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Self-talk effectiveness and attention
Antonis Hatzigeorgiadis and Evangelos Galanis
Self-talk interventions in sport have been receiving increased
research attention in recent years. The findings have provided
robust support that self-talk strategies enhance sport
performance. Identifying the mechanisms that explain the
beneficial effects of self-talk is important for developing a
comprehensive self-talk theory and informing practice. Among
the mechanisms proposed to explaining the effectiveness of
self-talk, is its attentional effects. This article reviews the
literature considering the effects of self-talk on attention. The
findings suggest that self-talk can help enhancing attentional
focus and attentional performance, but also help countering the
aversive effects of distraction and ego depletion. The present
evidence suggests that attention is a potential key mechanism
in the self-talk performance relationship.
Address
School of Physical Education and Sport Science, University of Thessaly,
Karies 42100, Trikala, Greece
Corresponding author: Hatzigeorgiadis, Hatzigeorgiadis
(ahatzi@pe.uth.gr)
Current Opinion in Psychology 2017, 16:138–142
This review comes from a themed issue on Sport psychology
Edited by Peter Beek, Vana Hutter and Raoul Oudejans
doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.05.014
2352-250/ã 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
In recent years self-talk has been receiving increased
attention in the sport psychology literature and the
research developments have provided exciting prospects
for the study of the relationships between cognition and
behavior in sport. These developments are evident in a
plethora of book chapters (e.g. [1,2]) and articles
presenting systematic reviews (e.g. [3]) and introducing
conceptual advances (e.g. [4,5]). In the most cited
definition, Hardy [6] defined self-talk as ‘(a) verbaliza-
tions or statements addressed to the self; (b) multidimen-
sional in nature; (c) having interpretive elements
associated with the content of statements employed;
(d) being somewhat dynamic; and (e) serving at least
two functions; instructional and motivational, for the
athlete’ (p. 84). In the sport self-talk literature a distinc-
tion between two research perspectives has been made,
namely automatic and strategic self-talk [2]. On the one
Current Opinion in Psychology 2017, 16:138–142
hand, automatic self-talk is described as phrases of cue
words athletes address to themselves, which can vary on
continuums from less to more conscious, and from less to
more intentional [4]. Such automatic self-talk can be (a)
goal-directed and rational, that is, statements reactive or
proactive in nature, employed for solving problems or
making progress on a task, or (b) spontaneous and
intuitive, that is, unintended, non-instrumental state-
ments that come unbidden and effortlessly. On the other
hand, strategic self-talk refers to cues or statements that
are used based on a pre-determined plan serving specific
performance purposes. Strategic self-talk involves the use
of cue words aimed at enhancing performance through
the activation of appropriate responses. The principle
underlying the use of cues is that athletes provide to
themselves instructions for action, and subsequently
execute the appropriate action by simply following the
self-instruction (instructional self-talk), or reinforce
themselves to achieve a desired outcome (motivational
self-talk) [7].
Given the focus of sport on performance and
subsequently the demand for performance enhancing
strategies, the direct applied value of strategic self-talk
becomes apparent. Accordingly, self-talk research in sport
has predominantly focused on the investigation of strate-
gic self-talk through self-talk interventions as a means to
investigate the effectiveness of self-talk for improving
performance. Overall, the results have provided robust
support for the effectiveness of self-talk strategies for
improving performance on fundamental motor drills (e.g.
vertical jump) [8], performance on isolated components of
sport (e.g. tennis volleying) [9], sport performance in
non-competitive context (e.g. cross-country running)
[10], and competitive sport performance (e.g. swimming
at competition) [7]. The effectiveness of self-talk on
performance has been more emphatically supported
through a systematic review [11] and a meta-analysis
[3]. The meta-analysis showed a moderate positive
effect size (d = .48); furthermore, the examination for
possible moderators showed that self-talk was more
effective in fine motor tasks and novel tasks compared
to gross motor tasks and learned tasks, as well as in
interventions including self-talk training compared to
interventions where participants were asked to use
self-talk without prior practice.
Overall, the literature has provided strong support for the
beneficial effects of self-talk on performance; however,
the variety of effects in different settings and populations
has forwarded three matching hypotheses, reflecting
individual characteristics, contextual and situational
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parameters that should be considered for developing
effective self-talk strategies. In particular, it has been
suggested that for self-talk strategies to be more effective
one should consider first, the type of task, with instruc-
tional self-talk considered more effective for fine motor
tasks, and motivational self-talk for gross motor tasks [12];
second, the skill level or learning stage of the athletes,
with instructional self-talk considered more effective at
the early learning stages and for beginners, and motiva-
tional self-talk for mastered performance and experts
[13]; and finally the performance setting, with instruc-
tional self-talk considered more effective for training
sessions, and motivational self-talk for competitive
settings [14]. The identified moderators and the different
matching hypotheses that have been suggested
highlighted the need to comprehend the mechanisms
underlying the effectiveness of self-talk. Understanding
the mechanisms of self-talk is significant because it will
help developing theory, but also improving interventions
to match situational demands and individual needs.
The instrumental use of self-statements to change
behavior has been central to the development of
cognitive behavior modification used in clinical
psychology. Meichenbaum [15] identified the important
role of self-instructional training for treating cognitive
disorders and regarded self-statements as indices of
individuals’ beliefs. According to his framework state-
ments addressed to oneself can influence individuals’
attentional and appraisal processes, thus regulating
behavioral performance. Furthermore, he proposed that
self-instructions can direct individuals’ attention to task-
relevant stimuli, maintain useful information in short-
term memory, and protect individuals from experiencing
disturbing thoughts. Meichenbaum’s approach makes
explicit reference to the attention-related outcomes as
mediators between self-talk and behavior. The
developments in self-talk research in sport led Hardy
and colleagues [1] to suggest a conceptual model
describing four types of mechanisms that may explain
the effects of self-talk on performance, among which
cognitive mechanisms referring to aspects such as
information processing, concentration, attentional con-
trol, and attentional style.
Even though research focusing on self-talk mechanisms is
still sparse, there is reasonable evidence suggesting that
the effects of self-talk on attention are (partly)
responsible for the effectiveness of self-talk strategies.
Preliminary evidence regarding the attentional effects of
self-talk has been offered by athletes following self-talk
interventions, in which they acknowledged that self-talk
strategies helped them to improve their concentration
and to direct their attention efficiently [16–18]. Further
testimonials regarding the beneficial effects of self-talk on
attention have been reported in qualitative studies
[19,20] and in case studies [21]. Finally, studies focusing
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Self-talk and attention to setter Hatzigeorgiadis and Galanis 139
more directly on the attentional effects of self-talk have
provided more substantial evidence. This evidence is
described below and can be categorized in two different,
yet strongly related, types: first, findings supporting that
self-talk can enhance attentional focus and improve
attentional performance, and second, findings supporting
that self-talk can help countering the aversive effects of
distraction and ego depletion.
Attentional focus and attentional performance
Self-talk enhances attentional focus
In considering Nideffer’s [22] model of attention style,
Hardy and colleagues [1] argued that self-talk strategies
can help to improve the focus of attention required to
perform a specific skill. Furthermore, considering the
dynamic nature of sport and the sport environment,
where different attentional styles may be required, Hardy
and colleagues suggested that self-talk can also help
shifting attentional focus. In one of the early self-talk
studies, the effectiveness of a four-step self-talk strategy
on tennis groundstrokes was tested, with each step
reflecting a part of a movement requiring a different
attentional style, ranging from narrow external to broad
internal [23]. Similarly, in a study with sprinters a 100 m
race was split into segments, and a race plan using self-
talk cues to direct attention to appropriate stimuli
depending on the segment of the race was developed
[24]. In both studies the use of self-talk strategies
facilitated performance. The above findings supported
the effectiveness of the self-talk strategy, and at the same
time provided indirect support, based on behavioral
evidence, for the hypothesis that self-talk helped shifting
attention; yet without actually assessing focus of
attention.
In a study considering attentional focus in addition to
performance [25] the effects of a self-talk strategy in
skilled golfers were examined. Three different attention
foci were induced through respective self-talk cues,
reflecting an internal, proximal external and distal
external focus. The results revealed better performance
for the distal external focus self-talk, compared to the
internal and proximal external focus self-talk. In addition,
better performance was revealed for the proximal external
focus compared to the internal focus. Importantly, the
examination of attentional focus through self-reports
showed that participants in the three conditions reported
greater attention to the type of focus induced by the
manipulation, thus supporting that self-talk influenced
the strength of the focus.
Self-talk improves attentional performance
Sturm [26], based on the earlier theorizing by Posner and
Petersen [27] and van Zomeren and Brouwer [28],
proposed a taxonomy of attention dimensions reflecting
different functions of attention. The model describes
three different dimensions of attention and their
Current Opinion in Psychology 2017, 16:138–142
140 Sport psychology
corresponding neuropsychological attention domains:
first, intensity, which includes alertness, sustained atten-
tion, and vigilance, second, selectivity, which includes
selective, focused and divided attention, and third, spatial
attention. Based on Sturm’s taxonomy of attentional
dimensions, a series of six experiments have been
reported [29] examining the effects of self-talk on atten-
tional performance, using the Test Battery for Perception
and Attention Functions of the Vienna Test System [30].
The analysis showed that in all experiments, in 16 out of
17 tests that were performed, the experimental groups
had faster reaction times than the control groups, and a
meta-analytic synthesis of the results showed a large
effect size (d = 0.91).
Overall, the above findings provide valuable support for
the hypothesized effects of self-talk on attention, through
behavioral measures following manipulation of
attentional focus, examination of attentional focus during
task performance, but also through more direct measures
of attentional performance involving the different dimen-
sions of attention. In the following section evidence
regarding the potential of self-talk to counter aversive
situational condition that may harm attentional
performance is presented.
Distraction and ego depletion
Self-talk counters the impact of distraction
Distraction has been described as the occurrence of
competing stimuli that may interfere with task related
stimuli and divert attention from its original focus [31].
Moran [32] differentiated among two different types of
distraction, internal and external. Internal distractions
refer to stimuli evolving from within the self (such as
spontaneous negative or positive thoughts) that are not
related to the task at hand, whereas external distractions
refer to stimuli from the environment (such as noise, and
irrelevant visual stimuli). Distractions may have a detri-
mental effect on performance because attention is mis-
directed and processing efficiency is limited, as distrac-
tions occupy part of the working memory which could be
used for task processing purposes [33]. Self-talk strategies
have been hypothesized to help overcoming the aversive
effects of internal and external distractions.
In one of the first studies attempting to investigate
attentional aspects of self-talk, the effects of motivational
and instructional self-talk on performance, but also on the
occurrence of distracting thoughts (cognitive interfer-
ence) during task performance, were examined in a
precision and a power task [34]. For the precision task,
both self-talk groups improved their performance in
comparison to the baseline measure, with participants
using instructional self-talk improving more. In the power
task, only the motivational self-talk group improved its
performance significantly. However, in both experiments
cognitive interference declined for both self-talk groups.
Current Opinion in Psychology 2017, 16:138–142
Importantly, in both experiments changes in cognitive
interference were negatively related to changes in
performance. These findings suggest that self-talk
reduces internal distractions, however the degree to
which this is reflected in performance may depend on
other factors, such as the match between task require-
ments and type of self-talk. The countering effects of
self-talk on internal distractions have been replicated in
another experiment involving a swimming task [35].
Regarding external distractions, lab and field experiments
have supported that self-talk can help countering their
aversive effects on performance [36]. In a lab
experiment, performance was tested on a computerized
task under neutral and external distraction conditions.
The latter condition was induced through a loud
(approximately 95 dB), intermittent, sound. Following
the baseline neutral assessment, self-talk and control
groups performed under distraction conditions. The
results showed that under conditions of external distrac-
tion the self-talk group outperformed the control group.
This experiment was repeated in the field with basketball
players taking a free-throw test. The results showed that
in the external distraction condition, the self-talk group
had a higher percentage of successful free throws than the
control group. Two potential interpretations were
suggested for this effect. The first interpretation was that
self-talk can help blocking, or diminishing the intensity of
the distracting stimuli; that is, participants not hearing the
sound, or not noticing its intensity. A similar interpreta-
tion has been suggested in a study investigating the
effects of a mental practice program (imagery and relaxa-
tion) on task performance under distracting noise condi-
tions in two badminton tasks [37]. The authors argued
that mental practice may reinforce the relevant stimuli
while decreasing the effect of external auditory stimuli.
The second interpretation was that self-talk helped
enhancing the effectiveness of focused attention required
when executing the tasks; that is, participants managed to
maintain an effective focus despite the noise. Based on
the limited capacity models of attention, it could be
argued that distraction reduces available attentional
resources and constrains the processing of relevant cues
[38]. Thus, it may well be that self-talk can help preserv-
ing, or renewing attentional resources that benefit focused
attention and subsequently performance. The above
findings provide valuable preliminary evidence that
self-talk can effectively counter the effect of distraction
on performance; importantly, the data from this field
experiment enhance our confidence in the ecological
validity of the findings.
Self-talk counters the impact of ego depletion
A final line of research testing the effects of self-talk
under aversive conditions has considered performance
under conditions of reduced self-control [39]. The
purpose of the study was to test the effect of a self-talk
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intervention on selective attention in a state of ego
depletion. After a baseline assessment, participants were
randomly assigned into self-talk and control groups. In
the final assessment participants first completed a task
inducing a state of ego depletion, and then were tested on
two computer-based tasks (visual and audio) assessing
selective attention through the Vienna Test System. The
results showed that that self-talk group had lower reaction
time in both the visual and the audio test, and greater
percentage of correct responses in the visual test. The
authors argued that self-talk in tasks following the
primary task may have prevented further depletion, thus
helping maintaining selective attention. The relevance of
the limited capacity models of attention can be consid-
ered for these effects as well. Depletion reduces available
attentional resources and constrains the processing of
relevant cues. Thus, it may be that self-talk can help
preserving, or renewing attentional resources that benefit
selective attention. Finally, another hypothesis for the
effects of self-talk can be linked to perceptions of
exertion. Depletion of self-control resources is related
to elevated subjective levels of exerted effort on tasks
demanding self-control [40]. In the sport self-talk litera-
ture there is evidence that self-talk can help reducing
perceptions of exertion in endurance tasks [41]. Even
though this evidence involved the effects of self-talk on
physical endurance tasks, the results coincide regarding
the effect on perceived exertion; for physical tasks
motivational self-talk helped reducing perceptions of
physical exertion, whereas for the cognitive task
instructional self-talk may have eased the perceived
complexity of the task, thus reducing mental depletion.
Conclusions
Understanding the self-talk mechanisms is important
because it will help constructing a comprehensive theory
explaining the effectiveness of self-talk strategies and
developing effective interventions. Overall, the findings
suggest that the facilitating effects of self-talk on
performance may be, at least partly, attributed to the
attentional effects of self-talk. Self-talk can help
improving attentional focus, but also help maintaining
attentional focus under attention thwarting conditions,
such as distractions and fatigue. Future research can
further explore attentional effects of self-talk through
neuropsychological assessments; such evidence will
greatly enhance our understanding of the effects of
self-talk on attention. Moreover, the role of attentional
effects should be identified through designs allowing the
examination of mediating role of attention in the
relationship between self-talk and performance.
Conflict of interest
Nothing declared.
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Self-talk and attention to setter Hatzigeorgiadis and Galanis 141
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