SOLAR LIGHTING SYSTEM

WITH AUTO TRACKING

1
CONTENTS

2
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE

SYNOPSIS
LIST OF FIGURES
NOMENCLATURE
1 Introduction
2 Literature review
3 Description of equipments
3.1 Battery
3.2 Spurgear
3.3 Motor
3.4 Controlunit
3.5 Solarcell
4 Design and drawing
5 Working principle
6 Merits and demerits
7 Applications
8 List of materials
9 Cost Estimation
10 Conclusion
Bibliography
Photography

3
LIST OF FIGURES

4
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure
Number Title

1 Overall Diagram

5
NOMENCLATURE

6
 NOMENCLATURE

 A =Area of model(m2 )

 F =Force exerted on the work picec(N)

 H=Height (m)

 L=Length(m)

 P=Pressure (N/m2)

 V=Volume (m3)

7
SYNOPSIS

8
 SYNOPSIS

Solar energy means all the energy that reaches the earth from the sun. It
provides daylight makes the earth hot and is the source of energy for plants to
grow. Solar energy is also put to two types of use to help our lives directly solar
heating and solar electricity.

Solar electricity is the technology of converting sunlight directly in to

electricity. It is based on photo-voltaic or solar modules, which are very
reliable and do not require any fuel or servicing. Solar electric systems are
suitable for plenty of sun and are ideal when there is no main electricity.

Our objective is to design and develop a solar electric system normally

“SOLAR LIGHTING SYSTEM WITH AUTO TRACKING”.

For this project the conversion of the solar energy is done by the solar
panel and the solar panel is auto tracking according to the movement of sun.
The control mechanism carries the inverter, battery charger Indicator and LDR
Auto tracking Mechanism.

9
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

10
 CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION

MAN AND ENERGY:

Man has needed and used energy at an increasing rate for its sustenance and
well being ever since he came on the earth a few million years ago. Primitive man
required energy primarily in the form of food. He derived this by eating plants or
animals, which he hunted.
Subsequently he discovered fire and his energy needs increased as he started to
make use of wood and other bio mass to supply the energy needs for cooking as well
as agriculture. He added a mew dimension to the use of energy by domesticating and
training animals to work for him. With further demand for energy, man began to use
the wind for sailing ships and for driving windmills, and the force of failing water to
turn water wheels. Till this time, it would not be wrong to say that the sun was
supplying all the energy needs of man either directly or indirectly and that man was
using only renewable sources of energy.

11
 CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE SURVAY

12
 CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE SURVEY

A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a wide area electronic device that

converts solar energy into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaics is
the field of technology and research related to the application of solar cells as
solar energy. Sometimes the term solar cell is reserved for devices intended
specifically to capture energy from sunlight, while the term photovoltaic cell is
used when the source is unspecified. Assemblies of cells are used to make solar
modules, or photovoltaic arrays.

First generation cells consist of large-area, high quality and single

junction devices. First Generation technologies involve high energy and labour
inputs which prevent any significant progress in reducing production costs.
Single junction silicon devices are approaching the theoretical limiting
efficiency of 33% and achieve cost parity with fossil fuel energy generation
after a payback period of 5-7 years.

SECOND GENERATION

THIN-FILM CELL
Second generation materials have been developed to address energy
requirements and production costs of solar cells. Alternative manufacturing
techniques such as vapour deposition and electroplating are advantageous as
they reduce high temperature processing significantly. It is commonly accepted
that as manufacturing techniques evolve production costs will be dominated by
constituent material requirements, whether this be a silicon substrate, or glass
cover. Such processes can bring costs down to a little under but because of the

13
defects inherent in the lower quality processing methods, have much reduced
efficiencies compared to First Generation.

The most successful second generation materials have been cadmium

telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium solenoid, amorphous silicon and
micromorphous silicon. These materials are applied in a thin film to a
supporting substrate such as glass or ceramics reducing material mass and
therefore costs. These technologies do hold promise of higher conversion
efficiencies, particularly CIGS-CIS, DSC and CdTe offers significantly cheaper
production costs.In CdTe production represented 4.7% of total market share,
thin-film silicon 5.2% and CIGS 0.5%.

THIRD GENERATION

THIRD GENERATION SOLAR CELL

Third generation technologies aim to enhance poor electrical performance

of second generation (thin-film technologies) while maintaining very low
production costs.Current research is targeting conversion efficiencies of 30-60%
while retaining low cost materials and manufacturing techniques.They can
exceed the theoretical solar conversion efficiency limit for a single energy
threshold material, that was calculated in 1961 by Shockley and Queisser as
31% under 1 sun illumination and 40.8% under maximal concentration of
sunlight (46,200 suns, which makes the latter limit more difficult to approach
than the former) .

Despite the numerous attempts at making better solar cells by using new and

exotic materials, the reality is that the photovoltaics market is still dominated by

silicon wafer-based solar cells (first-generation solar cells). This means that

14
most solar cell manufacturers are equipped to produce these type of solar cells.

Therefore, a large body of research is currently being done all over the world to

create silicon wafer-based solar cells that can achieve higher conversion

efficiency without an exorbitant increase in production cost.

So,

1. Availability of silicon wafer-based solar cells and

2. Low cost of silicon based solar cells or the factors considered in choosing the

solar cell.

SOLAR POWER:

Solar energy is the light and radiant heat from the Sun that influences

Earth's climate and weather and sustains life. Solar power is sometimes used as

a synonym for solar energy or more specifically to refer to electricity generated

from solar radiation. Since ancient times solar energy has been harnessed for

human use through a range of technologies. Solar radiation along with

secondary solar resources such as wind and wave power, hydroelectricity and

biomass account for most of the available flow of renewable energy on

Earth.Solar energy technologies can provide electrical generation by heat engine

or photovoltaic means, space heating and cooling in active and passive solar

buildings; potable water via distillation and disinfection, daylighting, hot water,

thermal energy for cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial

purposes.

15
 The purpose of gear mechanism is to transmit torque & rotation between

two shafts. Spur gear is cylindrical in form and has teeth, which are of involutes

form in most cases. There are several kinds of stresses present in loaded and

rotating gear teeth. Each gear tooth may be considering as a cantilever beam,

when it transmits the load, it subjected to bending.

The bending stress is highest at the fillet and can caused breakage or

fatigue failure of tooth in root region. Calculation of the tooth load is done by

Lewis equation and dynamic tooth load by Buckingham equation. The four

major failure modes in gear systems are tooth bending fatigue, contact fatigue,

surface wear and scoring.

First Gear Profile is designed taking the standard module. Other

parameters are find out with respect to that module. Then Failure Load is found

out with respect to static and dynamic condition. A 3D model of the designed is

made on PTC Creo2.0 and further analysis of the gear is done in solid works for

induced Von misses stresses.

16
 CHAPTER-3

DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT

17
 CHAPTER-3

DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT

BATTERY:

Battery is use for storing the energy produced from the solar power. The

battery used is a lead-acid type and has a capacity of 12v; 2.5A.the most

inexpensive secondary cell is the lead acid cell and is widely used for

commercial purposes. A lead acid cell when ready for use contains two plates

immersed in a dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4) of specific gravity about 1.28.the

positive plate (anode) is of Lead –peroxide (PbO2) which has chocolate brown

colour and the negative plate (cathode) is lead (Pb) which is of grey colour.

When the cell supplies current to a load (discharging), the chemical

action that takes place forms lead sulphate (PbSO4) on both the plates with

water being formed in the electrolyte. After a certain amount of energy has

been withdrawn from the cell,both plates are Transformed into the same

material and the specific gravity of the electrolyte (H2so4) is lowerd.the cell is

then said to be discharged.there are several methods to ascertain whether the

cell is discharged or not.

To charge the cell, direct current is passed through the cell in the reverse

direction to that in which the cell provided current. This reverses the chemical

18
process and again forms a lead peroxide (PbO2) positive plate and a pure lead

(Pb) negative plate. At the same time,(H2so4) is formed at the expense of

water,restoring the electrolyte (H2so4 ) to its original condition. The chemical

changes that Occur during discharging and recharging of a lead-acid cell

6 Volt Lead–acid batteries 2

Lead–acid batteries, invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté, are the
oldest type of rechargeable battery. Despite having a very low energy-to-weight
ratio and a low energy-to-volume ratio, their ability to supply high currents
means that the cells maintain a relatively large power-to-weight ratio. These
features, along with their low cost, make them attractive for use in motor
vehicles to provide the high current required by automobile starter motors.

Lead–acid batteries (under 5 kg) account for 1.5% of all portable secondary
battery sales in Japan by number of units sold (25% by price). Sealed lead–acid
batteries accounted for 10% by weight of all portable battery sales in the EU in
2000

19
Electricity generation

In electricity generation, an electric generator is a device that

converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. A generator forces electric
charge (usually carried by electrons) to flow through an external electrical.
The source of mechanical energy may be a reciprocating or turbine steam
engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal combustion
engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank, compressed, or any other source of
mechanical energy. Generators supply almost all of the power for the electric
power grids which provide most of the world's electric power.

The reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by

an electric motor, and motors and generators have many similarities. Many
motors can be mechanically driven to generate electricity and frequently make
acceptable generators.

POT (POTENTIOMETER)
A potentiometer is a three-terminal resister with a sliding contact that
forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used (one side
and the wiper), it acts as a varible resistor or Rheostat. Potentiometer are

20
commonly used to control electrical devices such as a volume control of a ratio.
Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be used as position tranducers, for
example in a joystick.
Potentiometer are rarely used to directly control significant power (more
than a watt). Instead they are used to adjust the level of analog signals (e.g
volume control on audio equipment), and as control inputs for electronic
circuits. For examble a light dimmer uses a potentiometer to control the
switching of a TRIAC and so indirectly control the brightness of lamps.
Potentiometers are sometimes provided with one or more switches
mounted on the same shaft. For instance , when attached to a volume control,
the knob can also function as an on/off switch at the lowest volume.
APPLICATION OF POTENTIOMETERS
Potentiometers are widely used as user controls, and may control a very
wide variety of equipment functions. The widespread use of potentiometers in
consumer electronics has declined in the 1990s, with digital contols now more
common. However they remain in many applications, such as volume controls
and as position sensors.
AUDIO CONTROL
One of the most common uses for modern low-power potentiometers is as
audio control devices. Both linear pots (also known as “faders”) and rotary
potentiometers (commonly called knobs)are regularly used to adjust loudness,
frequency attenuation and other characteristics of audio singals.

The ‘log pot’ is used as the volume control in audio amplifiers, where it is
also called an “audio taper pot”, because the amplitude response of the human
ear is also logarithmic. It ensures that, on a volume control marked 0 to 10, for
example , a setting of 5 sounds half as loud as a setting of 10. There is also an
anti-log pot or reverse audio taper which is simply the reverse of a log pot. It is
almost always used in a ganged configuration with a log pot, for instance , in an

21
audio balance control. Potentiometers used in combination with filter networks
act as tone controls or equalizers.
TELEVISION
Potentiometers were formly used to control picture brightness,contrast,
and colour response. A potentiometer was often tremendous impact, the acute
education need created by them and provides a glimpse of the major application
area.

IC 555 TIMERS
The IC SE / NE 555 monolithic circuit is a highly stable controller capable
of producing accurate time delays or oscillations. Additional terminals are
provided for triggering or resetting if desired. In the timing operations, the time
is precisely controlled by one external resistor and a capacitor, by the operation
as an oscillator, the free running frequency and the duty cycle are both
accurately contributed with the external RC constants.
MICRO CONTROLLER
A microconroller is a complete microprocessor system built on a single
IC. Microcontoller were developed to meet a need for microprocessors to be
put into low cost products. Building a complete microprocessor system on a
single chip substaintially reduce the cost of building simple products, which use
the microprocessors power to implement their function,because tye
microprocessor is a natural way to implement many products. This means the
idea of using a microprocessor for low cost products comes up often. But the
typical 8 bit microprocessor based system, such as one using a Z80 and 8085 is
expensive. Both 8085 and Z80 system need some additional circuits to make a
microprocessing system. Each part there is cost of money. Even though a
product design may requires only very simple system, the parts needed to make
the system as a low cost product.

22
 To solve this problem microprocessor system is implemented with a
single chip microcontroller. This could be called microcomputer,as all the
major parts are in the IC.Most frequently they are called microcomputer
because they are used to perform control functions.
The microcontroller contains full implementaion of a standard
MICROPROCESSOR , ROM, RAM, I/O ,CLOCK,TIMERS and also SERIAL
PORTS. Microcontroller also called “system” on a chip “or single chip
microprocessor system"”or computer on a chip.
A microcontroller is a Computer-On-A-Chip, or ,if you prefer a single chip
computer. Micro suggests that the device is small, and controller tells you that
the devics might be used to conrol objects processor or events. Another term to
describe a microconroller and its support circuits are often built into, or
embedded in the devices they control.
Today microcontroller are very commonly used in wide variety of
intelligent products. For example most personal computers keyboard and
implemented with a microconroller. It replaces scanning, debounce, matrix
decoding and serial transmission circuits. Many low cost products, such as toys,
electtic drills, microwave ovens, VCR and a host of other consumer and
industrial products are based on microcontrollers.

MOTOR:
D.C.MOTOR PRINCIPLE:
A machine that converts direct current power into mechanical power is
known as D.C Motor. Its generation is based on the principle that when a
current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor
experiences a mechanical force. The direction iof this force is given by
Fleming’s left hand rule.

WORKING OF A DC MOTOR:

23
Consider a part of a multipolar dc motor as shown in fig. when the terminals of
the motor are connected to an external source of dc supply;
(i) The field magnets are excited developing alternate N and S poles.
(ii) The armature conductors carry currents. All conductors under N-pole
carry currents in one direction while all the conductors under S-pole
carry currents in the opposite direction.
Suppose the conductors under N-pole carry currents into the plane of paper
and those under S-pole carry current out of the plane of paper as shown in fig.
Since each armature conductor is carrying current and is placed in the magnetic
field, mechanical force acts on it. Applying Fleming’s left hand rule, it is clear
that force on each conductor is tending to rotate the armature in anticlockwise
direction. All these forces add together to produce a driving torque which sets
the armature rotating. When the conductor moves from one side of the brush to
the other, current in the conductor is received and at the same time it comes
under the influence of next pole which is of opposite polarity. Consequently the
direction of force on the conductor remains same.

24
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION:
In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A
current-carrying conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed

25
in an external magnetic field, it will experience a force proportional to the
current in the conductor, and to the strength of the external magnetic field. As
you are well aware of from playing with magnets as a kid, opposite (North and
South) polarities attract, while like polarities (North and North, South and
South) repel. The internal configuration of a DC motor is designed to harness
the magnetic interaction between a current-carrying conductor and an external
magnetic field to generate rotational motion.
Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here red represents a
magnet or winding with a "North" polarization, while green represents a magnet
or winding with a "South" polarization).

Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (armature), stator,
commutator, field magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC motors, the
external magnetic field is produced by high-strength permanent magnets. The
stator is the stationary part of the motor -- this includes the motor casing, as well
as two or more permanent magnet pole pieces. The rotor (together with the axle
and attached commutator) rotate with respect to the stator. The rotor consists of
windings (generally on a core), the windings being electrically connected to the
commutator. The above diagram shows a common motor layout -- with the
rotor inside the stator (field) magnets.

26
 The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings
are such that when power is applied, the polarities of the energized winding and
the stator magnet(s) are misaligned, and the rotor will rotate until it is almost
aligned with the stator's field magnets. As the rotor reaches alignment, the
brushes move to the next commutator contacts, and energize the next winding.
Given our example two-pole motor, the rotation reverses the direction of current
through the rotor winding, leading to a "flip" of the rotor's magnetic field,
driving it to continue rotating.
In real life, though, DC motors will always have more than two poles
(three is a very common number). In particular, this avoids "dead spots" in the
commutator. You can imagine how with our example two-pole motor, if the
rotor is exactly at the middle of its rotation (perfectly aligned with the field
magnets), it will get "stuck" there. Meanwhile, with a two-pole motor, there is a
moment where the commutator shorts out the power supply. This would be bad
for the power supply, waste energy, and damage motor components as well. Yet
another disadvantage of such a simple motor is that it would exhibit a high
amount of torque "ripple" (the amount of torque it could produce is cyclic with
the position of the rotor).

27
So since most small DC motors are of a three-pole design,

A few things from this -- namely, one pole is fully energized at a

time (but two others are "partially" energized). As each brush transitions from
one commutator contact to the next, one coil's field will rapidly collapse, as the
next coil's field will rapidly charge up (this occurs within a few microsecond).
We'll see more about the effects of this later, but in the meantime you can see
that this is a direct result of the coil windings' series wiring:

28
 There's probably no better way to see how an average DC motor is put
together, than by just opening one up. Unfortunately this is tedious work, as
well as requiring the destruction of a perfectly good motor.
The guts of a disassembled Mabuchi FF-030-PN motor (the same model
that Solarbotics sells) are available for (on 10 lines / cm graph paper). This is a
basic 3-pole DC motor, with 2 brushes and three commutator contacts.
The use of an iron core armature (as in the Mabuchi, above) is quite
common, and has a number of advantages. First off, the iron core provides a
strong, rigid support for the windings -- a particularly important consideration
for high-torque motors.
The core also conducts heat away from the rotor windings, allowing the
motor to be driven harder than might otherwise be the case. Iron core
construction is also relatively inexpensive compared with other construction
types.

29
 But iron core construction also has several disadvantages. The iron
armature has a relatively high inertia which limits motor acceleration. This
construction also results in high winding inductances which limit brush and
commutator life.
In small motors, an alternative design is often used which features a
'coreless' armature winding. This design depends upon the coil wire itself for
structural integrity. As a result, the armature is hollow, and the permanent
magnet can be mounted inside the rotor coil. Coreless DC motors have much
lower armature inductance than iron-core motors of comparable size, extending
brush and commutator life.

The coreless design also allows manufacturers to build smaller motors;

meanwhile, due to the lack of iron in their rotors, coreless motors are somewhat
prone to overheating. As a result, this design is generally used just in small,
low-power motors. Beamers will most often see coreless DC motors in the form
of pager motors.
Again, disassembling a coreless motor can be instructive -- in this case, my
hapless victim was a cheap pager vibrator motor. The guts of this disassembled
motor are available (on 10 lines / cm graph paper). This is (or more accurately,
was) a 3-pole coreless DC motor.

30
LIMITAION OF THE DC MOTOR:
We never aim at achieving maximum power due to the following reasons:
The armature current under this condition is very large – much excess of
rated current of the machine.
Half of the input power is wasted in the armature circuit. in fact ,if we take
into account other losses (iron and mechanical),the efficiency will be well
below 50%

SPUR GEAR

The purpose of gear mechanism is to transmit torque & rotation between

two shafts. Spur gear is cylindrical in form and has teeth, which are of involutes

form in most cases. There are several kinds of stresses present in loaded and

rotating gear teeth. Each gear tooth may be considering as a cantilever beam,

when it transmits the load, it subjected to bending.

31
 The bending stress is highest at the fillet and can caused breakage or

fatigue failure of tooth in root region. Calculation of the tooth load is done by

Lewis equation and dynamic tooth load by Buckingham equation. The four

major failure modes in gear systems are tooth bending fatigue, contact fatigue,

surface wear and scoring.

First Gear Profile is designed taking the standard module. Other

parameters are find out with respect to that module. Then Failure Load is found

out with respect to static and dynamic condition. A 3D model of the designed is

made on PTC Creo2.0 and further analysis of the gear is done in solid works for

induced Von misses stresses.

SPUR GEAR NOMENCLATURE

32
INTERFERENCE IN GEARS

BASIC TERMS OF SPUR GEAR

1) MODULE: Module of a gear is defined as ratio of diameter to number of

teeth. m= d/N

2) FACE WIDTH: The width along the contact surface between the gears is

called the face width.

3) TOOTH THICKNESS: The thickness of the tooth along the pitch circle is

called the tooth thickness.

4) ADDENDUM : The radial distance between the pitch circle and the top land

of the gear is called the addendum.3

5) DEDENDUM: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the

bottomland of the gear is called the addendum.

6) PRESSURE ANGLE: The angle between the line joining the centres of the

two gears and the common tangent to the base circles.

33
SOLAR CELL:

A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a wide area electronic device that

converts solar energy into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaics is
the field of technology and research related to the application of solar cells as
solar energy. Sometimes the term solar cell is reserved for devices intended
specifically to capture energy from sunlight, while the term photovoltaic cell is
used when the source is unspecified. Assemblies of cells are used to make solar
modules, or photovoltaic arrays.

APPLICATION OF SOLAR CELL:

 Cells are used for powering small devices such as electronic calculators.
 Photovoltaic arrays generate a form of renewable electricity, particularly
useful in situations where electrical power from the grid is unavailable
such as in remote area power systems,
 Earth-orbiting satellites and space probes, remote radiotelephones and
water pumping applications.
 Photovoltaic electricity is also increasingly deployed in grid-tied
electrical systems. Similar devices intended to capture energy from other
sources include thermophotovoltaic cells, betavoltaics cells, and
optoelectric nuclear batteries.

THREE GENERATIONS OF SOLAR CELLS:

Solar Cells are classified into three generations which indicates the order
of which each became prominent. At present there is concurrent research into
all three generations while the first generation technologies are most highly

34
represented in commercial production, accounting for 89.6% of 2007
production

FIRST GENERATION:

CRYSTALLINE SILICON AND VACUUM DEPOSITION

First generation cells consist of large-area, high quality and single

junction devices. First Generation technologies involve high energy and labour
inputs which prevent any significant progress in reducing production costs.
Single junction silicon devices are approaching the theoretical limiting
efficiency of 33% and achieve cost parity with fossil fuel energy generation
after a payback period of 5-7 years.

SECOND GENERATION

THIN-FILM CELL
Second generation materials have been developed to address energy
requirements and production costs of solar cells. Alternative manufacturing
techniques such as vapour deposition and electroplating are advantageous as
they reduce high temperature processing significantly. It is commonly accepted
that as manufacturing techniques evolve production costs will be dominated by
constituent material requirements, whether this be a silicon substrate, or glass
cover. Such processes can bring costs down to a little under but because of the
defects inherent in the lower quality processing methods, have much reduced
efficiencies compared to First Generation.

The most successful second generation materials have been cadmium

telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium solenoid, amorphous silicon and
micromorphous silicon. These materials are applied in a thin film to a
supporting substrate such as glass or ceramics reducing material mass and

35
therefore costs. These technologies do hold promise of higher conversion
efficiencies, particularly CIGS-CIS, DSC and CdTe offers significantly cheaper
production costs.In CdTe production represented 4.7% of total market share,
thin-film silicon 5.2% and CIGS 0.5%.

THIRD GENERATION

THIRD GENERATION SOLAR CELL

Third generation technologies aim to enhance poor electrical performance

of second generation (thin-film technologies) while maintaining very low
production costs.Current research is targeting conversion efficiencies of 30-60%
while retaining low cost materials and manufacturing techniques.They can
exceed the theoretical solar conversion efficiency limit for a single energy
threshold material, that was calculated in 1961 by Shockley and Queisser as
31% under 1 sun illumination and 40.8% under maximal concentration of
sunlight (46,200 suns, which makes the latter limit more difficult to approach
than the former) .

THERE ARE A FEW APPROACHES TO ACHIEVING THESE HIGH

EFFICIENCIES:

 Multijunction photovoltaic cell (multiple energy threshold devices).

 Modifying incident spectrum (concentration).

 Use of excess thermal generation (caused by UV light) to enhance

voltages or carrier collection.

 Use of infrared spectrum to produce electricity at night.

36
SELECTION OF SOLAR CELL:

Despite the numerous attempts at making better solar cells by using new

and exotic materials, the reality is that the photovoltaics market is still

dominated by silicon wafer-based solar cells (first-generation solar cells). This

means that most solar cell manufacturers are equipped to produce these type of

solar cells. Therefore, a large body of research is currently being done all over

the world to create silicon wafer-based solar cells that can achieve higher

conversion efficiency without an exorbitant increase in production cost.

So,

1. Availability of silicon wafer-based solar cells and

2. Low cost of silicon based solar cells or the factors considered in choosing the

solar cell.

SOLAR POWER:

Solar energy is the light and radiant heat from the Sun that influences

Earth's climate and weather and sustains life. Solar power is sometimes used as

a synonym for solar energy or more specifically to refer to electricity generated

from solar radiation. Since ancient times solar energy has been harnessed for

human use through a range of technologies. Solar radiation along with

secondary solar resources such as wind and wave power, hydroelectricity and

biomass account for most of the available flow of renewable energy on

Earth.Solar energy technologies can provide electrical generation by heat engine

37
or photovoltaic means, space heating and cooling in active and passive solar

buildings; potable water via distillation and disinfection, daylighting, hot water,

thermal energy for cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial

purposes.

THE ADVANTAGES OF SOLAR POWER:

1. Cost of generation of power is very less

2. It does not emit any harmful gases

3. The source of power is free and available in plenty

4. The is no power interruptions

PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY:

Production of current using solar panel:

1. Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semi
conducting materials, such as silicon.

2. Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms,

allowing them to flow through the material to produce electricity. Due to
the special composition of solar cells, the electrons are only allowed to
move in a single direction. The complementary positive charges that are
also created (like bubbles) are called holes and flow in the direction
opposite of the electrons in a silicon solar panel.

38
 3. An array of solar panels converts solar energy into a usable amount of
direct current (DC) electricity

ULTIMATE AIM

The solar based air cooler machine can be widely used in homes,

commercial establishments, industrial plants, commercial kitchens, laundries,

dry cleaners, greenhouses, spot cooling (loading docks, warehouses, factories,

construction sites, athletic events, workshops, garages, and kennels) and

confinement farming (poultry ranches, dairy) all often employ evaporative

cooling. In highly humid climates, evaporative cooling may have little thermal

comfort benefit beyond the increased ventilation and air movement it provides.

39
 CHAPTER-4

DESIGN AND DRAWING

40
 CHAPTER-4

DESIGN OF EQUIPMENT AND DRAWING

41
42
 CHAPTER -5

WORKING PRINCIPLE

43
Block Diagram:

WORKING PRINCIPLE

The block diagram of solar Power Generation with Auto tracking is

shown in figure, it consist of a solar panel, 12V battery, an inverter and a lamp.
As we studied from the solar panel gives a D.C. output of 12V this D.C. output
is not always constant there is some variation in this D.C. output this cannot be
given to the battery storage it may weaken the life of the battery. So in order to
get constant D.C. output and also to avoid the reverse flow of current to the
panel, the Diode have been used this help us to allow only the current flow from
panel to battery. It acts as a blocking diode and protects the panel. Then this

44
D.C. storage is given to an inverter and this inverter inverts 12V D.C. to input in
to AC output, step upped in to 230V. The 230V AC supply is given to the lamp .

SOLAR PANEL AUTO TRACKING

1. NEED FOR AUTO TRACKING:

To increase the efficiency of the system.

To increase the power production in the solar panel by
adding auto tracking mechanism.

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 CHAPTER -6

MERITS AND DEMERITS

46
 CHAPTER-6

MERITS AND DEMERITS

MERITS
ENERGY SAVINGS:

By the use of tube light we can save about 40% of energy more than that
of discharge lamps and it is possible to get a better illumination at the street and
this energy can be utilized at required hour and due to this there are following
advantages.
By the use of tube light the colour determination will be better.
By the use of this light the hard beams would not be there so that
accident due to this is avoided in the road.
It has comparatively longer life than others.
The energy consumption comparatively lesser than the other.
It can be placed for illumination at any position.
it’s construction is simple and requires less maintenance.
Since it is not a point source, the illumination level will be higher
i.e., the illumination is throughout its length, and the size of the
tube is 1.2m.

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 CHAPTER-7

APPLICATIONS

48
 CHAPTER-7

APPLICATIONS

Solar modules are a good source of electricity because they are reliable
simples to operate and do not require fuel.

The main application for solar electricity is in remote sunny areas that
have no main electricity and the supply of fuel for generator is unreliable or
expensive.

Many appliances in homes and small institutions can be run on solar

electricity. Here is a list of energy:

(1) Solar power calculator.

(2) Street lamp.
(3) Jack pumps that lift water from a depth of 330m.
(4) Soldering iron.
(5) Electric drill, sewing machine, high voltage fly killer, science
laboratory apparatus, slide projector and etc.,

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 CHAPTER-8

LIST OF MATERIALS

50
 CHAPTER-8

LIST OF MATERIALS

FACTORS DETERMINING THE CHOICE OF MATERIALS

The various factors which determine the choice of material are discussed
below.
1. PROPERTIES:

The material selected must posses the necessary properties for the

proposed application. The various requirements to be satisfied Can be

weight, surface finish, rigidity, ability to withstand environmental attack

from chemicals, service life, reliability etc.

The following four types of principle properties of materials decisively

affect their selection

a. Physical

b. Mechanical

c. From manufacturing point of view

d. Chemical

The various physical properties concerned are melting point, thermal

Conductivity, specific heat, coefficient of thermal expansion, specific gravity,

electrical conductivity, magnetic purposes etc.

The various Mechanical properties Concerned are strength in tensile,

Compressive shear, bending, torsional and buckling load, fatigue resistance,

impact resistance, eleastic limit, endurance limit, and modulus of elasticity,

51
hardness, wear resistance and sliding properties. The various properties

concerned from the manufacturing point of view are,

 Cast ability

 Weld ability

 Bribability

 Forge ability

 Merchantability

 Surface properties

 Shrinkage

 Deep drawing etc.

2. MANUFACTURING CASE:

Sometimes the demand for lowest possible manufacturing cost or surface

qualities obtainable by the application of suitable coating substances may

demand the use of special materials.

3. QUALITY REQUIRED:

This generally affects the manufacturing process and ultimately the

material. For example, it would never be desirable to go casting of a less

number of components which can be fabricated much more economically by

welding or hand forging the steel.

4. AVILABILITY OF MATERIAL:

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 Some materials may be scarce or in short supply.it then becomes

obligatory for the designer to use some other material which though may not be

a perfect substitute for the material designed.the delivery of materials and the

delivery date of product should also be kept in mind.

5. SPACE CONSIDERATION:

Sometimes high strength materials have to be selected because the forces

involved are high and space limitations are there.

6. COST:

As in any other problem, in selection of material the cost of material

plays an important part and should not be ignored.

Some times factors like scrap utilization, appearance, and non-

maintenance of the designed part are involved in the selection of proper

materials.

53
 CHAPTER-9

COST ESTIMATION

54
 CHAPTER-9

COST ESTIMATION

1. LABOUR COST:

 Lathe

 Drilling

 Welding,

 Grinding,

 Power hacksaw,

 Gas cutting cost

2. OVERGHEAD CHARGES:

The overhead charges are arrived by”manufacturing cost”

Manufacturing Cost =Material Cost +Labour Cost

=4000+1000

=5000

Overhead Charges =20%of the manufacturing cost

=1000

3.TOTAL COST:

Total cost = Material Cost +Labour Cost +Overhead Charges

=4000+1000+1000

=6000

Total cost for this project =6000

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56
CHAPTER-10

CONCLUSION

57
 CHAPTER-10

CONCLUSION

A solar lamp also known as solar light or solar lantern, is a lighting system composed of
an LED lamp, solar panels, battery, charge controller and there may also be an inverter. The
lamp operates on electricity from batteries, charged through the use of solar photovoltaic
panel.Solar-powered household lighting can replace other light sources like candles
or kerosene lamps. Solar lamps use renewable energy with infinity supply which is cheaper
than standard lamps. In addition, solar lamps reduce health risk as kerosene lamps have a bad
impact on human health. However, solar lamps may have higher initial cost, are weather
dependent.

58
BIBLIOGRAPHY

59
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. "$10 solar-powered lamp to help the poor". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2015-12-16.

2. ^ Jump up to:a b c "How does solar power work?". www.scientificamerican.com.
Retrieved 2015-10-31.
3. Jump up^ "Champions of photovoltaics
technology". www.renewableenergyworld.com. Retrieved 2015-10-31.
4. Jump up^ "How do Photovoltaics Work? - NASA Science". science.nasa.gov.
Retrieved 2015-10-31.
5. Jump up^ "Solar power use - Connect-Green". www.connect-green.com.
Retrieved 2015-10-31.
6. ^ Jump up to:a b "How do solar cells work? - Explain that
Stuff". www.explainthatstuff.com. Retrieved 2015-10-31.
7. Jump up^ "Photovoltaic Systems". Photovoltaic Systems. Retrieved 2015-10-31.

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PHOTOGRAPHY

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