The burning of gas, liquid, or solid in which fuel is oxidised;

FKM FKM involves heat release and often light emission.

HIGH SPEED COMBUSTION Deflagration

A combustion wave propagating at subsonic velocity relative to
~ DETONATION the unburnt gas immediately ahead of the flame.

D
Detonation D
E A combustion wave propagating at supersonic velocity relative E
Advanced Combustion T T
O to the unburnt gas immediately ahead of the flame. O
MMJ 1443 N N
A A
T
I
Explosion T
I
O An event leading to a rapid increase of pressure. O
Assoc. Prof . Dr Mazlan Abdul Wahid N N
S S
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
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OVERVIEW OF DETONATIONS Deflagration

• Deflagration: combustion wave (flame) propagating at subsonic speeds
FKM • Detonation: combustion wave propagating at supersonic speeds FKM When a premixed gaseous fuel-oxidizer mixture within
– Detonation is a shock wave sustained by energy released by combustion flammability limits is contained in a long tube and then
– Combustion process, in turn, is initiated by shock wave compression and ignited, a combustion wave will propagate down the tube.
resulting high temperatures If the tube is open at both ends the velocity of the wave falls
– Detonations involve interaction between fluid mechanic processes (shock in the range of 20-200 cm/s.
waves) and thermochemical processes (combustion)
The velocity of this wave is controlled by transport
• Qualitative differences between upstream and downstream properties across
detonation wave are similar to property differences across normal shock D
processes mainly simultaneous D
E E
• Main differences: T •heat conduction and T
O O
– Normal shock wave: downstream velocity always subsonic N •diffusion of radicals N
– Detonation wave: downstream velocity always local speed of sound A A
T normally below the speed of sound. This wave is referred to T
• Note that detonation waves can fall into strong and weak classes I
as a flame and as a flow entity it is also called a I
O O
– Strong detonation: subsonic burned gas velocity N deflagration.
deflagration N
S S
– Weak detonation: supersonic burned gas velocity

3
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1
 Detonation Detonation
When a tube which is filled with combustible mixture is
FKM FKM A detonation is defined as a combustion wave propagating at
closed at one end and ignited there, a combustion wave
supersonic velocity relative to the unburned gas immediately
will propagate and the propagation will undergoes a
ahead of the flame, i.e., the detonation velocity, D, is larger
transition from subsonic to supersonic speeds.
speeds than the speed of sound, C, in the unburned gas
The supersonic wave is called detonation.
detonation The shock wave and the combustion wave are in this case
coupled

In detonation: D
Shock wave
E • a fully developed compression wave of large amplitude,
•the heat conduction and diffusion of radicals do not T
across which density, pressure, and particle velocity change
D
O E
controlled the velocity; rather, N
drastically T
A O
•the shock wave structure of the developed supersonic T • shock wave propagates at supersonic velocity relative to the N
I A
wave raises the temperature and pressure substantially to O gas immediately ahead of the shock …the gas ahead is T
N
cause explosion reaction and energy release that sustain S
undisturbed by the shock. I
O
the wave propagation. N

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Detonation Waves: History and Theory

Detonation waves were observed experimentally more than 100 years
FKM FKM
ago.

•Chapman and Jouguet were the first to present a theory describing this
supersonic combustion wave, propagating at a unique velocity.
•The C-J (Chapman-Jouguet) theory (Fickett and Davis, 1979) treats the
detonation wave as a discontinuity with infinite reaction rate.

•The conservation equations for mass, momentum and energy across the
D
one-dimensional wave gives a unique solution for the detonation velocity E
D (CJ-velocity) and the state of combustion products immediately behind T
E O
T
the detonation wave. N
O A
N T
•Based on the CJ-theory it is possible to calculate detonation velocity, I
A
T detonation pressure etc. if the gas mixture is known. O
I N
O S
N
•The CJ-theory does not require any information about the chemical
reaction rate (i.e. chemical kinetics).

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2
 TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF NORMAL SHOCKS, DETONATIONS, AND DEFLAGRATIONS

Differences in Gaseous Detonations and

FKM Deflagrations FKM
(typical magnitude of ratios)

D • Normal shock property ratios are qualitatively similar to those of detonations and of D
E same magnitude E
T – EXCEPT that for detonation downstream velocity is sonic T
O O
N
• Mach number increases across flame for deflagrations N
A – Mach number is very small and thus is not a very useful parameter to A
T characterize a deflagration T
I • Velocity increases substantially and density drops substantially across a deflagration I
O – Effects are opposite in direction as compared with detonations or shock waves O
N • Pressure is essentially constant across a deflagration (actually decreases slightly), N
S while detonation has high pressure downstream of propagating wave S
• Characteristic shared by shock, detonation, and deflagration is large temperature
increase across wave

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GOVERNING EQUATIONS: MASS AND MOMENTUM

1-D ANALYSIS
m& ′′ = ρ1u1 = ρ 2u 2 For steady flow, mass flow rate is constant
FKM FKM If area is fixed mass flux is constant
• Considerable insight gained from 1-D analysis even though structure of real
detonations is highly 3-D
P1 + ρ1u12 = P2 + ρ 2 u22 Axial momentum
Only force is pressure
• Useful foundation to build more detailed understanding

Simultaneous solution of continuity and momentum

• Assumptions (very similar to 1-D normal shock wave analysis) P2 − P1
1. 1-D, steady flow
= − m& ′′2 Written in terms of density
1 − 1
D D

2. Constant area
E
T
ρ2 ρ1 E
T
O O
3. Ideal gas N N
4. Constant and equal specific heats A
P2 − P1 Written in terms of specific volume, v = 1/ρ A

5. No body forces
T
= − m& ′′2 T
I
O v2 − v1 I
O
6. Adiabatic N N
S Solve for P for fixed P1, v1 and mass flux as function of S
P = − m& ′′2 v2 + P1 + m& ′′2 v1 specific volume at state 2
Line of constant slope, plot on P-V graph
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3
 RAYLEIGH LINES GOVERNING EQUATIONS: INCLUDING ENERGY
m& ′′ = ρ1u1 = ρ 2u2 Continuity

FKM FKM P1 + ρ1u12 = P2 + ρ 2u22 Axial momentum

2 2
u u Energy conservation
h1 + = h2 +
1 2
2 2
h(T ) = ∑ Yi hof ,i + c P (T − Tref )
Pressure

Total enthalpy with assumption of constant cp’s

u12   u 2 Bracketed term is heat of combustion per mass
cPT1 + + ∑ Yi h of ,i − ∑ Yi hof ,i  = c PT2 + 2
(P1, v1) 2  state1 state 2  2 of mixture
D u2 u2 Defined heat addition as q D
cPT1 + 1 + q = c PT2 + 2
E 2 2 E
T T
O O
N P1 = ρ1 R1T1 N
Specific volume Ideal gas behavior
• Simultaneous solution of mass and momentum conservation equations
A
P2 = ρ 2 R2T2 A
T T
• Fixed P1 and v1 (1/ρ1) I I
O Simultaneous solution of mass, momentum andO
• Increasing mass flux causes line to steepen, pivoting through point (P1, v1) γ  P2 P1  1  1 1  energy with ideal gas and γ = cp/cv
N  −  − ( P − P ) +  − q = 0 N
– In limit of infinite mass flux, Rayleigh line is vertical S γ − 1  ρ 2 ρ1  2 2 1  ρ1 ρ 2  Written in terms of density S
– In limit of zero mass flux, Rayleigh line is horizontal
γ
– No solutions possible outside this domain (regions A and B inaccessible) (P2v2 − P1v1 ) − 1 (P2 − P1 )(v1 + v2 ) − q = 0 Written in terms of specific volume
γ −1 2
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RANKINE-HUGONIOT CURVE

FKM FKM
Pressure

D D
E E
T T
O O
N N
A A
T T
I Specific volume I
O O
N • Rankine-Hugoniot curve for fixed P1, v1, and q N
S S
• Curve does not pass through ‘origin’
• Dashed lines passing through point A are Rayleigh lines
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4
 COMMENTS: RANKINE-HUGONIOT CURVE
• Plot P as function of v for fixed P1, v1 and q ADDITIONAL COMMENTS
– Point A(P1, v1) is called origin of Rankine-Hugoniot curve
• Upper branch: points lying above B
FKM FKM
• Lower branch: points lying below C • Strong detonations are mathematically possible on Hugoniot curve, but difficult to
• Any real process going from state 1 → 2 must satisfy Rayleigh relation and Hugoniot relation, produce in reality
so no points between B and C are physically possible
• Weak detonations also require special conditions to occur, i.e., very rapid reactions rates
• For upper branch there is a limiting Rayleigh line that is tangent to Hugoniot line, point D
– Called upper Chapman-Jouget point • Real detonations are not 1-D, however
• For lower branch there is a limiting Rayleigh line that is tangent to Hugoniot line, point E – Conditions at upper C-J point reasonably approximate those associated with actual
– Called lower Chapman-Jouget point detonations
• Four limiting Rayleigh lines A-D, A-B, A-C, and A-E divide Hugoniot curve into 5 segments – At upper C-J point, velocity of burned gases relative to traveling detonation wave is
– Above D sonic
• Strong detonations
D D
• Subsonic burned gas velocity (M2 < 1) E • Deflagrations also map onto Hugoniot curve E
– D-B T T
• Weak detonations – Point just below C is representative of conditions in burned gases behind a 1-D
O O
• Supersonic burned gas velocity (M2 > 1) N
flame N
– B-C A – Note that pressure decreases slightly from unburned state A
• Physically impossible T – Physically impossible region includes point C, since corresponds to zero mass flow T
I I
– C-E
O O
• Weak deflagrations N • ρuSL)
Typical flame speeds, SL, for HC-air mixtures are less than 1 m/s, so mass fluxes (ρ N
• Subsonic burned gas velocity (M2 < 1) S S
also small
– Below E
• Strong deflagrations
• Supersonic burned gas velocity (M2 > 1)
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The Hugoniot Curve The Hugoniot Curve

FKM FKM The three separates regions are further divided into several more regions by
ρ1)
Plotted in the figure is the initial point (p1,1/ρ
•
and horizontal and
vertical lines are drawn through it. This divide the curve into three regions.
ρ1)
plotting two tangents through the initial point (p1,1/ρ
•
•Regions I and II - Detonation
Horizontal – constant p •Regions III and IV - Deflagration
Vertical – constant 1/ ρ •Region V - no solution

D D
E E
T T
O O
N N
A A
T T
I I

Detonation • O
N Detonation • O
N
S S

Deflagration Deflagration
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5
 Based on 1-D conservation The Hugoniot Curve
equations:
FKM • Continuity FKM

• Momentum Different q
• Energy produces different For strong detonations, postshock disturbances would
curve catch up to the front. For weak detonations, postshock
This particular disturbances would fall behind.
•External heat, one is for reacting
system To obtain CJ point, set tangents of Rayleigh line and
diffusion Hugoniot curve equal to each other. This yields: or, if P2
Hugoniot Curve q > 0 D
is negligible compared to P1, Only the CJ point will allow D
are neglected E E
T us to have a steady state behind the front. T
• Steady-state O O
N Combining with Hugoniot relation yields the Chapman- N
A A
T
Jouguet velocity: Note that as Q = 0, CJ without T
I reactions, we can have shocks of and strength. I
Detonation O O
N N
S S

Deflagration
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DETONATION VELOCITY DETONATION VELOCITY, VD

• Additional assumption: P2 >> P1 u 2 − u 22 q Now relate T2 to known quantities
T2 = T1 + 1 +
FKM • Detonation velocity, VD, is equal to velocity at which unburned gas enters FKM 2cP cP Solve energy equation for T2
detonation wave (in wave stationary frame), VD = u1
VD ≡ u1 Detonation velocity definition
Eliminate u1 through continuity and substitute u22
q γR2T2  γ + 1  2 
ρ1u1 = ρ 2 a2 Conservation of mass for upper Chapmann-Jouguet point, D T2 = T1 + +   − 1 with a22 = γR2T2 and eliminate density ratio
ρ2 Solve for u1 cP 2c P  γ  
u1 = γR2T2
ρ1
Relate density ratio ρ2/ρ1 and T2 to upstream (state 1) conditions Substitute γ-1=γR2/cP and solve for T2
2γ 2  q 
For ρ2/ρ1 start with axial momentum and divide through by ρ2/u22 T2 =  T1 + 
γ + 1  cP  Equation is approximate
ρu 2
P D D
− 2 =1
1 1 Neglect P1 compared with P2
ρ u ρ 2u22
2 E 1 E
  q 
2

VD = 2(γ + 1)γR2  T1 + 

2 2 T T
Now apply continuity to eliminate u1 (u1 = ρ2/ρ1u22 and solve for O
  cP  O
N N
ρ2 P density ratio A Expression for detonation velocity A
= 1+ 2 2
ρ1 ρ 2u 2
T T
I 2γ 22  cP ,1 q  I
ρ2 T2 = T1 + Can also relax assumption of constant and equal cPO’s
γ 2 + 1  cP , 2 cP , 2 
P2 O
= 1+ Replace u22 with a22 = γR2T2 N N
ρ1 ρ 2γR2T2 S 1
Expression for state 2 temperature S

ρ2 1 γ +1  c q 
2

= 1+ = Finally, from ideal gas P2 = ρ2R2T2 VD = 2(γ 2 + 1)γ 2 R2  P ,1 T1 + 

c cP , 2  Expression for detonation velocity
ρ1 γ γ   P,2
Simple relation for density ratio
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6
 ZND Detonation Theory
FKM •During World War II, Zeldovich, Döring and von Neumann improved the
CJ-model by taking the reaction rate into account.
•The ZND-model describes the detonation wave as a shock wave
immediately followed by a reaction zone (i.e. flame). The thickness of this
zone is given by the reaction rate.
•The ZND-theory gives the same detonation velocities and pressures as the
CJ-theory, the only difference between the two models is the thickness of
the wave.
•An actual detonation is a three-dimensional shock wave followed by a
reaction zone. The leading shock consists of curved shock segments. At
the detachment lines between these shock segments, the shock wave
interacts in a Mach stem configuration. A two-dimensional illustration
of the actual structure is given in the figure shown next page.
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ZND STRUCTURE OF DETONATION WAVES
• Actual detonation wave structure is highly 3-D and highly complex
• Useful simplified model
FKM 1. Leading shock wave
2. Reaction zone
• Thickness of actual shock waves is of order of a few molecular mean free paths
– Recall from chemical kinetics that probability of reaction occurring during a
collision of reactive molecules is typically much less than unity
– Inside shock wave only a few collisions, so reactive collisions become rare
events
– Little or no chemical reactions occur in this zone
• A reaction zone follows shock and must be considerably thicker
• Simplified 1-D picture was developed independently by Zeldovich, Neumann, and
Döring, and is known as ZND model of detonation structure
– Real detonations do not globally conform to this model (conceptually very
useful)
– Usually several shock fronts interacting in traveling detonation wave resulting
in transverse oblique shock structure
– Detailed nature of transverse wave structure is highly dependent on geometry
of confining tube
• Transverse detonation structure couples with acoustic modes of tube
– For unconfined detonations (spherical), transverse structure is random
27
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FKM
ZND Theory
D D
E E
T T
O O
N N
A A
T T
I I
O O
N N
S
ZND structure and pattern of an actual structure of a detonation front. The S
characteristic length scale of the cell pattern, the cell size, λ, is shown in
the figure.
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ZND DETONATION STRUCTURE
FKM
D D
E E
T T
O O
N N
A A
T T
I I
O O
N N
S S
• State point 1: upstream conditions
• State point 2’: conditions at end of leading normal shock
•28 State point 2: upper Chapman-Jouguet point, D
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7
 What is Explosion?
FKM FKM
• Explosion may be defined by combustion of ‘premixed’
combustible mixture (gas cloud) , causing rapid increase
in pressure

• Pressure generated by the combustion wave will depend

on how fast the flame propagates and how the pressure
D can expand away from the gas cloud (governed by D
E
T
confinement) E
TD
O OE
N NT
A • Two modes of flame propagation AO
T TN
I
– deflagration IA
O – detonation OT
N NI
S SO
N
Smoked-foil record and schematic diagram of symmetric planar interactive
showing the triple points which causes the writing on each side of the walls. 4/12/2011 © Azeman Mustafa, PhD
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UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI
TEKNOLOGIMALAYSIA
MALAYSIA Combustion Process– -Dr
Combustion Mazlan 2005
Mazlan 2011

EXPLOSION
Events both before and after gas explosion process BLEVE
FKM FKM
• Acronym for Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour
Explosion
• The BLEVE is an explosion due to flashing of liquids
when a vessel with a high vapour pressure substance
fails

D D
E E
T T
O O
N N
A A
T T
I I
O O
N N

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8
 Confined Gas Explosions
FKM
• Confined gas explosions are explosions within tanks,
process equipment, pipes, in culverts, sewage systems,
closed rooms and in underground installations. Confined
explosions are also called internal explosions.
Partially--Confined Gas Explosions
Partially
FKM • Partly confined explosions occur when a fuel is
accidentally released inside a building which is partly open
- Typical cases are compressor rooms and offshore
modules - The building will confine the explosion and the
explosion pressure can only be relieved through the
explosion vent areas, i.e. open areas in the walls or light
relief walls that open quickly at low overpressure

D D
E E
T T
O O
N N
A A
T T
I I
O O
Explosion within a tank. N N
Gas explosion in a partly confined area with process equipment

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Unconfined Gas Explosions Examples of gas explosion

FKM FKM
• If an unconfined cloud detonates the explosion pressure
will be very high, in the order of 20 barg and in principle
independent of confinement and obstructions

Gas explosion in a process area.
D D
E E
T T
O O
N N
A A
T T
I I
O O
N N

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9
FKM FKM

D D
E E
T T
O O
N N
A A
T T
I I
O O
N N

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Gas accidents
FKM FKM

D
E
D T
E O
T N
O A
N T
A I
T O
I N
O S
N

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10
 Gas Accident Reports
FKM FKM N Year Type of Accident Causes Type of installation Consequences
o
1 1993 leakage Evacuation job by External piping Pipe leaking
contractor (underground) (no injured report)
-Wangsa Maju, Kuala
Lumpur
2 1993 Leakage & Land slide Residential building Building Shaking
Explosion -Flat Gombak, Kuala
Lumpur
3 1993 Fire (on storage Cigarette bud Residential storage Tank roof fired
roof) -Bangsa Kondominium
D D
E 4 1994 Leakage Evacuation job by External pipe (underground) Leaking pipe E
contractor -Tmn. Tun Dr. Ismail, Kuala
T Lumpur
T
O O
N 5 1994 Leakage and Consumers’ careless N
A Explosion A
T 6 1994 Leakage and Cylinder GPC Selling (balloon) Four people lost one of T
I explosion modification -Pasar Malam, Kpg. Pandan their feet I
O 7 1994 Leakage Evacuation job by External pipe (underground) Leaking pipe
O
N contractor N
S S
8 1994 Leakage & Leaking at clip joint Restaurant 2 injured
explosion -Wisma Stephen, Jln. Raja (50% burned)
Chulan, Kuala Lumpur

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Explosion Limits
Perform an experiment where a fuel-oxygen mixture is injected into a preheated
FKM No Year Type of accident Causes Type of installation Consequences FKM spherical vessel and monitor the vessel pressure.
11 1995 Leakage Leaking at water heater in Residential 1 death
bathroom
12 1995 Leakage & Fire Consumer careless; Residential Victim was 90% burnt P
H2-O2
Improper valve shutting -Condominium Wangsa
Maju,Kuala Lumpur P
13 1997 Leakage & Fire Hose leaking Condominium 2 injured Vacuum

14 1997 Leakage& Fire Unsuitable clip to cylinder Restaurant 4 injured time

T
15 1997 Leakage & Fire Leak at hose joint to Residential Small injuries D D
kitchen in cabinet - Condominium Kampung E For a given hydrogen-oxygen mixture, e.g. stoichiometric, and fill pressure if E
Pandan, Kuala Lumpur T you vary the temperature of vessel you will find that there is a critical T
O O
16 1997 Leakage & Pressure testing job at Shopping Complex 2 death & 3 injured N temperature below which an explosion occurs and above which an N
Explosion additional pipe -Amcorp Mall A explosion does not occur (note there is no spark ignition). A
17 1998 Leakage Evacuation job by External pipe (PE pipe) Broken pipe T T
contractor -Shah Alam I I
O
An explosion is characterized by a rapid rise in vessel pressure faster than O
18 1998 Erosion Rain erosion External pipe (PE pipe) Exposed pipe
Kuaters KLIA N the normal pressure rise due to gas filling. N
S S
This critical temperature is referred to as the autoignition or
explosion limit temperature
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11
 Prof. Frank K. Lu (franklu@uta.edu) Phone: 817-272-
Hybrid Pulsed Detonation Engine (PDE) for Electric Power Albert Ortiz (aortiz@uta.edu) 2603
Explosion Limits Generation Philip Panicker
(philipkpanicker@uta.edu)
Prof. Don Wilson (wilson@uta.edu) Fax: 817-272-
Based on US Patent Application No. 10/746,863
5010
If you repeat the experiment for different fill pressures and plot all the results on a What is a Pulsed Detonation
How a PDE Works Turbo-Jet Engines vs. PDEs Hybrid PDEs
Engine?
FKM pressure-temperature curve one can define an explosion limit curve. •Pulsed Detonation Engine (PDE) is a revolutionary
engine that uses detonation to combust the fuel.
•It operates in a cyclical and intermittent fashion.
•Detonation is a more rapid and efficient form of
The shape of this limit curve can be explained by the temperature and pressure combustion, as opposed to deflagration.
•PDEs do not need heavy multi-stage compressors.

dependencies of the H2-O2 elementary reactions. •Thus PDEs can reduce weight, costs and improve
fuel efficiency of propulsion systems dramatically. •Turbo-Jet engines (and rockets) use Deflagration to
•PDEs can operate from Mach 0 to about 5 and can burn its fuel and to generate the energy for thrust.
be used in supersonic or hypersonic vehicles. •Turbo-jets follow the Brayton cycle (constant
•PDEs can be applied for ground based or aircraft pressure).
based electric power generation. •PDEs are similar to the Humphrey cycle (constant
•PDE can run on gaseous or liquid fuels, e.g. volume).
Hydrogen, Propane (Natural Gas), Coal Gas, •Turbo-jets need heavy compressors to compress air
Kerosene, Diesel, Jet Fuel, etc. before mixing with fuel and burning.
•(The US has vast reserves of Natural Gas and •In PDEs the detonation wave does the heavy work.
Coal.) Therefore, no need for compressors.

Explosion •PDE with Hydrogen is the ideal engine of the

future.
•Otto cycle (internal combustion engines) have
maximum efficiency of about 51% (compression
ratio 8).
Limits of 1 atm
D •Diesel engine cycle, maximum efficiency is about
65% (compression ratio of 20).
Proof of Concept of PDE for Electric
Stoichiometric NO Explosion E Detonation vs. Deflagration
Power Generation Experimental Setup
T Tcycle= Tfilling + Tinitiation + Tdetonation + Texhaust+
H2-O2 Detonation
• Supersonic, 1000s of m/s
Zeldovich-
Zeldovich- von Neumann
Neumann-- Doring (ZND) model:
Shock wave followed closely by a reaction zone
Tpurge Cycle Methane Propane
O • Modeled as a constant volume
Tdetonation is very short and quick
process
N • Sharp increase in pressure,
temperature and density during
Tfilling and Tpurge are the longest stages in the
Brayton (Deflagration) 28% 55%
cycle
A detonation
•Energy release is rapid and efficient
Tpurge is a necessary and important stage for Humphrey (Detonation) 38% 79%
T Deflagration cooling and cleaning the tube
Borg-Warner Turbo-
charger from a
Volkswagen (1800cc)
I • Subsonic, slow 1-10 m/s, (fastest is
a few 100 m/s)
Texhaust is the thrust producing stage automobile

Explosion O • Modeled as a constant pressure

process
• High temperatures are released, •Propane + Oxygen
N significant loss of pressure and
density density during burning
Frequency = 1/Tcycle
•Electronically controlled Solenoid
Shorter Tubes => Higher Frequency Valve Fuel Injection
S •Energy release is slow and
inefficient Longer Tubes => Lower Frequency •Automotive Ignition System
•Automotive Turbocharger
Deflagrations can be accelerated to Detonations. But tubes have to •Compact AC Generator
be very long to achieve Detonations.
The PDE was run at 15Hz
The process of going from Deflagration to Detonation is known as
The Generator produced 6VRMS at
Deflagration to Detonation Transition (DDT). Compact
25W
Bicycle AC
Special devices can be used to enhance DDT in a short tube. (One Generator
The Turbine ran at over 127,000 rpm
of the focuses of our research).
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA Combustion – Dr Mazlan 2011

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