Section 1 Introduction To Completions

Rev E Section 1
OIL AND GAS WELL COMPLETIONS

December 1996 Page 1 of 20
INTRODUCTION TO COMPLETIONS
Contents Page Contents Page
Introduction .................................................. 1 1.4.5 Single Zone Completions .................. 8

1.1 Definition ...................................................... 2 1.4.6 Multiple Zone Completions ................ 9
1.2 Completion History and Evolution ................ 3 1.5 Phases of Well Completion .......................... 9
1.3 Reservoir Drive Mechanisms ....................... 4 1.5.1 Establish Objectives and Design
1.3.1 Dissolved Gas Drive .......................... 4 Criteria ............................................... 10
1.3.2 Gas Cap Drive ................................... 4 1.5.2 Constructing the Wellbore ................. 11
1.3.3 Water Drive ........................................ 5 1.5.3 Perforation and Component
1.3.4 Artificial Lift ......................................... 5 Installation ......................................... 17
1.4 Completion Classification ............................. 6 1.5.4 Stimulation ......................................... 18
1.4.1 Openhole or Barefoot Completions .... 6 1.5.5 Initiating Production ........................... 20
1.4.2 Perforated Completions ..................... 8 1.5.6 Production Evaluation and
1.4.3 Naturally Flowing Completions .......... 8 Monitoring .......................................... 20
1.4.4 Pumped Production Completions ...... 8 1.6 The DEE Cycle ............................................ 20
Introduction
After a well has been drilled, it must be properly completed There are three basic requirements of any completion (in
before it can be put into production. A complex technology common with almost every oilfield product or service). A
has evolved around the techniques and equipment devel- completion system must provide a means of oil or gas
oped for this purpose. Consequently, the selection of production (or injection) which is;
materials, equipment and techniques should only be
made following a thorough investigation of the factors • Safe
which are specific to the reservoir, wellbore and produc-
tion system under study. • Efficient
This manual has been prepared to outline the planning • Economic

and execution processes involved in completing wells for
oil or gas production or injection. Several of the topics Current industry conditions may force operators to place
reviewed are included in, or are closely associated with, undue emphasis on the economic requirement of comple-
the range of services and products offered by the tions. However, as will be demonstrated later, a non-
Schlumberger organization or alliance partners. These optimized completion system may compromise long-term
subjects are presented in greater detail to enable a clearer company objectives. For example, if the company objec-
understanding of the technology and help identify poten- tive is to maximize the recoverable reserves of a reservoir
tial applications of Schlumberger technology. or field, a poor or inappropriate completion design can
seriously jeopardize achievement of the objective as the
In support of the topics given a more general explanation, reservoir becomes depleted. In short, it is the technical
an extensive reference and further reading list is provided efficiency of the entire completion system, viewed along-
in Appendix I. Combining this manual with the reference side the specific company objectives, which ultimately
resources will enable engineers to obtain a working knowl- determines the completion configuration and equipment
edge of most completion design and installation proce- used.
dures. However, developing familiarity and expertise with
specific completion technology often requires experience
within a particular operating environment.
CONFIDENTIALITY
This manual section is a confidential document which must not be copied in whole or in part or
discussed with anyone outside the Schlumberger organisation.
Section 1 Rev E OIL AND GAS WELL COMPLETIONS
Page 2 of 20 December 1996
HISTORY/EVOLUTION OF COMPLETIONS
1300 Marco Polo reports wells on shore of Caspian Sea 1922 Simple hole-survey tools introduced
1814 First well to produce oil - 475 ft 1925 API addresses tooljoint threads
1822 Rudimentary art of drilling established 1926 First electric submersible pump used
1861 First recorded blowout 1927 First electric log run (Schlumberger)
1863 Screwed casing joints developed 1930 Well depths exceed 10,000 ft
1880 Standardization of casing begins 1932 First gravel pack job
1882 Straddle rubber wall packer developed 1933 First gun perforation job
1890 First extensive casing program 1943 First subsea completion (Lake Eire, U.S.A.)
1895 Henry Ford builds the first commercial automobile 1958 Thru-tubing workover techniques developed
1905 Casing cemented for the first time 1958 Wireline retrievable SSSV developed (Camco)
1910 Drillpipe tooljoints introduced 1960 Cement bond log developed
1911 First gas lift device 1967 Computerized well data monitoring developed
1913 First dual completed well 1969 First coiled tubing job (Bowen)
Fig. 1. Key events in the history and evolution of oil and gas well completions.
1.1 Definition
The design, selection and installation of tubulars, tools
Well completion processes extend far beyond the instal- and equipment located in the wellbore for the purpose of
lation of wellbore tubulars and equipment. To highlight conveying, pumping or controlling production or injec-
this fact, the following definitions are presented. To the tion fluids.
majority of client organizations, completions are:
Under this definition, installing and cementing the produc-
The methodology and technology required to produce tion casing or liner, as well as logging, perforating and
recoverable reserves (reservoir to surface). testing are part of the completion process. In addition,
complex wellhead equipment and processing or storage
The application of completion methodology and technol- requirements effect the production of a well so may have
ogy requires: some bearing on the design and configuration of the
completion.
CONFIDENTIALITY
OIL AND GAS WELL COMPLETIONS Rev E Section 1
1.2 Completion History and Evolution be gained from reducing the number of wellbores required
for any reservoir development. However, fewer, but more
As the understanding of reservoir and production perfor- efficient wellbores require a greater emphasis to be placed
mance has evolved, then so too have the systems and on the design, selection and installation of the completion
techniques put in place as part of the completion process. equipment.
Early wells were drilled in very shallow reservoirs which Horizontal wellbores, and the technology associated with
were sufficiently consolidated to prevent caving. As deeper their completion are becoming common in many fields.
wells were drilled, the problems associated with surface Drilling extended reach wells often means that well servic-
water prompted the use of a casing or conductor to isolate ing and intervention options are severely restricted, fur-
water and prevent caving of the wellbore. Further devel- ther emphasizing the importance of correct design and
opment of this process led to fully cased wellbores in installation of the initial completion equipment.
which the interval of interest is selectively perforated.
In all cases, achieving the completion objectives, and
Modern completions are now commonly undertaken in subsequent production targets are a result of careful
deep hot and difficult conditions. planning and preparation.
With the simultaneous improvement in seismic interpreta- The introduction of key technologies and timing of events
tion and drilling technology, wellbores can be precisely that have significantly influenced oil and gas well comple-
placed to optimize production and enable effective reser- tions are shown in Fig 1.
voir management. There are clear economic benefits to
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Fig. 2. Well cost breakdown example (10,000 ft land well).
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The cost breakdown example shown in Fig. 2 was pre- When the reservoir drive is unable to provide sufficient
pared for a 10,000ft land well. Due to the variations in energy to overcome the hydrostatic pressure exerted by
specific drilling and completion conditions and options, it the fluid in the wellbore, artificial lift will be required to
is difficult to present data for a "typical well". However, in sustain production.
the example shown, "completion equipment" accounted
for approximately 10% of the total cost for the well. 1.3.1 Dissolved Gas Drive
1.3 Reservoir Drive Mechanisms In a dissolved gas drive reservoir, the oil contains dis-
solved gas. A pressure drop, or drawdown, causes the
Reservoirs are generally classified by the type of drive gas to escape from the oil, thereby forcing fluid through
mechanism. As hydrocarbons are formed and accumu- the reservoir toward the wellbore. In addition, the gas
lated, energy is stored within the reservoir which, under assists in lifting fluids to the surface (Fig. 3).
favorable conditions, enables the flow of oil and gas to the
wellhead. Three basic types of drive mechanisms are Generally considered the least effective reservoir drive
most commonly encountered. mechanism, dissolved gas drive typically yields only 15%
to 25% of the oil originally contained in the reservoir.
• Dissolved gas
1.3.2 Gas Cap Drive
• Gas cap
Some reservoirs contain more gas than can be dissolved
• Water drive in the oil under the reservoir pressure and temperature
conditions. The surplus gas, rises to the top of the reser-
In practice, most reservoirs produce under a combination voir and forms a gas cap over the oil. The gas expands to
of these primary drive mechanisms. drive the oil toward the wellbore (Fig. 4).
Cap rock
Reservoir
Basement
Fig. 3. Dissolved gas drive reservoir.
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Gas cap drive is more effective then dissolved gas drive Water drive is the most efficient primary drive mecha-
typically yielding from 25% to 50% of the oil contained in nism, capable of yielding up to 85% of the original oil in
the reservoir. place. This process is often supplemented by the injection
of treated salt water into the reservoir to maintain the
1.3.3 Water Drive pressure and 'sweep' the oil toward the well bore.
When the formation containing an oil reservoir is uniformly 1.3.4 Artificial Lift
porous and is continuous over a large area, salt water
generally is present in surrounding parts of the same When the reservoir does not, or can no longer, provide
formation. These vast quantities of water provide a store sufficient energy to produce fluid at an economical rate,
of energy which can aid the production of oil and gas. The some assistance through artificial lift may be required.
energy comes from the expansion of water as pressure in There are four basic types of artificial lift (see Section 5),
the petroleum reservoir is reduced through the production rod pump, hydraulic lump, electric submersible pump and
of oil and gas. Water is generally considered incompress- gas lift. Each system having advantages/disadvantages
ible, but will actually compress and expand about one part that are considered during a completion equipment selec-
in 2500 per 100 psi change in pressure. When the enor- tion process.
mous quantities of water present are considered, this
expansion results in a significant amount of energy which Only gas lift is compatible with all of the reservoir drive
can aid the drive of reservoir fluids to surface. The water mechanisms previously identified.
also moves and displaces oil and gas in an upward
direction out of the lower parts of the reservoir (Fig. 5).
Gas cap
Cap rock
Reservoir
Basement
Fig. 4. Gas cap drive reservoir.
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Cap rock
Reservoir
Water drive
Fig. 5. Water drive reservoir.
1.4 Completion Classification
There are several ways of classifying or categorizing oil The production casing or liner is set and cemented in the
and gas well completions. The most common criteria for reservoir cap rock leaving the wellbore through the reser-
classification include the following. voir open (Fig. 6a). Where possible, the final section
through the pay zone is drilled using non-damaging fluids,
• Wellbore/reservoir interface, i.e., open-hole or cased or is drilled in an underbalanced condition.
hole completion.
This completion technique is now almost entirely aban-
• Production method, i.e., natural flowing or pumped doned except for a few low pressure formations and in
production. highly specialized conditions where formation damage
from drilling fluids is severe. To prevent an unstable
• Producing zones, i.e., single zone or multiple zone formation from collapsing and plugging the wellbore,
production. slotted screen or perforated liners may be placed across
the open hole sections.
1.4.1 Openhole or Barefoot Completions
External gravel packs may also be used to control sand
Barefoot completions are only feasible in reservoirs with production in poorly consolidated reservoirs. In such
sufficient formation strength to prevent caving or slough- cases, it is common to underream the interval of interest
ing. In such completions there exists no means of (Fig. 6b)
selectively producing or isolating intervals within the res-
ervoir or openhole section.
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Cap Rock
(a) Openhole (b) Gravel pack or

completion Reservoir uncemented
liner
Fig. 6. Openhole completions.
Cap Rock
(a) Cemented (b) Cemented

Casing Liner
Reservoir
Fig. 7. Openhole completions.
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1.4.2 Perforated Completions considerations must be reviewed at the time of initial

completion to avoid unnecessary expense and interrup-
The evolution and development of efficient and reliable tion to production.
perforating tools and logging services has enabled com-
plex completions to be designed with a high degree of 1.4.4 Pumped Production Completions
efficiency and confidence. Modern perforating charges
and techniques are designed to provide a clear perfora- All pumped or artificially lifted completions require the
tion tunnel through the damaged zone surrounding the placement of specialized downhole components. Such
wellbore. This provides access to undamaged formation components are electrically or mechanically operated, or
allowing the reservoir to be produced to its full capability. are precision engineered devices. These features often
mean the longevity or reliable working life of a pumped
Cased and cemented wells generally require less com- completion is limited. In addition, the maintenance or
plex pressure control procedures during the early stages periodic workover requirements will generally be greater
of installing the completion components. than that of naturally flowing completions.
Efficient reservoir interpretation and appraisal techniques Pumped or assisted lift production methods currently in
combined with a high degree of depth control, enables use include the following.
selective perforating. This helps ensure the successful
completion and production of modern-day oil and gas • Rod pump
wells by precisely defining which zones of the reservoir
will be opened for flow (Fig. 7). • Gas lift
Multiple zone completions are often used in reservoirs • Electric submersible pump
with complex structures and unusual production charac-
teristics. The ability to select and control the production (or • Plunger lift
injection) of individual zones is often the key to ensuring
the most efficient production regime for the field or reser- • Jet pump
voir. Consequently, modern multiple completions may be
complex but maintain a high degree of flexibility and 1.4.5 Single Zone Completion
control of production.
In single zone completions, it is relatively straightforward
1.4.3 Naturally Flowing Completions to produce and control the interval of interest with the
minimum of specialized wellbore or surface equipment.
Wells completed in reservoirs which are capable of pro- Since typically one conduit or tubing string is involved, the
ducing without assistance are typically more economic to safety, installation and production requirements can be
produce. However, in high-temperature, high-pressure easily satisfied.
applications, a great deal of highly specialized engineer-
ing and design will be required to ensure the safety In most single zone completions, a packer (or isolation
requirements are met. device) and tubing string is used. This provides protection
for the casing or liner strings and allows the use of flow
In general, naturally flowing wells require less complex control devices to control production. The complexity of
downhole components and equipment. In addition, the the completion is determined by the functional require-
long-term reliability and longevity of the downhole compo- ments and economic viability. Several contingency fea-
nents is generally better than that of pumped completions. tures may be installed at a relatively minor cost at the time
of initial installation. Consequently, close consideration
In many cases, wells may be flowed naturally during the must be given to such options during the initial design
initial phases of their life, with some assistance provided phase.
by artificial lift methods as the reservoir depletes. Such
CONFIDENTIALITY
1.4.6 Multiple Zone Completions
Multiple zone completions are obviously designed to

produce more than one zone of interest. However, there
are many possible configurations of multiple zone comple-
tion, some of which allow for selective, rather than simul-
taneous production.
For a reservoir having multiple pay zones there are four

basic completion options.
• Produce the zones sequentially through a single tubing

string.
• Produce several zones simultaneously through multiple

tubing strings.
• Produce several zones, commingled through a single

production string.
• Drill and complete a separate well for each zone of

interest.
Selection of the most appropriate option must follow a

careful study of the specific conditions encountered. The
equipment installed to allow the necessary flexibility and
production options may be complex (Fig 8).
1.5 Phases of Well Completion
Since the ultimate efficiency of a completion is determined

by operations and procedures executed during almost
every phase of a wells life, a continual review and moni-
toring process is required. In the majority of cases, a
sequential and logical approach to the design and execu-
tion process is required. Typically this can be summarized
as follows.
• Establish objectives and design criteria Fig. 8. Multiple zone completion configuration
example.
• Constructing the wellbore
• Installation of the completion components
• Initiating production
• Production evaluation and monitoring
CONFIDENTIALITY
As in all design and execution processes, the acquisition 1.5.1 Establish Objectives and Design Criteria
of accurate or representative data is essential to the timely
achievement of the stated objectives. The level of accu- This initial phase may be summarized as the collection of
racy required will vary with the data type–from the as- data pertaining to the reservoir, wellbore and production
sumption of essential reservoir formation and fluid prop- facility parameters. This data is considered alongside
erties to more general properties which can more easily constraints and limitations which may be technical or non
be measured (Fig 9). technical in nature, e.g., company policy.
Some flexibility may be required, especially in exploration

or development wells, where there are several unknown
or uncertain parameters.
3 Completion–
Can be controlled.
2 Reservoir properties–
Can be measured.
2
1 1 Reservoir boundary–
Can be estimated.
Fig. 9. Principal factors affecting a wells performance.
CONFIDENTIALITY
The principal factors affecting the performance of any well • Formation damage (fluid invasion)
relate to the three areas illustrated in Figure 9. Of these,
many of the fluid and reservoir properties can be mea- • Completion geometry (wellbore profile)
sured or inferred from measurements. However, in gen-
eral they cannot be controlled. By contrast, almost all • Fluid behavior (multiphase flow)
elements of a completion can be controlled and appropri-
ate selection will therefore affect well performance. • Geology (fractures and heterogeneity)
The objectives for which a completion system is designed Only in very rare circumstances can a wellbore be
vary, however, the following points may be regarded as constructed (drilled and cemented) without any damage
fundamental and will have some bearing in most applica- to the reservoir occurring. The completion and perforation
tions. process presents an opportunity for early damage to be
bypassed, however, poorly designed and executed
• Ensure potential for optimum production (or injection). operations may result in even further damage being
caused.
• Provide for adequate monitoring and servicing.
Once in production, the wellbore conditions, reservoir
• Provide some flexibility for changing conditions, applica- parameters and the characteristics of reservoir fluids may
tions or contingency measures. result in the deposition of scale, wax or asphaltenes in or
near the wellbore, causing additional skin effect. Workover
• Contribute to efficient field/reservoir development and operations performed later in the life of a well, especially
production. applications requiring the well to be killed, also present a
risk of damage. Consequently, the risk of reservoir damage
• Ensure cost efficient installation and operation. is present throughout the life of a well.
1.5.2 Constructing the Wellbore Drilling and Cementing
The principal objectives associated with wellbore con- Filtrate damage - reduced permeability caused by
struction will typically include: interaction of drilling fluid filtrate, the reservoir rock and/or
the fluids within it (Fig. 10). Risk of damage is reduced by
• Efficiently drill the formation while causing the minimum careful fluid selection or treatment of base fluid, e.g.,
practicable near wellbore damage. freshwater muds tend to be more damaging than oil based
muds.
• Acquire wellbore survey and reservoir test data used to
identify completion design constraints. Filter-cake formation - not generally a problem in perforated
wells, may effect open-hole or special gravel pack
• Prepare the wellbore through the zone of interest for the completions.
completion installation phase (run and cement produc-
tion casing or liner and preparation for sand control or Solids migration - Solids from the drilling fluid can plug
consolidation services). vugs and natural fractures present in some reservoir
formations. If drilling losses have been controlled with
There are many issues which directly, or indirectly, influ- LCM (lost circulation material) the effect can be severe
ence the process of wellbore design and construction. and the damage difficult to remove if the LCM is not acid
The examples provided below can have significant effect soluble.
on the productivity of a well. In addition, the effects are not
always consistent. For example, in one case impaired Cement filtrate - as for drilling fluid, the effect of cement
vertical permeability may constrain production. In another filtrate can be damaging.
case, the same condition may be helpful in reducing gas
or water coning.
* Mark of Schlumberger
CONFIDENTIALITY
Washes and Spacers - fluids intended to remove the

Dynamic Filtrate invaded drilling fluid filtercake to ensure adequate cement bonding
fluid loss zone can, by their nature, be invasive and be ultimately damag-
ing.
Completion
Filter cake Perforating - underbalanced perforating provides several

advantages in removing or avoiding damage, especially if
the well can be placed directly on production (no well kill)
Spurt loss after perforating.
Completion fluid losses - if the well must be killed to

conclude the completion process, it may be difficult to
prevent or control completion fluid losses.
Fig. 10 Drilling fluid damage.
Production
Scale - deposited following reaction of water soluble

Scale in the materials to changing temperature and pressure condi-
formation tions (Fig. 11). Depending on the type of scale and
Scale in location of the scale, removal may vary from easy to
perforations impossible. Scale avoidance or inhibition is typically the
preferred option.
Wax and Asphaltene - solids which precipitate in or near

the wellbore with changing temperature and pressure
conditions.
Workover
Fig. 11 Production damage (scale) Workover fluid losses - kill pills, containing plugging
materials, are frequently spotted to enable the well to be
killed (Fig. 12). Selection of an appropriate material which
Completion enables subsequent clean-up or removal is essential.
fluid loss
Completion geometry
The geometry of the wellbore and the dimensions of the

completion components have obvious compatibility re-
quirements. Similarly, the nature and configuration of the
reservoir will have some bearing on the optimal wellbore
profile. There are two basic means of providing options for
reservoir/wellbore interface:
Kill pill
residues
• Designing the wellbore profile
• Selecting the perforated interval

Fig. 12 Workover fluid invasion.
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The completion geometry can have several effects on the

performance of a well.
• Influence of completion geometry skin (Sc) Cap rock
• Susceptibility to coning and resultant gas or water

production
• Influence of mechanical skin (Sm) on productivity
In the case of an isotropic reservoir Basement
ht
Total skin = ––– Sm + So
hp
Fig. 13 Vertical wellbore.
where :
Sm = mechanical skin
So = completion skin
ht = reservoir height
hp = perforated interval
Cap rock
Most wellbores can be described as being vertical, devi-

ated or horizontal. Each category has associated advan-
tages and disadvantages. However, in the majority of
reservoirs currently being developed, horizontal wells Basement
provide significant benefits and are becoming a preferred
option in many cases.
• Vertical wellbore - provides limited intersection of the

reservoir, especially on thin reservoirs. However, this
configuration provides improved predictability/control Fig. 14 Deviated wellbore.
on reservoirs which are to be stimulated by hydraulic
fracturing (Fig. 13).
• Deviated wellbore - extends the reach of the well to Cap rock

access outlying reserves and improves productivity by
increasing reservoir contact, especially in thin reservoirs.
(Fig. 14). In wellbores deviated greater than 45°,
significant productivity gains can be realized.
• Horizontal wellbore - significant increase in productivity,

especially in thin reservoirs. Reduced influence of skin
and reduced susceptibility to water and gas coning (Fig. Water zone
15).
Fig. 15 Horizontal wellbore.
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• Fully completed wells - higher initial production but with

reduced control or contingency for unwanted water or
gas.
• Partial completion - reduced production but improved

control of coning or unwanted water/gas production.
Effect of skin also increased.
Multiphase flow
Control of gas and water is an important aspect of

completion design and operation. In addition to meeting
the initial reservoir requirements, there is often need for
contingency or remedial redesign work. Consequently, Bubble point
the wellbore should, in ideal circumstances, be designed
for conditions anticipated over the lifetime of the well or
Bottom hole pressure

reservoir.
Unwanted gas production may originate from several

sources (Fig. 16), e.g.,
• Poor cement bond on casing/liner
• Gas coning
Oil production rate
• Preferential flow through high permeability streaks
Fig. 17 Gas break-out.
• Falling gas/oil contact due to reservoir depletion
which the gas breakout occurs. Figure 17 shows gas
Two phase fluid flow resulting from unwanted gas produc- breakout occurring in the reservoir formation.
tion may present several problems. These are largely
dependent on the quantity/ratio of gas and the location at Similarly, in some gas wells condensate dropout may
occur when the pressure drops below the dewpoint. In
addition to causing a loading effect on the wellbore, liquids
GOC Gas may induce a positive skin factor. The increase in friction
pressure caused by two-phase fluid flow can result in a
significant pressure drop in such cases.
Oil
Gas coning Unlike gas, water production is always undesirable. Water
Cement channel only acts to reduce the productivity of a well and subse-
quently requires special treatment and disposal when
produced to surface. Similar to gas, sources of water
production include the following (Fig. 18):
• Poor cement bond on casing/liner
• Water coning
Fig. 16 Gas production. • Preferential flow through high permeability streaks
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GOC
Water
injection
well
High-perm
streak
Gravity
OWG slumping
High-perm
streak
Bubble
Fig. 18 Water production. Bubble
Point Point
• Rising water/oil contact due to reservoir depletion

• Response to acid or chemical treatments, e.g., effected
by rock mineralogy.
• Injection water break-through
• Susceptibility to reservoir damage, e.g., effected by
Break through of injection water may result from gravity
mineral type and distribution.
slumping, a high permeability layer or viscous fingering
which may effect the reservoir at a significant distance
On a large scale, i.e., heterogeneities present over sev-
from the injection wellbore.
eral feet, can be seen as layering (Fig. 20) which may have
the following influences
Geology
Unlike the assumptions of many mathematical production

models and the simplicity of reservoir diagrams, very few
reservoirs are totally homogenous. The heterogenous
characteristics of a reservoir have bearing on several
parameters, e.g., productivity and unwanted water or gas
production.
Heterogeneities also make interpretation of test results

more difficult. Typically the vertical permeability (kv) is less
than the horizontal permeability (kh), therefore kv/kh<1.
The rock grain size and configuration has a direct effect on

both vertical and horizontal permeability, although not
always consistently. Rock grain issues include the follow-
ing. Presence of mica reduces kv but not kh
• Alignment of platy or oblate grains with the direction of

fluid flow (Fig. 19).
Fig. 19 Rock grain structure.
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Not producing
Not producing
Low permeability layers reduce vertical flow
Fig. 20 Layered formation (macro). Fig. 21 Layered formation (micro).
• Reduced tendency to coning Formations containing low permeability layers or streaks

may have reduced productivity due to reduced vertical
• Decreased productivity in partially completed wellbores permeability. However, the disadvantage of any loss of
productivity may be counteracted by a reduced tendency
On a smaller scale, i.e., over several inches, the effects to coning. The presence of shale may impose significant
may be more variable and may effect the performance of barriers to reservoir production, even if only present as a
individual perforations (Figure 21). continuous thin streak (Fig. 24). In such cases, reservoir
management can be complex since predicting production
Wellbores which intersect natural fractures will typically profiles and characteristics is difficult.
have improved productivity (Fig. 22). However, the frac-
ture may provide a conduit to unwanted water or gas The production of sand and formation fines can cause
which is ultimately difficult to control. In such a fractured several problems which, in addition to constraining well
formation, wellbores which do not intersect a fracture will productivity, effect the production facilities, completion
have reduce productivity and may display abnormally components, and reservoir stability.
high skin values (Fig. 23).
Oil Fracturing
Water
Fig. 22 Fracture intersected. Fig. 23 Fracture missed.
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Gas coning prevented Sand control measures may be necessary to:

Gas
by shale
Shale • Prevent erosion of wellbore and production components
Oil
Gas under- • Minimize surface disposal requirements

running
• Minimize wellbore fill
• Prevent the formation of large void areas behind the

casing/liner that may be impossible to isolate
Partial completion
skin = 0 Severe, or long-term, sand production may result in voids
forming behind the casing or liner (Fig. 25). Further
erosion over an extended period and wellbore interval
may lead to subsidence around the wellbore which could
Fig. 24 Shale streak.
ultimately lead to casing collapse (Fig. 26).
Common sand control measures include sand

consolidation, sand screens and gravel packing. The
most common method, gravel packing, requires design
Sand and selection processes to be carefully undertaken to
void ensure that the gravel (sorted sand), screens and other
completion equipment are compatible with the wellbore
and reservoir conditions. Incorrectly applied, gravel packing
can pose a greater constraint on production than the
problem it is intended to avoid.
Plugged
perforation 1.5.3 Perforation and Component Installation
Wellbores that are cased and cemented are generally

stable and enable selective production (or subsequent
Fig. 25 Sand voids. isolation) to be achieved easily and reliably.
The productivity of most perforated completions can be

maximized by optimizing the following.
• Perforation length
• High-shot densities
• Perforation phasing
Loose sand • Underbalanced perforating
In an ideal reservoir, it would be desirable to perforate the

entire producing interval. However, there are few reser-
voirs in which this is advisable. The effects of water and
gas coning, high permeability streaks etc. can be signifi-
Fig. 26 Formation/casing collapse. cantly reduced by selective, or controlled, perforating
CONFIDENTIALITY
In general, the optimum completion configuration (and

system) will provide a balance between flexibility and
simplicity.
ugh
n g thro 1.5.4 Stimulation
ow i e k
a
a t er fl erm str
W -p
high Many reservoirs require some stimulation applied during,
or soon after, the completion process to achieve viable
production rates. Such treatments can generally be
categorized as hydraulic fracturing or matrix treatments,
selection being dependent on the characteristics of the
reservoir rock, fluids and the nature of any damage which
is to be removed or bypassed.
Hydraulic fracturing
Fig. 27 Partial completion (lower).
Propped Fracs - A fracture is initiated and propagated with
specially engineered fluid, pumped at high-rate and high-
pressure to form a fracture radiating from the wellbore.
Proppant carried by the fracturing fluid remains in place as
the pressure is bled off and the fracture close. The
resulting high permeability fracture provides a high
productivity conduit to the wellbore (Fig. 29).
Acid Fracs - This technique applies to carbonate reservoirs

and involves pumping acid in stages with the fracture fluid.
The acid reacts with the carbonate reservoir to form
etched surfaces on the fracture, thereby preventing com-
Water coning plete closure following bleed-off of the fracture fluid (Fig.
30).
Fig. 28 Partial completion (upper).

(Fig. 27 and 28 ). This results in a partial completion which,
if properly designed, provides the best compromise of
productivity and control.
The proper selection and installation of completion com-

ponents is an obvious requirement. Components may be
broadly categorized as follows. Wellbore
• Primary completion components - essential components

necessary for the completion to function safely, e.g.,
packers. Propant
trapped in
• Ancillary completion components - providing the comple- fracture
tion system with increased flexibility and control, e.g.,
sliding sleeve.
Fig. 29 Hydraulic fracturing.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Gas
Oil
Wellbore
Water
Acid etched
fracture and Fracture has grown
worm holes into water zone
Fig. 30 Acid fracturing. Fig. 31 Fracture design.
In all fracturing treatments care must be taken during the The treatment mechanism is dependent on the type of
design and execution phases to minimize the risk of reservoir rock. Most carbonate reservoirs are treatable
fracturing into undesirable water or gas producing areas with hydrochloric acid (HCl). The acid bypasses damage
(Fig. 31). and links vugs and natural fractures to create a highly
permeable path. In sandstone reservoirs, a mud acid
Matrix Treatments - Designed to remove or bypass near treatment (hydrofluoric acid - HF/HCl) is typically used.
wellbore damage, the treatment is performed below the This acid formulation can dissolve siliceous materials, so
formation fracture pressure. The resulting interconnected is capable of removing the damage rather than bypassing
wormholes provide higher conductivity near the wellbore the damage, as in carbonate reservoirs.
(Fig. 32).
To be fully effective, any treatment should be properly
Appreciable productivity increases following matrix treat- applied through the treatment interval. For near wellbore
ment will generally only occur if significant damage is treatments, such as acidizing, incomplete treatments due
present. to variable perforation performance can be a problem
(Fig. 33).
Gas
Stimulated area
Oil
Wellbore
Perforation plugged
Acid etched (e.g., with CaCO3)
wormholes
Fig. 32 Matrix treatment (carbonates). Fig. 33 Incomplete treatment.
CONFIDENTIALITY
1.5.5 Initiating Production Even by this short introduction to oil and gas well comple-
tion, several conclusions quickly become apparent. These
In most cases, this phase of the completion process is should be borne in mind as the completion design process
further subdivided into the following three stages. is further investigated.
• Initiating flow to establish communication between the • The safe, efficient and economic completion of an oil or
reservoir and the wellbore. gas well is a complex process.
• Defining an appropriate clean up program to enable the • A structured approach to defining the design criteria of
ultimate production rate to be achieved safely and a well is essential. Critical to this effort is a comprehen-
without damage to the reservoir, completion compo- sive formation evaluation program.
nents or surface production facilities.
• The design of well completions is a dynamic process -
• Design of any initial stimulation treatment which may be taking into account data gathered on the performance of
necessary to enable the restoration of permeability in previous completions. However, no two wells are ex-
the near wellbore area. actly alike!
1.5.6 Production Evaluation and Monitoring • A degree of flexibility should be built into the design and
configuration of completions to allow for anomalies and
An initial production evaluation is necessary to confirm uncertainties.
that the completion system achieves the production capa-
bilities required by the design objectives. Subsequent • All completions comprise a variety of tubular and special-
evaluation and monitoring exercises will provide the fol- ized components. The total number of components will
lowing production information on the reservoir, well and directly effect the complexity, inherent reliability and
completion system. longevity of a successful completion system.
• Statistics relating to the reliability and longevity of comple-

tion components.
• Verification that assumptions made during the design

process were accurate or representative.
• Trends or statistical departures which may provide early

indication of completion problems or the need for inter-
vention or workover.
• Periodic monitoring of reservoir parameters provides

useful data for the completion and production of offset
wells or recompletion as required by reservoir depletion.
1.6 The DEE Cycle
The previous five phases have, in effect, outlined a

DESIGN, EXECUTE and EVALUATE* cycle for comple-
tion activities. They represent a logical and structured
approach to a process which may be complex and require
the involvement of several departments and engineering
disciplines.
* Mark of Schlumberger
CONFIDENTIALITY

Section 1 Introduction To Completions

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Section 1 Introduction To Completions

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Rev E Section 1

OIL AND GAS WELL COMPLETIONS

Contents Page Contents Page

Introduction .................................................. 1 1.4.5 Single Zone Completions .................. 8

This manual has been prepared to outline the planning • Economic

1880 Standardization of casing begins 1932 First gravel pack job

1910 Drillpipe tooljoints introduced 1960 Cement bond log developed

Operational Phase/Cost Category

Fig. 2. Well cost breakdown example (10,000 ft land well).

Fig. 3. Dissolved gas drive reservoir.

Fig. 4. Gas cap drive reservoir.

Fig. 5. Water drive reservoir.

1.4 Completion Classification

(a) Openhole (b) Gravel pack or

Fig. 6. Openhole completions.

(a) Cemented (b) Cemented

Fig. 7. Openhole completions.

1.4.2 Perforated Completions considerations must be reviewed at the time of initial

1.4.6 Multiple Zone Completions

Multiple zone completions are obviously designed to

For a reservoir having multiple pay zones there are four

• Produce the zones sequentially through a single tubing

• Produce several zones simultaneously through multiple

• Produce several zones, commingled through a single

• Drill and complete a separate well for each zone of

Selection of the most appropriate option must follow a

1.5 Phases of Well Completion

Since the ultimate efficiency of a completion is determined

• Installation of the completion components

• Production evaluation and monitoring

Some flexibility may be required, especially in exploration

Fig. 9. Principal factors affecting a wells performance.

1.5.2 Constructing the Wellbore Drilling and Cementing

Washes and Spacers - fluids intended to remove the

Filter cake Perforating - underbalanced perforating provides several

Completion fluid losses - if the well must be killed to

Scale - deposited following reaction of water soluble

Wax and Asphaltene - solids which precipitate in or near

The geometry of the wellbore and the dimensions of the

• Selecting the perforated interval

The completion geometry can have several effects on the

• Influence of completion geometry skin (Sc) Cap rock

• Susceptibility to coning and resultant gas or water

• Influence of mechanical skin (Sm) on productivity

In the case of an isotropic reservoir Basement

Most wellbores can be described as being vertical, devi-

• Vertical wellbore - provides limited intersection of the

• Deviated wellbore - extends the reach of the well to Cap rock

• Horizontal wellbore - significant increase in productivity,

Fig. 15 Horizontal wellbore.

• Fully completed wells - higher initial production but with

• Partial completion - reduced production but improved

Control of gas and water is an important aspect of

Bottom hole pressure

Unwanted gas production may originate from several

• Poor cement bond on casing/liner

• Poor cement bond on casing/liner

Fig. 16 Gas production. • Preferential flow through high permeability streaks

• Rising water/oil contact due to reservoir depletion

Unlike the assumptions of many mathematical production

Heterogeneities also make interpretation of test results

The rock grain size and configuration has a direct effect on

• Alignment of platy or oblate grains with the direction of