficult
thing? Make a list of your thoughts and ideas, and then compare your
list with others. Discuss.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
3.2 CONSTRUCTIVISM
Based on the ideas of John Dewey, Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, constructivism
is a cognitive theory of learning and development. This theory of knowledge
states that the human brain accumulates knowledge and meaning from an
interaction between the experiences they encounter and the ideas they already
have. Both surrounding and natural factors play a significant role in influencing
human development. This belief is also evident in the behaviourist and the
maturational theories.
For example, if you give six-month-old Lily some blocks, the first
thing she would probably do with them would be to put them in her
mouth. However, if you give to a three-year old Amina the same
blocks, this toddler will attempt to stack them up. Both Lily and
Amina would display their active involvement as learners with
objects and people. Hence we see that active involvement is a natural
phenomenon for all children.
(ii) Adaptation
The process of building schemes through direct interaction with
environment is known as adaption (Morrison, 1999), which basically
is the organisation of senses and experiences. This means that the
quality of the environment and the nature of the experiences
themselves play a significant role in the development of intelligence in
children.
(iii) Assimilation
The meaning of assimilation is the taking in and understanding of
new information. How much new information a child can assimilate
depends on his or her current level of understanding. New
information must be connected to or be attached to something a child
already knows in order to be assimilated.
(iv) Accommodation
Accommodation takes place when the absorption of new information
leads to a change in an existing schema. To a child who has always
been given juice in a green plastic cup, all green plastic cups would
contain juice. If this is changed and you offer him water in the same
green plastic cup, the child would accommodate this new experience
and realise that green plastic cups do not always contain juice.
(v) Equilibrium
The balance between assimilation and accommodation is termed as
equilibrium, and it happens when all pieces of the information fit in
the schemas a child has developed. On the contrary there will be
disequilibrium when the pieces do not add up. According to Piaget
this could happen when a child moves from one stage to another, and
more significant reorganisation of schemas occur. This could lead to a
child abandoning an old idea which no longer fits, for a new one.
Making things happen and observing cause and effect is also highly
enjoyable for babies. Not understanding object permanence, a baby
will get upset if it seems that something has gone away if he or she
can no longer see it. For example, when playing ball with a baby, if
you hide the ball, she would think it is „gone‰.
Piaget said that babies and toddlers are extremely egocentric in this
phase; they can only see things from their own point of view.
This is a stage where children can appreciate and enjoy games and
understand what rules mean.
Vygotsky and Piaget, differ in their beliefs regarding the importance and nature
of interaction. According to Piaget, although children need to interact with
people and objects to learn, the stages of thinking were still bound by maturation.
On the other hand, Vygotsky claimed that interaction and direct teaching were
critical aspects of a childÊs cognitive development and that a childÊs level of
thinking could progress just by interaction. And so, he theorises that language
had a special role to play in development as the acquisition and use of language
was pivotal to the intellectual development and abilities of children.
(b) Scaffolding
Scaffolding is another important concept which is the process of providing
various types of support, guidance, or direction during the course of a
particular activity. Essentially, during the instructional process, the amount
and type of support offered to a child could be suited to his or her personal
level of development.
ACTIVITY 3.2
SELF-CHECK 3.2
3.3 BEHAVIOURISM
In behaviourism, learning occurs when a reward is given for a particular action
or attitude, or stimulus-based reaction. Children learn through and by the
conditions and environments that adults have determined for them. The
fulfilment or non-fulfilment of their needs also teach them things. Hence learning
is the result of an interaction between the natural characteristics and factors in
children and the stimulus or the influence of their surroundings.
ACTIVITY 3.3
When a dog is trained to roll over by rewarding it with meat, or when a
monkey is trained to climb a tree by rewarding it with a banana, is it
classical conditioning or operant conditioning? Discuss in pairs and
explain.
SELF-CHECK 3.3
1. Explain behaviourism.
In a nutshell, human beings strive for the fulfilment of their needs in order of a
proponent hierarchy. They would naturally and inevitably seek to satisfy a more
pressing requirement before moving on to the next level of needs. To cite an
example, a hungry or frightened child would need to be comforted and feel
secure before he could be in a position to learn. Thus, any education programme
for children must address the basic needs of children before directing them to
explore the world and to learn about new things (Casper & Theilheimer, 2010).
MaslowÊs Hierarchy of Needs is illustrated in Figure 3.1.
As illustrated in earlier examples, the needs listed at the bottom of the pyramid,
namely the physiological needs, must be fulfilled before an individual would
think of the second level of needs. In other words, the needs listed in the second
stage ă safety ă would not be important and would not require attention if the
needs at the first stage are not met to perfection.
(b) Safety
Once the physiological basic needs are met, the next would be to achieve a
sense of security and safety. The absence of this feeling of safety and
security will result in fear and a lack of self-confidence. This would
translate to children not doing well in school and not being able to cultivate
strong and meaningful relationships.
(c) Social
No man is an island and humans need to have meaningful relationships
with each other. A feeling of being loved is a very powerful motivator and
a boost to self-confidence and self-image. Every person needs to be loved
and have a sense of belonging. For children, the fulfilment of these needs
would enable good learning experiences. This need can be fulfilled by both
parents and teachers through smiles, hug, eye contact, closeness and words
of affirmation as well.
(d) Self-esteem
Man has a need for the sense of power, if not on others, at least over
themselves and so do children. Simultaneously there is a need for
achievement and prestige which leads to respect and recognition. All these
collectively lead to self-esteem.
(e) Self-actualisation
The highest on the hierarchy of needs is self-actualisation. All the preceding
stages of needs must be fulfilled before any self-actualisation can be
achieved. This will lead to a sense of satisfaction, enthusiasm and eagerness
to learn, progress and grow (Morrison, 2009).
ACTIVITY 3.4
Do you remember any teacher who adopted the humanistic
philosophy? Did you like these teachers? Did you feel you learn as
much from them as from other teachers? Would you model yourself
after such teachers? Share your feeling and stories with your classmates.
SELF-CHECK 3.4
This early attachment is crucial said John Bowlby (1907-1990), whose main
assumption was that babies thrive if they received consistent care from one adult
care giver. This more often than not would be the mother as she was the one who
tended to the baby at home (during earlier days). However, today we realise that
it is possible for babies to form deep relationships with several people aside from
the mother, such as the father, brothers and sisters, care givers and grandparents
too.
This said, the first priority of early childhood care and education programmes is
to support the development and attachments of babies and young children
(Casper & Theilheimer, 2010). Research has shown that a child who suffers from
a lack of such attachments will also lack emotional development which could
lead to a higher potential of delinquency later in life.
She cited individual differences for each category. Her research revealed the
importance of knowing and recognising the different classifications of
attachment, and the crucial need for the growth of secure attachments.
ACTIVITY 3.5
Research the role of caregivers in promoting childrenÊs secure
attachment. Discuss this in the forum in MyVLE.
SELF-CHECK 3.5
Erikson saw life as a series of stages through which each individual goes through
and growth occurs at each stage. He suggested that there are eight stages of
psychosocial development, and each one represents a crucial period for the
development of critical strength. Positive growth enabled the integration of an
individualÊs physical and biological with the challenges presented by social
institutions and culture. In this instance, parents and teachers take on key roles in
creating a positive environment for the child as it is this environment which will
either help or hinder the childÊs personality and cognitive development.
Erikson theorises that social experiences have an impact on the entire lifespan of
the individual. Hence what a child achieves in each of his 8 stages of
psychosocial development would be dependent on the developments of the
preceding stages. Each stage presents the child with its own range of problems to
be solved and when the child successfully solves these problems, he goes on to
face new problems and grows through solving them. Table 3.1 illustrates
EriksonÊs theory of the psychological stages of development from birth up to
primary school.
Aspect of
Age Personality Common Characteristics Of The Stage
Developed
Infancy Basic trust
(Birth to 1 versus mistrust
year)
If children are told off for trying out their own ideas,
they may feel guilty and not do so as often.
ACTIVITY 3.6
Observe how a child aged between three to five years old interacts with
his or her caregiver. Identify situations in which this child may face a
crisis as illustrated by EriksonÊs theory.
SELF-CHECK 3.6
1. There are eight stages in the psychosocial theory. Discuss the crisis
that occurs in each stage of this theory up to the age of five years
old.
GardnerÊs theory of multiple intelligences projects that there are at least eight
basic different intelligences among human beings. This is strongly evidenced by
both brain-based research and the study of genius. The key point here is the
definition of intelligence which is outlined as the ability to solve a problem or to
create a product that is acceptable in a particular culture. Solving a problem
includes the ability to do so in a particular cultural setting or community and the
skills that are required very much depends on the context in which the child
lives.
A child who has this intelligence or ability can be seen as being self-
reflective and self-aware; he or she is more often than not attune with his or
her inner feelings, values, beliefs, and thinking processes.
ACTIVITY 3.7
SELF-CHECK 3.7
This ecological systems theory places great emphasis on the quality and context
of the child´s environment and surroundings. The science of ecology has always
taken a holistic approach to nature, stressing on the connectivity between
communities and systems. According to Bronfenbrenner, as the child develops,
his interaction with the environment becomes more complex in nature. The
theory is that there are five systems that influence human development ă these
are the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem
(see Figure 3.2).
Figure 3.2: Five systems that influenced human development according to Ecological
Systems Theory
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_systems_theory
SELF-CHECK 3.8
Children with secure attachment are readily soothed, emotionally open, and
able to use their attachment figure as a secure base for exploration. Security of
attachment predicts social competence, academic achievement and many
other characteristics.
Bergin, C. C., & Bergin, D. A. (2012). Child and adolescent development in your
classroom. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Bruce, T., & Meggitt, C. (1999). Child care and education. Oxon, England: Hodder
and Stoughton.
Eliason, C., & Jenkins, L. (2008). A practical guide to early childhood curriculum.
(8th ed.). Upper Saddle River. NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hill.
Kail, R. V. (2002). Children and their development. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson Education.
Morrison, S. G. Early childhood education today (11th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson
Education.
OÊHagan, M., & Smith, M. (1999). Early years child care and education: Key
issues. London, England: Bailliere Tindall.
Snowman, J., & McCown, R. (2012). Psychology applied to teaching (13th ed.).
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the basic principles of Montessori, Reggio Emilia,
HighScope and Waldorf programme models;
2. Compare the four models of Early Childhood Care and Education
(ECCE) programme;
3. Discuss the strength and weaknesses of each model and how it can
be implemented in Malaysia; and
4. Discuss how these four models support children development.
INTRODUCTION
Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) programmes can produce positive
and lasting effects on children. Research spanning several decades clearly
illustrate that early intervention through high-quality and developmentally
appropriate ECCE programmes result in both short- and long-term positive
effects on the cognitive and social development of children. The National
Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) successfully and is
continuing to work to increase the professionalism of early childhood educators
and the quality of early care and education (Casper & Theilheimer, 2010).
There are a number of models of early childhood programmes that are good
references when it comes to implementing theories and principles of how
children learn into curriculums. These models can be seen as exemplary
approaches to early childhood education and can serve as a guide for best
practices. In this topic, we will study the four models of early childhood
programmes that are used worldwide as early childhood curriculum which are,
Montessori High/Scope, Reggio Emilia and Waldorf models.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 4 PROGRAMME MODELS 61
(b) The emotional and social adjustment of the child to promote and support
development into a psychologically strong and happy person;
(c) To create possibilities for the child to develop his full intellectual capacity.
Montessori believed that the child is the architect of the adult and has an inbuilt
capacity and tendency to seek out learning by himself. She was of the opinion
that children below the age of six have the most receptive and powerful minds
that provides them a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to learn. She called the mind
of a child aged between three to six years old the Absorbent Mind because it is
during this period that a child literally absorbs everything surrounding her
through sensorial exploration.
This being so, the Montessori Method encourages children to learn about the
world around them through exploration and they are allowed the freedom to
move around, manipulate and touch. This is because Montessori affirmed that
children learn best within a child-sized environment that stimulates and invites
learning. Wortham (2006) describes the Montessori classroom as an environment
prepared with carefully sequenced and structured materials for introduction by
the teacher. This is followed by opportunities to self-select materials in
independent work.
„A basic premise of the Montessori philosophy is that the child copies reality
rather than constructs it. From watching and then doing activities, the child
organise the world and her own thinking.‰
Brewer (1998) as cited in Jackman (2001)
For example, children would learn how to sweep the floor (see Figure 4.1),
dress themselves or pour water from a teapot into a cup. When they see
adults doing these activities, they are instinctively drawn to perform such
actions themselves. This is the reason why Montessori emphasised on the
importance of a prepared environment as it would make it possible for the
child to do things such as polishing, washing-up or sweeping as often as he
wanted, and for as long as he wanted.
Figure 4.1: One of the activities in MontessoriÊs Exercises in practical life is for a
child to learn how to sweep the floor
(i) Practical life exercises fall into four main groups, namely:
Each group comprises a set of exercises that progress from the relatively
easy to more difficult ones that involve longer and more complex patterns
of movement. The easier exercises in each group are naturally designed for
children at an earlier stage. At what point each exercise will be suitable for
particular child will depend on the childÊs individual development and
interest, thus making it possible to only provide a very general indication as
to whether an exercise is „early‰, „later‰ or „late‰.
Although all children go through the same sensitive periods (for example, a
sensitive period for hearing), the sequence and timing vary for each child.
So to help children learn about sounds, Maria Montessori created a set of
boxes. Although the boxes look alike, each contains a different material
which produces its own unique sound when shaken. The sound made by
the different boxes can be compared to each other and the boxes could be
arranged according to the volume of the sound. The sounds could also be
matched with boxes in another set. She devised similar activities to train
and develop the other senses of touch, sight, smell, and taste. In this
instance, the role of the teacher would be to use observation to detect times
of sensitivity and provide the setting for optimum fulfilment.
„The teacherÊs first duty is to watch over the environment, and this takes
precedence over all the rest. ItÊs influence is indirect, but unless it be well
done there will be no effective and permanent results of any kind,
physical, intellectual or spiritual.‰
ă Maria Montessori
Montessori teachers are trained to focus on the child as a person rather than place
priority on the daily lesson plans. So, although the Montessori teacher does
indeed plan lessons for each day and each child, she must be sensitive and alert
to changes in the childÊs interest, progress, mood and behaviour. Additionally,
the teacher must be able to simplify the presentation and teaching of history art,
music, math, astronomy, botany, zoology, chemistry, physical geography,
language, physics, geometry and practical life works as all these subjects are
interwoven. One of the critical requirements of the Montessori teacher is the skill
to scientifically observe children, and to ensure that they never criticise or
interfere in a childÊs work.
In The Absorbent Mind (pp. 277ă81), Maria Montessori offered some general
principles of behaviour for teachers in the Montessori classroom:
(a) The teacher as the keeper and custodian of the environment constantly
attends to the upkeeping of the environment. All the apparatus are to be
kept meticulously in order, beautiful, shining and in perfect condition. This
would include the teacher who would need to be tidy, clean, calm and
dignified. The teacherÊs first duty is ensure that the environment is always
in perfect condition and this takes precedence over all the rest. Although
the influence is indirect, it needs to be done well to be effective and for any
permanent results to occur.
(b) Teachers must entice children at the beginning of school year even before
childrenÊs concentration has shown itself. She must be warm, lively and
inviting. The Montessori teacher or better known as the directress may
interfere with the childrenÊs activities as she deems necessary before the child
has built in the ability to concentrate. The directress can use many ways to
attract childrenÊs attention by telling stories, playing games, singing, using
nursery rhymes or poetry. The teacher could charm the children using
various exercises which might not have any educational value but are useful
in calming them. A lively teacher attracts children more than a dull one. If
there are some children who persistently annoy the others, then the most
practical thing to do is to interrupt him to break the flow of the disturbing
activity. The interruption may be any kind of exclamation, or showing a
special and affectionate interest in the troublesome child.
(c) Finally the time comes in which the children begin to take an interest in an
activity. Usually the exercises of practical life is given first as it is useless
and harmful to give the children sensorial and cultural apparatus before
they are ready to benefit from it. Sensorial and cultural apparatus are only
given when the child is able to concentrate on an activity. This will
normally occur with repeated exercises of exercise of practical life. At this
stage teachers should not interrupt children as the activity builds on their
interest. Once concentration has developed in a child, the teacher can
slowly disappear into the background.
ACTIVITY 4.1
2. List some of the reasons you think, a society should educate its
children. Discuss this issue in groups.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
Define the following terms:
Teachers using Reggio Emilia approach worked diligently to develop new ways
of teaching, which would support the new democratic society. This educational
system founded by Loris Malaguzzi was formed on a structure of education
based on relationships and partnerships, in which the schools are intricately
connected with their surrounding community which included parents and
community leaders. This approach of a provision of an environment where
children from infancy to six years of age can learn in community with others has
stimulated much international interest.
The schools of Reggio Emilia promote a healthy respect for the investigative
natural ability of the child and his or her natural abilities to think, plan, criticise,
collaborate, and learn from all they do. This model holds fast to the idea that
education stems from an environment that invites children to explore and learn
through actual experience, inquiry and dialogue in the classroom and in the
community. Some of the key components of this approach include a materials-rich
environment that is aesthetically appealing (see Figure 4.4), a community-based
attitude involving the entire city, a family support system and a commitment to
process (Gordon & Browne, 2011).
Figure 4.4: One of the key components of Reggio EmiliaÊs approach is materials-rich
environment that is aesthetically appealing
Source: http://www.reggioexperience.com/about-the-reggio-emilia-method/
The readiness of the child can be nurtured by seizing moments of interest and
inquiry and taking the opportunity to elaborate and interpret the thoughts that
are already within the childÊs mind. Then, the teacher facilitates the childrenÊs
learning through lessons based on their interests and responding to
questions while actively engaging in the activities together with them. Learning
opportunities are provided across the curriculum to feed interest shown in any
area.
As for the assessment of the child, this is done via documentation in the form of
photographs, videotapes, tape recordings and written documentation.
ACTIVITY 4.2
Find a centre that employs the Reggio Emilia approach. List down the
activities that the children are involved in and how the centre was set
up.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
The ideal and carefully designed learning environment also plays a pivotal part
in this model. It incorporates a plan-do-review process that strengthens the
childrenÊs initiative and self-reliance. It creates a situation whereby teachers and
students are active partners in shaping the complete educational experience.
As for the content of learning, the High Scope Curriculum has special emphasis
and focus on the initiatives of the children and in them expressing their choices
and engaging in complex play. Creative presentations, social relationships, music
and movement, language and literacy and logic and mathematics are all part of
this curriculum.
ACTIVITY 4.3
SELF-CHECK 4.3
(a) The teacher demonstrates practical, domestic and artistic activities for the
children to imitate;
(c) The toys used in the classroom are mainly made from natural materials;
(d) Children often bring items from nature for play and classroom exploration;
(f) There are strong rhythmic elements that are based on the cycles of life and
nature; and
ACTIVITY 4.4
Example
Main ChildrenÊs TeacherÊs Learning
Model of
characteristic Role Role Environment
Activity
Montessori
Reggio Emilia
HighScope
Waldorf
Montessori believes that children learn through their senses hence she
encourages children to learn about the world around them through
exploration and they are allowed the freedom to move around, to manipulate
and touch.
INTRODUCTION
The environment a child grows up in plays a very important role in his or her
development. It is in this environment that their interests, triumphs, problems
and concerns evolve, emerge and develop. According to Jackman (2005) as cited
in Jalongo and Isenberg (2008), the environment encompasses all the influences
that create an impact and has an effect on children during their early and
formative years. Research has documented the effect the environment has on
children (Bronfrenbrenner, 1994; Harms & Clifford, 1993; Burchinal et.al., 2000).
An environment for children includes all the conditions that affect their
surroundings and also the people in it. These physical and human qualities come
together to create a space in which children and adults work and play. A good
environment is a key to professionalism in working with young children.
The first few years of a childÊs life are crucial in that it becomes the foundation
for the future. Therefore, proper planning of a well-thought out environment and
programmes which include play and various learning opportunities are very
important for the early years.
Caring for children encompass creating a good environment for them to grow
and thrive in. This translates to a safe and hygienic environment, with the
availability of equipment and activities that are suitable for and meet the needs of
the children. Safety is an all-important feature at all age levels, as is a pleasant
and welcoming atmosphere. A good environment would be located in a safe
neighbourhood that is free from traffic or environmental hazards, and have a
fenced-up play area with well-maintained equipment, child-sized equipment and
facilities (such as toilets and sinks), and areas for displaying childrenÊs work,
such as finger paintings and clay models. The entire environment should be
attractive, cheerful and pleasant, with clean, well-lit and well-ventilated indoor
spaces (see Figure 5.1).
Figure 5.1: A good learning environment for young children should be attractive,
cheerful and pleasant, with clean, well-lit and well-ventilated indoor spaces.
Source: http://www.blogto.com
possible the fittings and furniture need to be child sized. This would result
in lower incidences of accidents and also children would have more
autonomy over their environment.
Lighting and temperature also contribute to comfort and the right settings
for both are a necessity, especially if air-conditioning is part of the facility.
Simply put, a room, a playground or yard that is organised well and which
has enough interesting materials will expand the childrenÊs experiences,
provide more opportunities and enhance creativity.
General Requirements
Young children should be placed at ground level to facilitate easier entry and
also for safety reasons. Soundproof walls and ceilings are highly advisable for
noise reduction. Carpets, drapes and other fire-proof fabrics can help in sound
absorption. Floors should be non-slip (if not carpeted), durable, sanitary and
easily cleaned. Carpets and rugs should be vacuumed daily.
Figure 5.3: Physical environment for babies, toddlers and preschoolers should have
significant differences
Source: http://www.milestonescdc.com
In early childhood care centre, typically there are specified areas either for
utilisation of the children or caregiversÊ facilities (see Figure 5.5). Each area is
prepared to provide for the best interest of childrenÊs care and education and
supporting caregivers to achieve this aim. Apart from that, other things that need
to be taken into accounts are for example the food served, materials and
equipments in the centre and artistic or cosmetic outlook of the centre.
Figure 5.5: Example of a childcare centre layout showing some specific areas
Source: http://www.parentrelief.com
(c) Bathrooms
Bathroom should be adjacent to the play and sleeping areas and easily
reached from outdoors. It is preferable to install child-sized toilets and
wash basins, however, if this is not possible, make sure there is a step or
platform so the children can access the facilities. In most early childhood
facility settings, the bathrooms are without doors so teachers can supervise
or offer assistance whenever necessary.
ChildrenÊs bathroom and toilet areas must be well-lit, airy, attractive and
large enough to meet the needs of several children at the same time. It is
desirable to include an exhaust fan while paper towels should be placed
within the childrenÊs reach and waste baskets available at all times.
Whether in the provision of a light snack or full meal the centre must
adhere to the most rigid standards of health and safety where food is
concerned. Every precaution must be taken to ensure that hygiene is at its
maximum in the preparation, storing and serving of food. All equipment,
counters, floors and appliances must be properly cleaned daily and after
each use. Disinfecting high chairs and tables is recommended and this
would require the use of bleach at a ratio of half a cup of bleach to one
gallon of water.
As a last note, do not feed toddlers popcorn, nuts or raw carrots to avoid
any choking incidences.
Toys and materials need to reflect the diversity of the families and
the communities the children come from. From the perspective of
development, materials need to appeal to the individual and varied
interests of the children while also catering to their cultural and linguistic
strengths. Materials and cultural artefacts help a child feel that the
environment is familiar and comfortable.
Children are active learners, and the materials they can access should
provide them with ways to explore, manipulate and become involved in
the learning process. Children learn through all their senses, so the
materials should be appealing to the various senses.
Research has shown that children who play outdoors demonstrate better visual
motor integration, imagination, and verbal and social skills compared to children
who play predominantly indoors (Yerkes, 1982). Health-wise, it is also better
playing outdoors as it presents more opportunities for physical activity and
exercise, exposure to sunlight for the production of Vitamin D and an
environment with a lower concentration of organisms such as virus and bacteria
as compared to indoor environments (American Academy of Paediatrics,
American Public Health Association, & National Resource Centre For Health and
Safety in Child Care and Early Education, 2002). All in all, the outdoors provides
invaluable learning opportunities, promotes health, and encourages lifelong
dispositions (Cuppens, Rosenow, & Wike, 2007). We need to protect this right to
outdoor experiences.
Children's outdoor play is very different from how they play indoors while also
offering a myriad of different experiences. Stimuli to the senses and the brain
differ greatly as well as different rules of play area applied. Activities which may
be frowned upon indoors can be safely tolerated outdoors where children have a
greater freedom not only to run and shout, but also to interact with and
manipulate the environment. The outdoor is an environment where children are
free to „make a mess‰ and engage in activities that are not suited for the indoors.
A natural outdoor environment has three basic qualities that are unique and
appealing to children as an environment for play:
(c) A feeling of timelessness and space where the landscapes, trees, rivers that
are described in fairy tales and myths still exist today.
Children evaluate the natural environment not by its aesthetics, but rather by
how they can interact with the environment (see Figure 5.11). They have a
unique, direct and experiential way of knowing that the natural world is a place
of beauty, mystery and wonder. This special affinity for the natural environment
is closely related to the child's development and his or her way of knowing.
Figure 5.11: Children evaluate the natural environment by interacting with the
environment
Source: http://iview.tbcvancouver.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Gardening.jpg
They seem to understand that plants, soil, sand and water provide settings that
can be manipulated and one can build a trench in the sand and dirt or a rock dam
over a stream. They also know that thereÊs not much that can be done with a
jungle gym except climb, hang or fall off it. Natural elements provide for open-
ended play that paves the way for unstructured creative exploration with diverse
materials.
The high levels of complexity and variety that nature offers provides for longer
and more complex play. For example, with their interactive properties, plants
stimulate discovery, lead to dramatic pretend play and inspire the imagination.
Plants speak to all of the senses, so it is not surprising that children closely
affiliate the environment with vegetation. Plants, in a pleasant environment with
a mix of sun, shade, colour, texture, fragrance, and softness of enclosure also
encourage a sense of peacefulness. Natural settings offer qualities of openness,
diversity, manipulation, exploration, anonymity and wildness.
Teachers and caregivers must ensure routines and food choices as well as
resources, must take into consideration cultural practices and preferences of
all children.
Burchinal, M. R., Roberts, J. E., Riggins, R., Zeisel, S. A., Neebe, E., & Bryant, D.
(2000). Relating quality of centre-based child care to early cognitive and
language development longitudinally. Child Development, 71(2), 338ă357.
Cuppens, V., Rosenow, N., & Wike, J. R. (2007). Learning with nature idea book:
Creating nurturing outdoor spaces for children. Lincoln, NE: National
Arbor Day Foundation.
Harms, T., & Clifford, R. M. (1998). Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale-
Revised. M. Baillargeon, & H. Larouche (Translators), Echelle dÊ evaluation
de lÊenvironment prescolaire. Canada: Presses De LÊ Universite Du Quebec.
Jalongo, R., & Isenberg, J. P. (2008). Exploring your role: An introduction to early
childhood education (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.
INTRODUCTION
Have you ever tried teaching in school without any form of assessment? It is just
like trying to drive without any headlights. Assessment is like a tool that can
measure and inform you what your child can and cannot do. Your childÊs life
depends on how you assess them and how others assess them. As a responsible
early childhood educator, doing an effective assessment is one of your biggest
challenges (Food for thought: see Figure 6.1) Do you think this is a fair
assessment?
ACTIVITY 6.1
Teachers need assessment information when they are planning instructions for
teaching and learning, and to inform parents concerning the progress of their
child. This is important as it could help parents to assist their child at home.
Ultimately the objective of assessment is to benefit children. A valid and reliable
test is needed to see if the curriculum is meeting the needs of children. In
addition, some programmes use assessment for the diagnosis of disabilities or
developmental delays. Assessment of children with disabilities should be
appropriately used to determine individualised education plans (IEPs). This
would include goals and objectives and adapting the classroom environment and
activities according to their needs and abilities or to develop individual family
services plans (IFSPs) that include goals and objectives for family support and
developmental activities for infants and toddlers with disabilities. Morrison
(2009) has given a list of aims of assessment for children, families, early
childhood programmes, early childhood teachers and the public as illustrated in
Table 6.1.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
(b) All areas of development are assessed rather than only a narrow set of skills;
(c) It uses multiple ways to assess childrenÂs achievement on what they know
and able to do;
(e) It is part of everyday learning activities and processes that occur daily in
the classroom;
(f) It is curriculum embedded where children are assessed only on what they
are actually learning and doing;
(g) It takes into account every childÊs development, social, cultural and
language status and other needs as children matures at different rate; and
(a) Assess children based on their work. Use work sample, exhibition,
performance, learning logs, journal, projects, presentation, experiments and
teacher observations;
(b) Assess children based on what they are actually doing and through the
curriculum;
(c) Assess what each individual child can do or already learned, rather than
comparing one child with another or one group of children with another;
(d) Make assessment part of the learning process. Encourage children to show
what they know through presentations and participations;
(e) Learn about the child as a whole. Make the assessment process an
opportunity to learn more than just a childÊs acquisition of a narrow set of
skills;
(g) Provide ongoing assessment over the entire year. Assess children
continually throughout the year, not just at the end of a grading period or
at the end of the year; and
(a) Observation;
(b) Anecdotal;
(g) Checklist;
(j) Interview.
ACTIVITY 6.2
Propose how you would assess a science class of six year olds using
authentic assessment.
(a) Provide opportunities for teachers to look for information from other
sources;
(iii) Share studentÊs work samples and portfolios with parents; and
(iv) Provide parents with ideas and information that will help them help
their children learn.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
(a) Screening and Identification: To screen children and identify those who
may be experiencing delays or learning problems;
(b) Eligibility and Diagnosis: To determine whether a child has a disability and
is eligible for special education services, and to diagnose the specific nature
of the studentÊs problems or disability;
(b) On the other hand, parents may also call or write to the school or to the
director of special education and request that their child be evaluated. They
may suspect that the child is not progressing as he or she should be, or
notice particular problems in how the child learns or behaves. If the school
suspects that the child, indeed, may have a disability, then the school must
conduct an assessment; and
(c) If school personnel do not feel that the child has a disability, they may
refuse to assess the child, but must inform the parents in writing as to their
reasons for refusing.
critical issues in assessment that will mould how and what kind of changes
should be done. In this section we will read some critical assessment issues.
All methods of assessment can make errors. The errors made by formal tests are
different from those made by informal or anecdotal records and documentation
notes. The errors made by specific checklists of behavioural items are also
different from those made by holistic impressionistic assessments. Teachers need
to be aware of the potential errors of each evaluation or assessment strategy as it
can help minimise errors in interpretation. There should be a balance between
global or holistic evaluation and detailed specific assessments for young children.
People outside the profession often misuse tests for their own purposes.
Politicians frequently use test scores to show that a vote for them will be a vote
for better education. Test scores are often misused to justify budget requests, to
judge teachers and to determine merit pay. Schools frequently misuse tests to
compare classrooms of children and to screen out the „undesirable‰ or those
children who supposedly cannot benefit from their programme.
SELF-CHECK 6.3
There are two types of assessment, formal and informal assessment. Formal
assessment uses standardised test whereas informal assessment relies on
observational and work sampling techniques.
Berdine, W., & Meyer, S. (1987). Assessment in special education. Boston, MA:
Little, Brown.
Heimstra, R., & Sisco, B. (1990). The individualizing instruction model for adult
learners. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass Publishers
Morrison, S. G. (2009). Early childhood education today (11th ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Morrison, S. G. (2011). Early childhood education today (12th ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
INTRODUCTION
One of the teachersÊ roles in class is to guide childrenÊs behaviour. Thus to
function effectively, teachers need to understand multiple theories of guiding
childrenÊs behaviour. Teachers themselves are the best role models to their
children. Their roles are not only to transmit knowledge in the classroom, but
also to change children behaviour from negative to prosocial and autonomous
behaviour. This topic will discuss on behaviour guidance and the theories behind
it. The ten keys used in behaviour guidance, teachers role in promoting
development of autonomous behaviour and punishment will be explored.
ACTIVITY 7.1
So, what are the importance of guiding childrenÊs behaviour? The following lists
the importance of guiding childrenÊs behaviour:
(a) Children are unique and have different temperaments. Some adapt easily
while others find it difficult to adapt to change. A sensitive behaviour
guidance is needed to help children cope with their environment and
supporting them to develop positive and prosocial behaviour;
(c) Teaching children to act responsibly with good underlying behaviour lays
the foundation of a lifelong productive and responsible living. The roots of
delinquent and deviant behaviour form in the early years were found to be
precursors of adolescent problems and delinquencies such as disruptive
behaviour, over active and intense behaviour, irritability, non-compliance
and intensity in social interactions; and
(d) One reason why public funds the education system is to help keep the
society strong and healthy. Parents and the public look at early childhood
professionals to help children learn to live cooperatively and civilly in a
democratic society. Getting along with others and guiding oneÊs behaviour
are culturally and socially meaningful accomplishment.
ACTIVITY 7.2
Ask questions that help children arrive at their own solutions; and
S------R
SELF-CHECK 7.1
(i) Have an open place for group meetings and activities every morning
and before going home. Class meetings allow teachers to discuss
about childrenÊs behaviour;
(ii) Make areas in centres well defined. Make boundaries low enough for
easy supervision;
(iv) Have abundance of materials that are easily accessible. Having to ask
for materials leads to dependency and behaviour problem;
(v) Make sure materials are easy to store and keep away; and
confidence. Plan classroom rules on the first day of school. Children should
constantly be reminded of the rules and encourage them to conform to
them.
(v) Self-actualisation
Children are always keen to be independent and do things by
themselves. As educators, we should give children opportunities to be
independent such as dressing themselves and helping to set tables.
Teachers and parents must guide and help children to develop
responsibilities for their behaviour by setting achievements and
behaviour goals.
Teachers can also support parents by sharing your belief and developing a
philosophy concerning child rearing and behaviour guidance.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
(a) Giving sufficient time and opportunities for children to perform tasks
independently by themselves;
(b) Allow children to make mistakes and use problem-solving techniques and
learn from their mistakes; and
(c) Practice sanction, where children are excluded from the group when they
misbehave. Materials or privileges can be taken away from children who
abuse materials but given the option of using it again when they express
desire to use them appropriately. Help children fix things they have broken
and clean up after themselves.
Parents should understand that physical punishment can easily cross the line
into child abuse and might result in death hence other alternatives need to be
used when disciplining young children. Many death cases of children have been
reported as a result of physical abuse. Children have rights to be protected from
physical abuse. There are several problems with spanking and other form of
physical punishment such as:
(b) Adult who uses physical punishment are not only modelling physical
aggression but also giving a clear message that aggression is permissible in
interpersonal relationship. Children who are being spanked are more likely
to use aggression with the peers;
(c) Spanking and any form of physical punishment will increase the risk of
physical injury to the child. This is because spanking involves an
emotionally charged situation hence the spanker can become too aggressive
and hit the child in vulnerable places; and
(d) Parents, caregivers and teachers are childrenÊs sources of security. Physical
punishment erodes the sense of security that children must have to function
confidently in their daily lives.
The best advice regarding physical punishment is to avoid it. Use non-violent
means for guiding childrenÊs behaviour. Helping children develop an internal
system of control benefits them more than system that relies on external control
and authoritarianism. Developing self-regulation in children should be a primary
goal of all professionals.
SELF-CHECK 7.3
Behaviourists also believe that children like to imitate behaviour and it can be
repeated when reinforced.
Morrison, G. S. (2009). Early childhood education today (11th ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
INTRODUCTION
The presence of many cultures in the Malaysian society is not a new phenomena,
it began as far back as the Melakan empire. This means that there is a continuum
of similarity and dissimilarity between the communities in Malaysia. Some
communities that have existed together longer have assimilated many cultural
and linguistic elements from each other. Good examples of this are the Baba-
Nyonya community of Melaka and the Melakan Malays: both communities bear
many similarities that exist at many levels, from the food culture to clothing to
linguistics and non-linguistic behaviour. On the other hand, there are also
communities that have not been here long, for example refugee communities,
whose language and cultures have yet to be familiar to the locals and vice versa.
Therefore, multicultural society is not a new or strange concept in Malaysia.
ACTIVITY 8.1
(f) Culture is the sum total of the learned behaviour of a group of people and it
is generally considered to be the tradition of those people. More
importantly, it is transmitted from generation to generation; and
ACTIVITY 8.2
(a) Race;
(b) Ethnicity;
(c) Gender;
The question is, how do we create cultural awareness? Table 8.1 illustrates some
ideas to help you get started on this path.
Being Fair and Just If you are teaching culture to your pupils, teach a few cultures
and not only one or two while excluding others. You can take
the cultures in turn or even by handling more than one culture at
one time. What is important is that you give each culture the
respect it is due.
Content of Activities Use activities that focus on the content, nature and richness of
the pupilsÊ own cultures and the cultures of their peers. This will
open your pupilsÊ eyes to the value of their own culture and that
of their peers.
Finding Common Find and discuss commonalities between the cultures that you
Ground discuss. You need not take complicated aspects of the culture.
Start with something simple, perhaps a dish or delicacy.
Cultural Competence
The ability and confidence to interact effectively with children, families, and
colleagues of different cultures.
(Morrison, 2014)
Cross, Bazron, Dennis, and Isaacs (1989) defined cultural competence as a set of
congruent behaviours, attitudes and policies that come together in a system,
agency or among professionals and enable that system, agency or those
professionals to work effectively in cross-cultural situations. In other words,
cultural competence refers to the things and faculties that enable us to live and
function together in a multicultural community. The word „culture‰ is used
because it implies the integrated pattern of human behaviour that includes
thoughts, communications, actions, customs, beliefs, values and institutions of a
racial, ethnic, religious or social group. The word „competence‰ is used because
it implies having the capacity to function effectively.
(c) Being conscious of the dynamics inherent when cultures interact: in other
words, being aware of intercultural communication;
ACTIVITY 8.3
Figure 8.1: Ways to consider to infuse cultural diversity concept across curriculum
Generally this simply means that when you choose material from particular
cultures to use in your classroom, you would need to make sure that the material
presents accurate information about the culture and its practices, that the
material is not sensitive to those from the culture in question and most
importantly, the material is relevant to your syllabus.
Now that you have chosen culturally appropriate material, you need to know
how to react to the cultural material that your pupils bring into your classroom:
you need to acknowledge multicultural accomplishments. To do this you need to
acknowledge your pupilsÊ efforts:
(b) When they represent the cultures of their peers accurately and fairly;
(c) When they provide and use accurate and non-discriminatory historical
information;
(d) When they do not use stereotypes in class: this includes, language, material
and actions; and
(e) Simply acknowledge their efforts when they exercise any and all forms of
equality.
A final and essential consideration is always make sure that the material and
practices that you use are in line with the syllabi, the curriculum and policies of
the school. In short, you need to be culturally aligned, „The process of making
sure that what is taught matches the standards‰ (Morrison, 2014).
ACTIVITY 8.4
Cross T., Bazron, B., Dennis, K., & Isaacs, M. (1989). Towards a culturally
competent system of care, volume I. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown
University Child Development Center, CASSP Technical Assistance Center.
Morrison, G. S. (2014). Early childhood education today. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson Education.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Describe the concept of children with learning disabilities and
gifted children;
2. Explain the different types of physical disabilities;
3. Name three federal laws that apply to children with special needs;
4. Identify the different types of learning disabilities; and
5. List out strategies to help children with learning disabilities.
INTRODUCTION
Children with special needs are those who suffer from disabilities which
handicap their development by interfering with growth or the normal
functioning of the body or the ability to learn. These can be the result of accidents
or infection or they can be congenital. This topic discusses some aspects relating
to children with special needs including children with disabilities which cover
physical disabilities and learning disabilities, gifted and talented children and
abused and neglected children.
ACTIVITY 9.1
Name some of the common disabilities that you are aware of.
Now, let us look into the five categories of congenital abnormalities in greater
detail:
(a) Cerebral palsy occurs due to the damage of the part of the brain that
controls the muscle coordination. It could range from mild stiffness of one
arm and leg to movement problems in all four limbs together with learning,
vision and hearing difficulties.
(b) Muscle dystrophy (MD) is a genetic disorder that causes the body muscle to
weaken as the body is unable to make the proteins needed to build and
maintain healthy muscles. A child with MD will gradually lose his ability to
do things and this increasing weakness will lead to other health problems
(Gupta, 2014).
Children and adults with learning disabilities have problem processing sensory
information because they see, hear and understand things differently from normal
children. Hence these children experience difficulties in schools which could range
from concentration and learning to behaviour problems and keeping friends.
These difficulties could be due to physical, psychiatric, emotional and even
behavioural problems. This group of children are entitled to receive special
services or accommodations through the public schools.
Federal law mandates that every child will receive a free and appropriate
education in the least restrictive environment. To support their ability to learn in
school, three federal laws apply to children with special needs:
SELF-CHECK 9.1
„While the Government has ensured that your basic needs are met so that you will
not starve or be abandoned on the streets, they cannot work alone to protect you
from the stigma of discrimination. While the Government can legislate that the
children will receive education, healthcare and shelter, they cannot work alone to
legislate peopleÊs beliefs and prejudices against special needs children. Yet you do
not deserve to be treated with discrimination. Whether it was GodÊs will or a
genetic anomaly that made you different from other children, you are still a child
with possibilities and potential. With your unique abilities and capacities, you
embody the promise of our future.‰
You could actually request for a developmental milestone chart from the
paediatric clinic. Diagnosing the type of learning disability can be very time
consuming and overwhelming, hence it is best not to waste too much time in
labelling the child but rather how best to provide support to the child.
have difficulties with motor coordination would also have problems with
physical abilities that require hand and eye coordination such as the ability
to write or pour water.
Professionals may refer to the ability to hear well as „auditory processing skills‰
or „receptive language‰. The ability to read, write and spell greatly depends on
how well they hear things correctly. When children are unable to differentiate
sounds or hear them at the wrong speed, they will have difficulties in sounding
out words. This will cause the affected children experience difficulties in
understanding the basic concepts of reading and writing.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
How does auditory and visual processing affect learning?
(i) Many gifted children learn to read early even before entering school
and they have better comprehension of the nuances of language;
(ii) Gifted children often read a lot with more intense and speed, hence
they have a large collection of vocabularies;
(iii) Gifted children easily learn basic skills with hardly any practice;
(v) They pick up and interpret nonverbal cues easily and able to draw
inferences that other children need to have spelled out for them;
(vi) They donÊt take things for granted and always seek the „hows‰ and
„whys‰;
(vii) They can work independently at an earlier age and can concentrate
for longer periods;
(viii) They are very intense in their interest and will look for information
from diverse sources;
(ix) They often have boundless energy that sometimes they are being
misdiagnosed as hyperactive children;
(x) They usually respond and relate well to parents, teachers and other
adults. They may prefer the company of older children and adults
compared to their peers;
(xi) They like to learn new things and are very inquisitive. They like to
examine the unusual;
(xiii) They exhibit an intrinsic motivation to learn, explore and are often
very persistent. They prefer to do things by themselves.
(i) They are very observant and have a sense of significance. They have
an eye for important details;
(ii) They like reading and prefer books and magazines for older children;
(vi) They like asking questions and seek information for their own interest
or for its usefulness;
(vii) They are very sceptical, critical and evaluative. They easily spot
inconsistencies;
(viii) They have a lot of knowledge on a variety of topics, which they can
easily recall any information on any topics;
(ix) They easily understand underlying principles and can often easily
make generalisations about events, people or objects;
(x) They can easily detect similarities, differences and anomalies; and
(ii) They easily use information and turn it into new, unusual or
unconventional associations and combinations;
(iii) They are divergent thinkers and can solve problems using different
alternatives and creative approaches;
(v) They can elaborate on basic ideas to produce new steps, ideas,
responses or other embellishments;
(vi) They easily solve complex problems and thrives on problem solving;
(vii) They are good guessers and can readily construct hypotheses or
„what if‰ questions;
(viii) They are aware of their own impulsiveness and irrationality, and
they show emotional sensitivity;
(ix) They are extremely curious about objects, ideas, situations or events;
(x) They often display intellectual playfulness and like to fantasise and
imagine;
(xi) They can be less intellectually inhibited than their peers are in
expressing opinions and ideas and they often disagree spiritedly
with other peoples statements; and
(xii) They are sensitive to beauty and are attracted to aesthetic values.
The child of 160+ IQ is different from the child of 130 IQ as that child is different
from the child of average ability. Current research suggests that there may be
higher incidence of children in this high range than previously thought. Due to
their unique characteristics, these children are particularly vulnerable. Highly
gifted children need a specialised advocacy because very little has been done to
develop appropriate curriculum and non-traditional options for these children.
ACTIVITY 9.2
Plan the strategies that you would use to suit the gifted children in your
classroom. Discuss with your friends in myVLE forum.
Children with special needs are those who suffer from disabilities which
handicap their development by interfering with growth or the normal
functioning of the body or the ability to learn.
Children with learning disabilities have problems with learning not because
they have problems with intelligence but by the difference in the way the
brain receives, processes or communicates information.
There are three types of gifted children which are based on their behaviour,
learning and creative characteristics.
Kemp, G., Smith, M., & Segal, J. (2015). Learning disabilities and disorders:
Types of learning disorders and their signs. Retrieved from http://www.
helpguide.org/mental/learning_disabilities.htm
Oomar, Y. (2008). Health and education for vulnerable children. Retrieved from
http://www.unicef.org/malaysia/education_9650.html
INTRODUCTION
Research found that kindergarten children whose parents were involved in their
learning evidenced high levels of social skills and was observed to be more
cooperative, self-controlled and prosocially engaged in both home and school
environments (McWayne, Hampton, Fantuzzo, Cohen, & Sekino, 2004). These
students also performed better academically than students whose parents were
not as involved in their education. This topic, will discuss certain aspects relating
to parents, family and community involvement in childrenÊs education such as
benefits of parent involvement, barriers to parent and family involvement, types
of parent involvement and guidelines for parent, family and community
involvement.
ACTIVITY 10.1
Previous research has shown that active parent participation in schools frequently:
(a) Enhances a childÊs self-esteem;
(b) Improves the childÊs academic achievements;
(c) Improves parent-child relationships; and
(d) Equips parents with a better understanding of the school philosophy and
procedures, hence creating a more positive attitude towards schools.
(Brown, 1989)
(i) Receive ideas and support from schools on how to help children in
their school work;
(ii) Learn more about educational programmes and how the school
works;
(iii) Become more confident about ways to help children learn; and
ACTIVITY 10.2
make ends meet for the family as their husbands do not pay for the children after
divorce proceedings are finalised. Given that situation, policies and programmes
that can assist single mothers, particularly in children and education, are
urgently needed.
Morrison (2009) suggested a few steps that schools could take to ensure that
single parent families are involved in their childrenÊs school. The suggested steps
are:
(b) Schools need to be aware that single parents have a limited number of time
to spend on involvement in their childrenÊs school and spend time with
them at home;
(c) Suggest creative ways in which single parents can make time with their
children meaningful. Such as if children are having problems in telling
time, provide them with suggestions on how the parents can help them
overcome this problem at home;
(d) Getting to know family lifestyle and living conditions. This is important as
professionals we should be able to advise them based on their situation and
circumstances;
(e) Help develop support groups for single parents by considering them when
organising activities and programmes; and
(f) Be creative and offer non-traditional activities so that this would create
opportunities for single parents to volunteer time or services. For example,
teaching children about gardening and vegetables.
ACTIVITY 10.3
Discuss with your classmates on how you can get majority of parents in
your school to participate in school activities and learning in the
classroom. Create the discussion thread in the myVLE forum.
(c) Not knowing how to contribute is another issue that can easily be resolved
by finding out their talents and interest. Get parents to help out and share
information in classrooms on topics such as health and occupation. Arrange
workshops such as leadership workshops, health workshop and others for
teachers conducted by parents;
(d) Not understanding the school system is another barrier that could be
overcome by updating parents with information through parental talk and
guidance or short workshops. Have parentÊs handbook covering the rules,
procedures and where to find the answers to typical problems;
(f) Have printed materials translated ă English on one side, another language
on the other. Arrange for an interpreter at meetings and conferences;
(a) Email is the most used mode of communication as it is fast and convenient.
For schools, email may be used to disseminate information to parents such
as dates of meetings;
(b) Most schools have a website that can provide general information to
parents and community members and let them virtually experience school
and classroom events;
(e) Blogs can be used to feature lesson summaries, concept introduction and
classroom notes; and
(f) Facebook can be used to invite parents and community members to be your
friends on your website. This instant online communication also allows you
to upload photos and videos.
ACTIVITY 10.4
(c) ParentsÊ role as advocates for all children and youth in the community.
Head Start (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1992) describes four
primary avenues for parent participation:
(b) Parents are involved in the classroom as paid employees, volunteers and
observers;
(c) Parents participate in adult and parent-oriented activities which they have
planned; and
(d) Parents, as primary educators, work with their own children in learning
activities at home and at school, with the support of the Head Start staff.
ACTIVITY 10.5
(a) Teachers can have conferences and discussions with parents and members
of the community on how to overcome barriers in childrenÊs learning;
(b) Get to know the community to help you familiarise with the different
agencies available;
(c) Teachers need to keep in mind that community members and parents are
ever so willing to give help and support if they are being invited to do so;
(d) Compile a list of people from the community who are willing to work or
spend their free time in the school; and
Students whose parents are actively involved in schools tend to have fewer
behavioural problems, increase regards of themselves as learners and a
higher self-esteem.
Parental involvement is now more defined where the roles of parents are
widened to collaborate in policy making, advocates of children, partnership
in school in collaborating with programmes and others.
The community can be another rich resource for schools to help them meet
the diverse need of parents and children.
Davies, D. (1988). Low-income parents and the schools: A research report and a
plan for action. Equity and Choice, 4(3) (Spring): 51ă57.
Heaton, T. B., & Call, V. R. A. (1995). Modeling family dynamics with event
history techniques. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57(4), p. 1078.
Morrison, S, George. (2009). Early childhood education today (11th ed.) Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
McWayne, C., Hampton, V., Fantuzzo, J., Cohen, H., & Sekino, Y. (2004). A
multivariate examination of parent involvement and the social and
academic competencies of urban kindergarten children. Psychology in the
Schools, 41, 363ă377.
The National PTA (1992). A leaderÊs guide to parent and family involvement.
Chicago, IL: Author.
OR
Thank you.