1.

0: Introduction to Computer Aided Drawing

Computer-aided drawing (CAD) refers to the use a computer to produce engineering drawings
(graphical means of representing a design). Computer-aided design (CAD) is the technology
concerned with the use of computer systems to assist in the creation, modification, analysis, and
optimization of a design.
The acronym CADD is more commonly used nowadays and stands for computer-aided drawing
and design; a CADD package is one which is able to provide all draughting facilities and some or all
of those required for the design process.
Two-dimensional (2D) computer drawing is the representation of an object in the single-view
format which shows two of the three object dimensions or the multi-view format where each view
reveals two principle dimensions.
Three-dimensional (3D) computer drawing is the coordinate format. Three dimensional computer
aided drawing allows the production of geometric models of a component or product for spatial and
visual analysis.

1.1 Computer-Aided Design (CAD)

Computer-aided design (CAD) is the process of utilizing computers to create and edit design models
and drawings. CAD is a subset of the design Process which involves:
i. Need
ii. Concept
iii. Detailed design
iv. Analysis: Modeling and simulation, FEM (Geometric data)
v. Optimize: shape/ structure/topology/ stresses etc
vi. Evaluate testing/ Inspection/ Comparison
vii. Communicate prepare drawings and details (documentation)
Assistance of Computers in Design:
 Geometric models
 Animation/ Visualization
 Use Analysis tools and software
 Optimize Maximize / minimize the objective functions: Structure, Shape, Topology
 Evaluate test and check the model
 Documentation: Drafting and detailing
Common applications of CADD include:
 Mechanical systems design
 Architectural design
 Electrical and electronic circuit design

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  Structural design
 Aerospace design
 Fashion design
 Garment layout design
 In most of these applications, CAD is used to model product geometries and to record
non-geometric design speculations.

1.2: The Architecture of CAD

A CAD system consists of three major parts:
i. Hardware: computer and input/output (I/O) devices
ii. Operating system software
iii. Application software: the CAD package

1.2.1 CAD Hardware System

The term hardware is used to refer to all those pieces of equipment which are used to implement
computer programs. The majority of today’s CAD/CAM systems utilizes open hardware architecture
and standard operating systems. Open hardware architecture implies that CAD/CAM vendors no
longer design and manufacture their own hardware platforms. Instead the CAD/CAM industry relies
upon the giant general-purpose computer companies and smaller firms that specialize in engineering
workstations.
Hardware includes
i. the computer with its memory and central processing unit (CPU)
ii. means of storing programs
iii. the display screens
iv. devices for inputting instructions to the computer, e.g. keyboards, digitizers and tablets
v. Output devices which gives hard copy from the computer, e.g. printers and plotters.
Computer System
The term computer is used to refer to the processor which controls the operation of a CAD program.
The organization of a typical computing system is shown in Figure 1-1

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 Figure 1-1 Organization of a typical computing system

The heart of a computing system is the CPU. The main functions performed in the CPU are
arithmetic and logic operations. The CPU communicates with the external world through input/output
(I/O) devices. The CPU regulates the action of the computer, controlling the input, storage,
manipulation and output of all information and data.
Another important unit of a computer is the memory unit. These are areas where the necessary data
or program (sequence of instructions) is stored. The type of memory and its amount determines the
capabilities of a computing system. The information received from the input devices or retrieved from
secondary storage media is temporarily held in the computer's memory which is called main memory
or internal memory.
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) of the CPU performs addition, subtraction, comparison and data
transfer between itself and the main memory. Instructions, numbers and characters are stored in the
main memory and manipulated by the ALU as binary coded words. A word consists of a series of
binary digits or bits, each of which has two states 1 or 0. These states are represented in the
microprocessor as on or off. The control of the computer microprocessor and the way it communicates
with the input and output devices are organized by the operating system software, and program
instructions are converted into binary code by a compiler or interpreter.
The operating system software and compiler occupy space in the memory, reducing the space
available to store other programs and data. The main memory is divided into,
 Read Only Memory (ROM) - This is non-volatile memory which is used to permanently
store instructions. When the computer is switched off, the instructions remain in the
memory ready for use the next time the computer is switched on. Instructions in the ROM
cannot be overwritten or erased.
 Random Access Memory (RAM) - This is a volatile memory suitable for storing a variety
of information, provided that the computer remains on. It is RAM which allows the user to
operate application softwares and temporarily store data in the computer. As soon as the
computer is switched on, all the information stored in RAM is lost, hence any information

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 that has to be retained for future use must be stored in an alternative medium, such as hard
disk or secondary storage devices.
Display Devices
The display device forms the most important element in a CAD/CAM system, since on this, most
of the design work and simulation of manufacturing can be graphically displayed. The display media
that are used are:
 Cathode ray tube (CRT) display
 Plasma panel display
 Liquid crystal display
CRT display
In a CRT display, the heated cathode (electron gun) emits electrons, which are formed into a stream,
accelerated and focused onto a point on the display screen. The display screen contains a phosphor-
coated surface (Figure 1-2 : CRT Display) which gets illuminated when speeding electrons hit the
surface, displaying the point on the surface of the screen.

Figure 1-2 : CRT Display

There are basically two types of image drawing techniques that are used in graphic displays:
 Stroke writing
 Raster scan
In stroke writing, the electron gun directly draws the vectors on the screen to generate the image
whereas in raster scan, the whole display surface is divided into a matrix of small dots called pixels
(picture elements) and the electron beam scans the whole surface area line by line, as in that of a
television.
The beam starts at the top left-hand corner and traverses from left to the right of the screen. At the
right-hand end of the screen, the beam moves back along the dotted path to the left-hand end and starts
to refresh the next line. This continues until the bottom right corner of the screen is reached, when the
beam flies back to the top left corner to start all over again. As the beam traverses along the line, the
computer continually turns the beam on or o to create the picture elements called pixels.
The number of pixels is called the resolution of the monitor. A low resolution professional CAD
screen has 256 lines or information and 312 addressable points on each line, that is 312 x 256

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=79872pixels. High resolution screens have 512 x 512pixels, 1024 1024pixels, 1280 x 1024 and 4096
x 4096 pixels.
CRT is already a mature technology which has the advantages of self-emission, wide viewing angle,
fast response, good color saturation, long lifetime and good image quality. However, a major
disadvantage is its bulky size which makes it unsuitable for portable applications.
Plasma Panel Display
The operating principle of plasma display panels (PDPs) is similar to that of fluorescent lamps. The
display itself consists of cells. Within each cell two glass panels are separated by a narrow gap in
which neon-xenon gas is injected and sealed in plasma form (ionized) during the manufacturing
process. The gas is electrically charged at specific intervals when the Plasma set is in use. The charged
gas then emits ultraviolet light which then excites red, green, and blue phosphors to emit visible light,
thus creating a display image. Each group of red, green, and blue phosphors is called a pixel (picture
element).

Figure 1-3: AC Plasma display panel

Although Plasma display technology eliminate the need for the bulky picture tube and electron
beam scanning of traditional televisions, because it still employs the burning of phosphors to generate
an image, Plasma televisions still suffer from some of the drawbacks of traditional televisions, such
as heat generation and screen-burn of static images.
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, at electronic visual display that uses the light modulating
properties of liquid crystals (LCs). Basically, LCD panels are made of two layers of transparent
material, which are polarized, and are "glued" together. One of the layers is coated with a special

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polymer that holds the individual liquid crystals. Current is then passed through individual crystals,
which allow the crystals to pass or block light to create images. LCD crystals do not emit their own
light, so an external light source (back-light), such as fluorescent bulb is needed for the image created
by the LCD to become visible to the viewer. A thin film transistor liquid crystal display (TFT-LCD)
is a variant of liquid crystal display (LCD) which uses thin film transistor (TFT) technology to control
each display pixel. TFT LCDs are used in television sets, computer monitors, mobile phones, hand-
held video game systems, personal digital assistants, navigation systems, projectors, etc. Figure 1.5
shows the device structure of a TFT LCD using amorphous silicon (a-Si) transistors reflective display
seems an ideal choice. In dark ambient the backlight is on and the display works as a transmissive one;
in bright ambient the backlight is off and only the reflective mode is operational..
Transmissive thin-film transistor liquid crystal displays
Figure 1-4 shows the device structure of a TFT LCD using amorphous silicon (a-Si) transistors. An
LCD is a non-emissive display, i.e. it does not emit light; instead, it functions as a two-dimensional
spatial light modulator. Thus, a backlight is needed. A diffuser is used to homogenize the backlight in
order to avoid hot spots. Some optical films are stacked to steer the Lambertian backlight to the middle
±40o for improving display brightness. Since most LCDs require linearly polarized light in order to
exhibit a high contrast ratio, two sheets of stretched dichroic polarizers are used for large-size direct-
view displays. The first glass substrate contains TFT arrays, which serve as independent light switches.
Each display pixel is controlled by a TFT. Since TFTs are sensitive and should be shielded from
backlight illumination, the actual aperture ratio (the transparent indium tin oxide (ITO) electrode area)
is reduced to ∼80 %, depending on the pixel density. As the pixel density increases, the aperture ratio
decreases. The LC layer is sandwiched between two ITO substrates whose inner surface is coated with
a thin (80–100 nm) polyimide layer. Some LCDs (TN, IPS and FFS) require rubbing but some (MVA
and patterned vertical alignment) a-Si TFTs

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 Figure 1-4: Device structure of a color pixel of a transmissive TFT LCD.

Secondary Storage Devices

These are used to store information for future use. The main categories are as follows,
Hard disk - This is located in the CPU of the computer. Hard disks occur in various memory sizes
commonly; 10GB, 20GB, 40GB, 80GB and 160GB - 500GB. The hard disk should be partitioned to
at least two partitions; such as Local Disk C and Local Disk D. The operating system and application
softwares are loaded in one partition, say Local Disk C, while the other partition is used for storing
information. If in case the computer crashes, the partition with softwares is formatted and softwares
are reloaded, hence the information which is stored in the other partition is not lost.
1. Floppy Disks - These are made of flexible mylar and can be found in sizes such as 3:5", 5:25"
and 8:0". They are protected with a stiff plastic outer casing, and a shuttered aperture in the
outer casing allows the magnetic disk to be exposed only when it is inserted in the floppy disk
drive which is located in the CPU of the computer. They are very cheap, but currently they are
not commonly used due to their smaller storage capacity of 1:44MB and unreliability.
2. Optical Disks - Are suitable for CAD systems where large amounts of information are stored.
They are divided into three types;
a) Write Once Read Many (WORM) - Are also called CD ROMS (Compact Disk Read-
Only Memory).They are made of clear polycarbonate material coated with material
which changes permanently when heated by LASER. They are restricted to those
applications where information does not need to be erased or modified. Information is
read by an optical read head that moves close to the disk surface.
b) Magneto-Optic Disk (Rewritable CD) - Uses the heat of a laser in the locality of a
variable magnetic field to alter the magnetic polarity of the coating material. The
direction of polarization is sensed in the reading head and interpreted as a 1 or 0. These
discs can be erased and used for re-recording.
c) DVD (Digital Video Disk) - Are used for storing multi-media data which is a
combination of sound, graphics and texts. They are able to accommodate large amount
of data.
3. USB Flash drive - This is a more recent addition to the range of secondary storage media. It
consists of a NAND-type flash memory data storage device integrated with a USB (universal
serial bus) interface. USB flash drives are typically removable and rewritable, much smaller
than a floppy disk. Storage capacities ranges from 64 MB to 8 GB with steady improvements
in size and price. USB flash drives over potential advantages over other portable storage devices.
They have a more compact shape, operate faster, hold much more data, have a more durable
design, and operate more reliably due to their lack of moving parts. Additionally it has become
increasingly common for computers to be sold without floppy disk drives. USB ports, on the
other hand, appear on almost every current mainstream PC and laptop. A flash drive consists of
a small printed circuit board protected inside a plastic, metal, or rubberised case, robust enough
for carrying with no additional protection in a pocket or on a key chain, for example. The USB

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 connector is protected by a removable cap or by retracting into the body of the drive, although
it is not likely to be damaged if exposed. Most flash drives use a standard type-A USB
connection allowing plugging into a port on a personal computer.
4. Portable hard disks with capacities of up to 500 GB that can be attached to a USB port drive.
Input Devices
These are devices through which the user/operator communicates with the computer in feeding it
with the necessary information, both graphical and alphanumeric as required. In CAD the following
are some of devices commonly used as input devices;
1. Keyboard - As it will be seen later, the keyboard can be used to draw objects by typing
commands and the specifying the coordinates of each point by typing their values using a
keyboard. This type of input system is very slow and tedious for complex drawings.
2. Mouse - This is a small block with a ball underneath which drives two potentiometers, placed
mutually perpendicular, to record the x and y motions of the mouse on the table. Wires from
the mouse feed the signals to the computer. It’s very efficient and inputs data on the display
screen very fast.
3. Graphics tablet system - This is a board that can be placed on the table in front of a display
screen so that it acts as a mimic of the screen area. Selecting a position on the tablet provides a
signal to the computer so that the cursor is driven to a corresponding position on the screen. Its
advantage is that it can have the whole surface curved with menu instructions hence leaving the
screen free for drawing. The tablets x and y-coordinates are represented as analogue values and
so an analogue/digital (A/D) converter is required. The following common systems are used to
obtain the x and y locations on the tablets;
(a) Pantograph - This has two jointed links clamped to the tablet at one end and the pointer
moved over the board at the other. Potentiometers at the joints are calibrated to give the
x and y coordinates of the pointer in terms of the joint angles.
(b) Stylus and Puck - The pen like stylus is used to point at a location on the tablet. Wire
underneath the tablet surface creates a magnetic field that is sensed by a receiver built
into the stylus. A puck is similar to a stylus but uses a magnifying glass for accuracy
(c) Light pen - This is a small pen-sized device with a light sensitive diode at its tip and
connected to the computer by a cable. If the pen is pointed at a glowing spot on the
display screen, the diode detects this and passes a signal to a computer.
(d) Digitizers - The tablet and a stylus can also be used to input data from existing drawings.
Since the x and y coordinates of a position on a tablet are captured using the stylus, the
stylus can be used to trace over a drawing and input lines to the computer as a series of
vectors stored in digital form. When used in this way, the tablet is referred to as a
digitizing tablet
1.3.2 Output Devices
The output devices receive data from the computer and provide an output, in form of a hard copy.
There are two main types of output devices, namely printers and plotters.

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 Printers
The printers may be impact, where images are formed by a striking action or non-impact;
1. Impact printers - Are capable of printing a whole line at a time. They have to come in
contact with the paper and they work in the principle of a type writer in that there is a
physical tool that strikes on a carbon paper (ribbon). The printing head has got an array
of pins, that protrude depending on the character be printed. Example include Dot-matrix
printer.
2. Non-Impact Printers - The printing head does not come into contact with the paper.
Examples include;
(a) Ink-Jet Printers - Are similar to dot-matrix printers except that each dot is formed
from a tiny jet of ink sprayed through a hole and no by striking through a ribbon.
They use a print head which directs a jet of ink at the paper to create the required
shapes
(b) Electrostatic Printers - They create shapes by burning away a thin metallic coating
placed on electrostatically charged dots on the surface a special printing paper.
(c) Laser Printers - They use a ne beam of laser light to create the required shapes.
Plotters
Small x,y plotters have been used for a long time for drawing graphs, but plotters working on the
same principle can be used for producing high quality and accurate engineering drawings. There are
two basic types of plotter, i.e.
1. Flat-bed Plotters - have area on which the paper of any type and thickness is held either by
suction or electrostatic attraction. The pens of various thicknesses and ink colours are free to
move in any direction with plot head providing all the motion
2. Drum Plotters - have a rotating drum over which the paper can move in two directions and pens
are limited to move only across the drum and, with a combination of pen movement and drum
rotation, provides the required motion. Drawings of longer length but sometimes of lower
precision are produced when compared with flatbed plotters.

1.2.2 Operating System

The operating system software is the interface between the CAD application software and the
hardware. It supervises the operation of the hardware and provides basic functions, including creating
and removing operating tasks, controlling the progress of tasks, allocating hardware resources among
tasks and providing access to software resources such asles, editors, compilers, and utility programs.
CAD application softwares allow specific tasks such as draughting, modeling and analysis to be
carried out. Without an operating system and A CAD application softwares, the computer is of little
value to the CAD user.
CAD Software Systems
The CAD application software is the collection of programs written to make it convenient for a
user to operate the computer graphics system. It includes programs to generate images on the display

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screen, to manipulate the images, and to accomplish various types interaction between the user and
the system. It enables the user to do 2-D and 3-D modeling, drafting and engineering analysis. The
CAD application software is the collection of programs written to make it convenient for a user to
operate the computer graphics system. It includes programs to generate images on the display screen,
to manipulate the images, and to accomplish various types interaction between the user and the system.
It enables the user to do 2-D and 3-D modeling, drafting and engineering analysis. In general, a
Computer Aided Design (CAD) package has three components: a) Design, (b) Analysis, and c)
Visualization. A brief description of these components follows.
a) Design: Design refers to geometric modeling, i.e., 2-D and 3-D modeling, including,
drafting, part creation, creation of drawings with various views of the part, assemblies of
the parts, etc.
b) Analysis: Analysis refers tonite element analysis, optimization, and other number
crunching engineering analyses. In general, a geometric model isrst created and then the
model is analyzed for loads, stresses, moment of inertia, and volume, etc.
c) Visualization: Visualization refers to computer graphics, which includes: rendering a
model, creation of pie charts, contour plots, shading a model, sizing, animation, etc.
Application software is usually operating system dependent. Below are some of the commercial
Common CAD software systems in market
1. AutoCAD and Mechanical Desktop are some low-end CAD software systems, which are mainly
used for 2D modeling and drawing.
2. Mid-range 3D CAD system: Low performance system for design techniques: Inventor of
Autodesk, SolidWorks of SolidWorks Corporation,
3. SolidEdge of UGS NX, Pro-E, CATIA and I-DEAS (Integrated Design Engineering Analysis
Software) are high- end modeling and designing software systems that are costlier but more
powerful. These software systems also have computer aided manufacturing and engineering
analysis capabiliities.
4. Ansys, Abaqus, Nastran, Fluent and CFX are packages mainly used for analysis of structures and
uids. Dierent software are used for dierent proposes. For example, Fluent is used for uids (CFD)
and Ansys is used for structures.
5. Alibre and CollabCAD are some of the latest CAD systems that focus on collaborative design,
enabling multiple users of the software to collaborate on computer-aided design over the Internet.
CAD systems are made up of modules which dene the functionality of the software. These modules
include:
1. 2D basic module: Present on all CAD systems. Used for basic 2D drafting
2. Basic 3D/Wireframe module: Describes the edge and outline of curves. It is ambiguous.
3. Sculptured surface module (surface modeling): For modeling analytical and free-form sur-faces
4. 3D solid module: This defined the surface and interior details of drawings.
5. Analysis module: Used for analyzing 3D object properties.

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 2. 0: Geometric Modeling Systems

2.1 Introduction
The geometric information about an object essentially includes types of surfaces, edges and their
dimensions and tolerances. Prior to the availability of commercial CAD systems, this information was
represented on blueprints by a draftsperson, hence in a two-dimensional (2D) form. This form of
representation has three acute problems. First of all, it is hard to comprehend complex geometry
through a 2D form of description. This is particularly true with assemblies that have many components,
e.g. an engine assembly. Secondly, the design information in this form is difficult to be archived for a
longer period of time and it is cumbersome to search for. Thirdly, it is considered unfit for the modern
manufacturing industry in which data management is mostly in the electronic format. As
manufacturing rapidly enters into the digital era, the emphasis is on paperless and total integration.
That is, the means is being sought for the geometric information to be directly transferred from a CAD
database to a CAPP/CAM database (sometimes bi-directional data flow is also required) to enable
subsequent manufacture of the part. This way, product development and manufacturing lead time can
be significantly shortened. In order to meet the above discussed needs, an accurate, efficient and
effective representation of the complete information about a design becomes a prerequisite for many
subsequent applications. This chapter provides a detailed account of various geometric modelling
approaches and the ways today’s CAD systems use these modelling approaches.

2.2: 3D - Modeling Techniques

Since engineering objects are mostly 3-dimensional, the model in the form of a drawing must
capture all the details of the design in a two dimensional medium. There are three distinct types of 3D
modeling techniques, namely;
1. Wire frame models
2. Surface models - which can take two forms;
(a) Analytical surface models
(b) Free-form surface models
3. Solid modeling

2.2.1 Wire Frame

This method of representing 3D geometry of the edges and vertices merely extends 2D drafting
into 3D drafting .The model is constructed from a collection of 3D lines and curve segments, and has
an appearance of a frame constructed from wires because none of the faces of the 3D object is fully
represented. Since the model is formed by 3D graphical elements, then the geometry of the model is
represented by the (x; y; z) coordinates of each of the control points. This data is stored in vertex list,
which lists records the vertex identities of the control points required to dene each edge fully.
Modification to the position or orientation of the 3D model can be easily done using 3D transformation
and only affects the geometrical data stored in the edge-vertex list.

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 Since this modeling technique allows easy manipulation and quick display, it is sometimes used
with surface and solid modelers to display the object without waiting for a complete surface
representation which takes a long time to generate.
Advantages:
 it can be created quickly and easily to verify a concept of an object.
 low level hardware and software requirements.
 the data storage requirement is low.
Disadvantages:
 A 3-D wire-frame model lacks face information and does not have the volume property.
Ambiguity in representation and possible nonsense objects (Figure 2-1)
 Deficiencies in pictorial representation;
 Limited ability to calculate mechanical properties and geometric intersections;
 Limited value as a basis for manufacture or analysis.
Applications:
 conceptual sketching,
 building a framework for surfaces.
 setting out layout for complex systems

Figure 2-1: Ambiguity in wire frame models

Wire-Frame Entities
Normally, wire-frame entities are divided into two categories: analytic and synthetic entities. The
choice of a curve in a CAD system depends on the effectiveness of a curve in terms of manipulating
complex geometries such as blends, trims and intersections.
Analytic Entities
Analytic entities include points, straight lines, arcs, circles, ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas. The
properties of these entities and the techniques for manipulating them have been well studied and the
math behind them is generally easy to understand. Likewise, the methods for representing these
entities in a computer are also relatively straight-forward. Different CAD systems may provide a
different set of methods. For example, a straight line may be defined by two 3D vertices, or by an
existing line that may be parallel or perpendicular to the line being defined.
Curves are more difficult to handle than lines and circles. Curves might be limited to two
dimensions or defined in three dimensions. Mathematically, there are two ways of describing a curve,

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using nonparametric and parametric equations. Both methods may be equally valid to represent a curve.
The difficulty of solving a particular problem may be much greater with one method than the other.
Parametric Representation of a Curve
Parametric equations describe the dependent and independent variables in terms of a parameter.
The equation can be converted to a non-parametric form, by eliminating the dependent and
independent variables from the equation. In the parametric form, each point on a curve is expressed as
a function of a parameter t by equations, x = X(t), y = Y(t), and z= Z(t). Equations in this form are also
known as parametric or freedom equations for x, y, and z. The value of the parameter can be either
bounded by the minimum (tmin) and maximum (tmax) range or the normalized range between 0 and 1.
The parametric equation for a 3D curve takes the form of;

where L(t) is the point vector and t is the parameter of the equation
Parametric equations allow great versatility in constructing space curves that are multi-valued and
easily manipulated. Parametric form is the most common form of curve representation in geometric
modeling. Examples of parametric and non-parametric equations follow.
Non-Parametric Representation of a Curve
Nonparametric equations of curves can be further divided into explicit and implicit nonparametric
equations. The explicit nonparametric representation of a general 3D curve takes the form of,

L = [x, y, z]T= [x, f(x), g(x)]T

where L is the position vector of the point Lin the 3D space.

The implicit nonparametric representation of a general 3D curve takes the form of, Equation below
which expresses the relationship between the coordinates x and y, x and z of each point in the 3D
space. Therefore, the relationship between y and z is implicit.

This equation, however, must be solved analytically to obtain the explicit form. Whereas it is
possible to solve it, accurate data cannot always be guaranteed. This limits its use in CAD systems.
Synthetic Entities
A major part of synthetic entities are synthetic curves. These are more genetic curves that can take
virtually any shape in order to meet geometric design requirements of a mechanical part and/or various
engineering applications. Some of the common synthetic curves used in the major CAD systems are,

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Hermite cubic spline, Bézier curves, B-spline curves, Rational B-splines, and Nonuniform rational B-
splines.
Hermite cubic spline
The main idea of the Hermite cubic spline is that a curve is divided into segments. Each segment
is approximated by an expression, namely a parametric cubic function. The general form of a cubic
function can be written as,

where the point vector r of the cubic curve is defined by the parametric equation V(t). The segment
defined by the equation has highest-degree polynomial t3. The parameter t is traditionally bounded by
the parameter interval (0 < t< 1). The Hermite form of a cubic spline is determined by defining
positions and tangent vectors at the actual data points. Therefore, the Hermite curve is based on the
interpolation techniques.
Bézier curves
Bézier curves, are based on approximation techniques that produce curves that do not necessarily
pass through all the given data points except the first and the last control points. A Bézier curve does
not require first-order derivative; the shape of the curve is controlled by the control points. For n + 1
control points, the Bézier curve is defined by a polynomial of degree n as follows,

where V(t) is the position vector of a point on the curve segment and Bi,n are the Bernstein
polynomials, which serve as the blending or basis function for the Bézier curve.
B-spline
B-spline is considered a generalization of the Bézier curve. Local control is a specific feature of B-
spline curves, which allows changing of a local control point to only affect part of the curve. With
Hermite and Bézier curves however, changing one control point (or slope) affects the whole curve.
This may cause some inconvenience for designers when they only wish to modify a curve locally.
Rational B-splines (RBSs)
Rational B-splines (RBSs) are generalizations of B-splines. More specifically, an RBS has an added
parameter (also called weight) associated with each control point to control the behaviour of the curve.
An RBS can be used to define a variety of curves and surfaces. The most widely used class of RBS is
the non-uniform rational B-spline (NURBS). The NURBS is used on a scale that it has almost become
a de facto industrial standard. Using a NURBS, a designer can model free-form surfaces by defining
a mesh of control points.

2.2.2 Surface Models

They utilize the edge vertex definition of the wire frame model as a basis for defining the geometry
of the surface patches which are used to represent the faces of the object. The surface model has an

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additional list called the face list which stores the identities of the edges used to dene each surface
patch. The Figure 2-2 shows a wire frame image of a cubic block with its associated edge-vertex-face
listing in table 3.1. The model has 8 vertices, 12 straight line edges and six faces.

Figure 2-2 Wire frame image

Each face is defined by four edges. Once the faces have been represented by surface patches, it
becomes possible to display the object with hidden edges. Patterns and colour tones are often
incorporated to enhance the image.
Generating surface models takes significantly longer time than generating wire frame models,
although the routines involved can be undertaken by even the smallest business computers and
therefore all 3D CAD systems provide this option of modeling.
Surface models are often capable of representing the solid from the manufacturer's point of view
but have the following limitations:
1. No information regarding the interior of the solid model would be available which would
be relevant for generating the NC cutter data.
2. There is no geometric definition of points that lie inside or outside the surface.
3. The calculation of properties such as mass and inertia would be difficult or impossible.
Surface models are useful for representing surfaces such as:
 Thin containers such as bottles
 Ship hulls
 Aircraft fuselages and wings
 Telephone handsets
Like curves, surfaces can be classified as analytical and free-form surfaces.

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 Analytical Surfaces
Analytical surfaces can be divided into two groups:
i. Nonparametric surfaces: Those defined by non-parametric equations, examples are planar
surfaces, cylindrical surfaces, spherical surfaces, conical surfaces and torus.
In general a surface or surface patch is represented analytically by an equation of the form

Where P is the position vector. The natural choice for f(x,y) is a polynomial. Thus for analytical
representation of surfaces we can use equations of type

ii. Parametric surfaces: Those defined by parametric equations, examples are surfaces of
revolution, ruled surfaces and tabulated cylinder.
Synthetic Surface Representations
Hermite Bicubic Surface
As discussed before, synthetic curves are dealt with as curve segments in a single parameter (e.g.
s) domain. Likewise, synthetic surfaces are defined in patches, each corresponding to a rectangular
domain in the s - t space. Hermite Bicubic Surface is one of the common types of synthetic surfaces
used in CAD systems. In mathematic terms, a Hermite Bicubic surface can be described using the
following cubic parametric equation,

Note that this is a 16-term, third-power series. Like Hermite bicubic curves, a Hermite surface also
requires the values of the tangent vectors at the corners of the surface.
Bézier Surface Patches
Mathematically, the only difference between a Hermite surface patch and a Bézier surface patch is
that different basis functions are used. As with the Bézier curve, the Bernstein basis function is used
for the Bézier surface patch. Generally, the most common use of Bézier surfaces is as nets of bi-cubic
patches. The geometry of a single bi-cubic patch is thus completely defined by a set of 16 control
points. These are typically linked up to form a B-spline surface in the similar way that Bézier curves
are linked up to form a B-spline curve. The cubic Bézier surface can then be expressed as,

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 Bézier patch meshes are superior to meshes of triangles as a representation of smooth surfaces,
since they are much more compact, easier to manipulate, and have much better continuity properties.
In addition, other common parametric surfaces such as spheres and cylinders can be well approximated
by relatively small numbers of cubic Bézier patches. However, Bézier patch meshes are difficult to
render directly. Another problem with Bézier patches is that calculating their intersections with lines
is difficult, making them awkward for pure ray tracing or other direct geometric techniques which do
not use subdivision or successive approximation techniques. They are also difficult to combine directly
with perspective projection algorithms.
Uniform Cubic B-Spline Surfaces
Using a corresponding basis function, uniform cubic B-Spline surface can be formed and has a net
of control points that define the surface, none of which interpolate the patch, as in the case of the B-
spline curve. Likewise, an advantage of B-spline surface is that it sup-ports local control of the surface.

2.2.3: 3D Solid Modeling

The wire-frame and surface modelling approaches, as mentioned earlier, have limited engineering
applications. Solid modelling has now found wide applications that cut across functional boundaries,
such as the use of solid models with finite-element analysis and fluid flow analysis in the conceptual
design of products, numerical control (NC) part programming for computer-aided manufacturing, and
generation of computer-aided process plans.
Furthermore, solid models can be easily used to evaluate the size, shape, and weight of products
early during the conceptual design phase. In a solid modelling system, objects are often defined
directly by primitive shapes called building blocks or solid primitives, instead of the surfaces, edges
and vertices used in wire-frame and surface modelling.
The model is defined by the volumetric shape it occupies and provides a full and unambiguous
description of 3D shape. Not only does the solid model represent the full surface geometry of an item,
but also the internal structure which is not usually represented by a surface model. If a solid model of
an object is cut in half as if the item is being fully sectioned, the model would display new faces where
the sectioning plane cuts. If the same operation is done on a surface model of the object, only a series
of new edges would be created where surface patches have been cut by the sectioning plane.
This method is superior to other modeling techniques for the following reasons:
iii. It provides complete definition of a volumetric 3D shape, indicating outside and inside of an
object. This makes it easy to detect interference, especially in assembly.

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 iv. Analytical advantage, including automatic display of accurate mass properties and revent
construction of finite elements.
v. Ability to incorporate color choice and tone control.
vi. Improved simulation of mechanism dynamics, tool path procedures and robot handling.
In classifying a solid model, its internal representation is usually used. The internal representation
is how a computer stores the model. The external representation is how the picture or image is
displayed. There are six different types of solid internal representation schemes:
1. Primitive instancing
2. Spatial occupancy enumeration (SOE)
3. Cell decomposition
4. Constructive solid geometry (CGS)
5. Boundary representation (B-rep)
6. Sweeping
Primitive instancing
In this scheme, a composite model for the entire family of objects is parametrized and features on
the model can be turned on or off. The dimensions of each feature are set as variables (parameters). It
explains how objects interrelate in terms of dimensions. An object instance can be defined by assigning
values to the parameters and can be used to represent standard parts which have different dimensions.
Spatial Occupancy Enumeration (SOE)
Space is described as a regular array of cells (usually cubes). Each cell is called a Voxel. A 3D
object is represented as a list of filled voxels
Advantages:
i. Easy to verify if a point (a voxel) is inside or outside an object.
ii. Boolean operations are easy to apply.
Limitations:
i. Requires large memory.
ii. Resolution is limited to size and shape of voxel.
iii. Used in Biomedical engineering e.g for mapping and illustration of living cell structures.
Cell decomposition
Is a general class of SOE. A solid is decomposed into simple solid cells with no holes and formed
as a result of attaching component cells that satisfy certain boundary conditions.
Constructive solid geometry
This method uses primitive shapes (blocks, cylinder, sphere, wedge, torus, cone, prism etc) as
building blocks and employs Boolean set operators (union, intersect and difference (subtract)) to
construct complex/composite object. The Boolean operations and primitives and stored in a tree type
of data structure
– The solid stored is always valid
– Easy parametric implementation

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 – Only Boolean operators allowed: shape definition severely limited
Boundary representation (B-rep)
A closed 2D surface defines a 3D object. This method represents objects by their boundary faces.
The bounding faces are further divided and represented by edges and vertices. A set of operators
known as Euler operators is available to build the B-rep from ground up. Most B-rep models are
derived from CSG model through boundary evaluation.
Boundary representations can be defined in two ways:
(a) Primitive based. A collection of primitives forming the boundary (polygons, for exam-ple)
(b) Freeform based (splines, parametric surfaces, implicit forms)
A polyhedron is a solid bounded by a set of polygons and is constructed from:Vertices V, Edges
E, Faces F.
Each edge must connect two vertices and be shared by exactly two faces. At least three edges must
meet at each vertex. A simple polyhedron must satisfies Euler's formula:
Sweeping
This involves sweeping a 2D area along a trajectory creates a new 3D object. There are two types
of sweep.
(a) Translation (extrusion) e.g translation of a rectangle produces a box.
(b) Rotation (revolve) - rotation of the same rectangle about an edge produces a cylinder.
This method can produce highly complicated shapes. One manufacturing application of sweeping
is NC cutter simulation.

A design model needs the following information to completely describe it:

i. Geometry
ii. Tolerances
iii. Volume (for some applications)
iv. Annotation and dimensions.

3. 0: CAD Data Exchange and CAD Standards

3.1 Introduction
Today, more companies than ever before are involved in manufacturing various parts of their end
products using different subcontractors, many of whom are often geographically diverse. The rise of
such global efforts has created the need for sharing information among vendors involved in multi-
disciplinary projects. Transfer of data is necessary so that, for example, one organization can be
developing a CAD model, while another performs analysis work on the same model; at the same time
a third organization is responsible for manufacturing the product. Data transfer fills the need to satisfy
each of these functions in a specific way. Accurate transmission is of paramount importance. Thus, a
mechanism for good data transfer is needed.

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 Modelling kernels
CAD data formats are governed by the (solid) modelling kernels that the CAD systems were built
upon. A modelling kernel is a collection of classes and components comprised of mathematical
functions that perform specific modelling tasks. A modelling kernel may support solid modelling,
generalized cellular modelling and freeform surface/sheet modelling. It may contain functions such as
model creation and editing (e.g. Boolean modelling operators), feature modelling support, advanced
surfacing, thickening and hollowing, blending and filleting and sheet modelling. Most of the kernels
also provide graphical and rendering support, including hidden-line, wire-frame and drafting, as well
as tessellation functionality and a suite of model data inquiries. The CAD graphic user interface (GUI)
interfaces with the kernel’s functions through so-called application user interface. Inconsistencies
occur when differing solid modelling kernels are used. Consequences of these inconsistencies can
mean anomalies in data.
Over the years, various kernels have been developed and adopted by different CAD systems (Some
are proprietary; others use popular ones through licensing, e.g. ACIS® by Spatial Technology
Corporation, Parasolid® by UGS and Shape Manager by Autodesk.

3.2 Data Exchange

There are basically three methods of transferring data from one CAD system to another.
1. Direct CAD system export/import
2. Direct 3rd party translators.
3. Intermediate data exchange formats
3.2.1 Direct internal
Some CAD systems can directly read and/or write other CAD formats, simply by using file open
and file save as options. As most CAD file formats are not open, this option is limited to either systems
owned by the same company or via hacking of competitor's file format.
3.2.2 Direct external
There are a number of companies that specialize in CAD data translation software, providing
software that can read one system and write the information in another CAD system format. These
systems have their own proprietary intermediate format some of which will allow reviewing the data
during translation. Some of these translators work stand-alone while others require one or both of the
CAD packages installed on the translation machine as they use code (APIs) from these systems to
read/write the data.

3.2.1 Data translation formats

A common method of translation is via an intermediary format. The sending CAD system exports
out to this format and the receiving CAD system reads in this format. Some formats are independent
of the CAD vendors being defined by standards organizations while others, although owned by a
company, are widely used and are regarded as quasi industry standards. It is becoming increasingly

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common for companies owning these quasi industry standards to further the use of their formats by
openly publishing these data formats.
Example formats:
1. DXF (Drawing eXchange Format)
2. PDES (Product Data Exchange Specification)
3. IGES (Initial Graphic Exchange Standard)
4. STEP (Standard for the Exchange of Product model data
5. XML (Extensible Markup Language)
6. 3DXML (3D Extensible Markup Language)
7. Other formats
DXF (Drawing eXchange Format)
DXF is the AutoCAD®’s CAD data file format, developed by Autodesk® as their solution for
enabling data interoperability between AutoCAD® and other programs. DXF was originally
introduced in December 1982 as part of AutoCAD® 1.0, and was intended to provide an exact
representation of the data in the AutoCAD® native file format, DWG (Drawing). This format has been
the very first of the data transfer formats used in CAD. DXF is primarily a 2D-based data format.
Versions of AutoCAD® Release 10 (October 1988) and up support both ASCII and binary forms of
DXF. DXF has become less useful. This is because certain object types, including ACIS® solids and
regions, cannot be easily documented using DXF files. Other object types, including AutoCAD®
2006’s dynamic blocks, and all of the objects specific to the vertical-market versions of AutoCAD®,
are partially documented, but not at a sufficient level to allow other developers to support them.
IGES
This method of translation originated around the late 1970’s. It is still one of the viable methods of
transferring CAD data. The file format defined by this Specification treats the product definition as a
file of entities. Each entity is represented in an application-independent format, to and from which the
native representation of a specific CAD/CAM system can be mapped. The entity representations
provided in this Specification include forms common to the CAD/CAM systems currently available
and forms which support the system technologies currently emerging. Entities are categorized as
geometry and non-geometry. Geometry entities represent the definition of a physical shape. They
include points, curves, surfaces, solids and relations. Relations are collections of similarly structured
entities. Non-geometry entities typically serve to enrich the model by providing (a) a viewing
perspective in which a planar drawing may be composed and (b) providing annotation and
dimensioning appropriate to the drawing. Non-geometry entities further serve to provide specific
attributes or characteristics for individual or groups of entities.
PDES
PDES was designed to completely define a product for all applications over its expected life cycle.
Product data include geometry, topology, tolerances, relationships, attributes, and features necessary

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to completely define a part or assembly of parts for the purpose of design, analysis, manufacture, test,
inspection and product support.
STEP
The development of PDES under the guidance of the IGES organization and in close collaboration
with the International Organization for Standardization, led to the birth of STEP (ISO 10303, 1994).
As a result, STEP continues most of the work in PDES. STEP is developed by the Sub-committee 4
(SC4) of ISO Technical Committee 184 (TC 184) Industrial automation systems and integration. STEP
is intended to support data exchange, data sharing and data archiving. For data exchange, STEP defines
the form of the product data that is to be transferred between a pair of applications. Each application
holds its own copy of the product data in its own preferred form. The data conforming to STEP is
transitory and defined only for the purpose of exchange. STEP supports data sharing by providing
access of and operation on a single copy of the same product data by more than one application,
potentially simultaneously. STEP is also suitable to support the interface to the archive. As in product
data sharing, the architectural elements of STEP may be used to support the development of the
archived product data itself. Archiving requires that the data conforming to STEP for exchange
purposes is kept for use at some other time. This subsequent use may be through either product data
exchange or product data sharing (Kemmerer, 1999). Another primary concept contributing to the
STEP architecture is that the content of the standard is to be completely driven by industrial
requirements. This, in combination with the concept that the re-use of data specifications is the basis
for standards, led to developing two distinct types of data specifications. The first type - reusable,
context-independent specifications - are the building blocks of the standard. The second type -
application-con-text-dependent specifications (application protocols). This combination enables
avoiding unnecessary duplication of data specifications between application protocols.

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