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 2
Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup

CONTENTS

2.1. BACKGROUND TO TRANSIENT

PRESSURE ANALYSIS
2.1.1. Introduction
2.1.2. Development of Pressure Testing
2.1.3. Exploration Well Testing

2.2. RADIAL FLOW THEORY

2.2.1. The Basic Flow Equations
2.2.2. Fluid of Constant Compressibility
2.2.3. Further Development of the
Accumulation Term
2.2.4. Linearisation of the Radial Flow
Equation
2.2.5. Initial and Boundary Conditions
2.2.6. Dimensionless Form of the Diffusivity
Equation
2.2.7. The Line Source Analytical Solution in
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2.2.8. Well-bore Damage and Improvement
Effects
2.2.9. Analytical Solution for the Case of a
Bounded Circular Reservoir
2.2.10. Analytical Solution for a Constant
Pressure Outer Boundary
2.2.11. SPE Field Units
2.2.12. The Depth of Investigation and Radius
of Drainage
2.2.13.The Dynamics of Reservoir Pressure
Response

2.3. PRESSURE DRAWDOWN TESTING

2.3.1. Introduction
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Acting Reservoirs

2.4. THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

2.4.1. Introduction
2.4.2. Multiple-Well Situations
2.4.3. Variable Rate Situations

2.5. PRESSURE BUILD-UP TESTING

2.5.1. Introduction
2.5.2. Pressure Build-Up Test Analysis during
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2.5.3. After Production
2.5.4. Determination of Reservoir Parameters
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

Having worked through this chapter the student will be able to:

• List the objectives of exploration well testing

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• Develop the role of compressibility in the transient pressure response

• Construct dimensionless versions of the linear P.D.E. developed in 3

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• State the logarithmic approximation to the exponential integral solution of the

line source solution

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• Explain the basis of drawdown testing and why it departs from ideal behaviour,
i.e. wellbore storage and skin

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build up testing i.e. The Horner time function

• Construct semi-log plots for basic ideal data sets and solve for basic reservoir
parameters. kh, skin (by hand and not PanSystem!). Distinguish between
the solution methods using natural logs or base 10

2
Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
2.1.1 INTRODUCTION

One of the greatest problems facing the petroleum engineer is that of characterising
the physical nature of the subterranean reservoir from which the crude oil or gas
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numerical simulations of reservoir performance is entirely dependent on the quality
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description stems from the large scale and heterogeneous nature of the reservoir and
the very limited number of points, i.e. wells, at which observations can be made. In
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the well spacing is much larger than that typical of onshore operation. There
are several ways by which it is possible to gain information about the reservoir
characteristics; the most important are:

(a) Seismic and associated geological studies

(b) Information obtained during the well drilling programme; this comprises:
(i) the analysis of cuttings and cores
(ii) the interpretation of various logs

(c) Wireline formation testing

(i) virgin reservoir (exploration and appraisal wells)
(ii) produced reservoir (new development wells)

(d) Transient pressure testing of wells (including production logging)

(e) Analysis of reservoir performance, e.g. through history matching a simulator

A consistent description of the reservoir can only be generated by collating and

assessing all the available information from these different sources and synthesising
a coherent physical model of the system which minimises inconsistencies in the
data. Note that in the reservoir development stage only items (a), (b) and (c) are
applicable and important engineering decisions will be made on the basis of rather
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testing of wells which will be dealt with here.

The pressure behaviour of an oil or gas well is both a readily measurable and a very
useful entity. In the context of pressure testing it is the pressure at the bottom of the
well adjacent to the producing formation, referred to as the bottom-hole pressure
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the dynamic relation between the producing rate, the BHP and the reservoir pressure
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by inference. In fact pressure transient analysis is simply a parameter estimation
technique in which one or more of the parameters of a differential equation are
computed from a measured solution. Parameter estimation is the inverse of
simulation and is a well known procedure in systems engineering. The relation
between producing rate, the BHP and the pressure at the well head, referred to as
the top-hole pressure (THP), is known as the vertical lift characteristic of the well
and is an entirely separate issue which is not treated here.

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 3

Although the topic is referred to as the pressure testing of wells it is important to
appreciate that it is information about the reservoir which is obtained from such
tests. Moreover the information gained is not restricted in scope to the immediate
vicinity of the well-bore as is the case for data from logs. One of the advantages of
transient pressure testing is that it yields average values of permeability taken over
substantial volumes of rock. Since the theory of pressure testing is basically that of
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DVSHFWVRIUDGLDOÁRZZLOODOVREHFRYHUHG

2.1.2 Development of Pressure Testing

The technological progress of transient pressure testing is very much linked to
the development of sub-surface measuring instruments for recording bottom-hole
pressures. Instruments for measuring maximum pressures in wells were developed
and applied in the United States in the 1920’s. However the utility of early
bottom-hole pressure instruments was greatly increased by the development of
continuously recording instruments such as the Amerada gauge; this of course
allowed transient pressure changes to be monitored and laid the foundation for
the modern techniques. In the Amerada and similar systems the whole assembly
comprising the pressure element (Bourdon tube), mechanical recording system
(based on scribing with a needle on a tin chart), clock and thermometer are lowered
down-hole in a bomb for the period of the test. Although the Amerada type gauges
are still used such mechanical systems have inherent limitations with regard to
accuracy and reproducibility. There is nothing more annoying than to run an
expensive pressure test (in terms of lost oil production or rig time) and then
discover, on retrieving the bomb by wireline, that the internal clock had stopped
during the test. However in deep wells, where exceptionally high temperatures
are encountered, the only viable pressure recording instrument may be the
purely mechanical Amerada system and one or two service companies specialise
in calibrating gauges and reading Amerada charts with high precision. The
weak link of electronic systems is the batteries used to power the circuitry
and memory devices.

There is no doubt that the introduction of the bottom-hole recording system was the
spur to the development of modern, transient well testing as a practical and useful
engineering technique. The measurement of wellhead pressure alone requires that
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is simply far too much uncertainty in this process. Some success in the testing of
gas wells has been achieved using wellhead pressure measurement only, since in
single phase conditions it is possible to make a much more reliable prediction of
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to deduce bottomhole pressure, is available. The development of technology which
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to the extremely accurate detection of pressure now routinely available, would
constitute a further major advance in the subject. At least two service companies
are developing bottom-hole venturi meters, which have the advantage of no moving
parts, and may help to facilitate a good in-situ rate measurement especially in single
SKDVHÁRZ$WWKHSUHVHQWWLPHGRZQKROHÁRZPHDVXUHPHQWLVOLPLWHGWRWKHXVHRI
conventional production logging tools based on spinner devices and the accuracy in
multiphase conditions is problematic to say the least.

4
Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
The last two decades have seen a further technological breakthrough with the
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introduced by the Hewlett-Packard company and are based on a quartz crystal
pressure transducer with accurate temperature compensation; the signal can be
transmitted to the surface where it is displayed and recorded on a digital data logging
system. These instruments have been pioneered in the North Sea and, despite
their high cost, have become something of an offshore industry standard. In deep
wells with highly permeable formations it is necessary to accurately measure fairly
small changes in the down-hole pressure at a high pressure level; this demands
instrumentation of correspondingly high sensitivity.

In the early days the usual type of measurement was the determination of the
so-called ‘static’ pressure; this was done by lowering a pressure-measuring device
to the bottom of a well which had been closed-in for a period of time, say 72
KRXUV 7KHVH VWDWLF PHDVXUHPHQWV VXIÀFHG WR LQGLFDWH WKH SUHVVXUH LQ SHUPHDEOH
high-productivity reservoirs. However petroleum engineers soon recognised that
in most formations the static pressure measurements were very much a function
of closed-in time. The lower the permeability, the longer the time required for
the pressure in a well to equalise at the prevailing reservoir pressure. Thus it was
realised very early that the rapidity with which pressure build-up occurred when
D ZHOO ZDV FORVHG LQ ZDV D UHÁHFWLRQ RI WKH SHUPHDELOLW\ RI WKH UHVHUYRLU URFN
around that well. This qualitative observation was an important step in developing
an understanding of well pressure behaviour and led to the other basic type of
measurement called transient pressure testing. In this technique, which is the
basis of modern well testing, the pressure variation with time is recorded after the
RLOÁRZUDWHRIWKHZHOOLVFKDQJHG

A stimulus for developing a quantitative interpretation of pressure data came with the
introduction of the material balance method of calculating the original oil in place
(OOIP) in a reservoir. This procedure requires knowledge of the static reservoir
pressure and, rather than closing in the wells for long periods of time, the question
QDWXUDOO\ DURVH DV WR ZKHWKHU ÁRZLQJ WUDQVLHQW SUHVVXUH PHDVXUHPHQWV FRXOG EH
extrapolated in some way to give a reliable estimate of the pressure that would exist
LQWKHUHVHUYRLULIDOOÁXLGPRWLRQFHDVHG

7KH ÀUVW DWWHPSW WR SUHVHQW DQ H[WUDSRODWLRQ WKHRU\ DQG WR UHODWH WKH FKDQJH LQ
pressure with time to the parameters of the reservoir was presented in 1937 by
Muskat(1). He deduced mathematically a method for extrapolating the measured well
pressure to a true static pressure. At the time Muskat stated that his theory only had
a qualitative application and, in a sense, this was true since the analysis did not take
LQWR DFFRXQW WKH LPSRUWDQW DVSHFW RI ÁXLG FRPSUHVVLELOLW\  +RZHYHU LW VKRXOG EH
pointed out that in 1935 a French hydrologist, Charles Theis(2), had presented the
theory of pressure buildup analysis now associated with the name of Horner in
WKHSHWUROHXPOLWHUDWXUH7KHÀUVWFRPSUHKHQVLYHWUHDWPHQWRISUHVVXUHEHKDYLRXU
in oil wells to include the effects of compressibility was that of Miller, Dyes and
Hutchinson(3) in 1950. The following year Horner(4) presented a somewhat different
treatment. These two papers still furnish the fundamental basis for the modern
theory and analysis of oil well pressure behaviour. Subsequent works have brought
DPXOWLWXGHRIUHÀQHPHQWVDQGDGHHSHUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHVXEMHFW7KHSURFHGXUH
for extrapolation to static reservoir pressure was perfected by Matthews, Brons and

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 5

Hazebroek(5) while Ramey(6) has extended the theory of pressure behaviour to cover
gas reservoirs. Recent developments have been concerned with the detection of
faults and fractures within the reservoir and with the investigation of the degree of
continuity between wells. This latter aspect is known as interference testing and the
state-of-the-art in this area has been radically improved by the introduction of the
new, highly sensitive pressure transducers.

The excellent monograph by Matthews and Russell of Shell Oil entitled ‘Pressure
Build-up and Flow Tests in Wells’ and published by the SPE in 1967 gives a thorough
review of the subject as it stood at that time.

2.1.3 Exploration Well Testing

In broad terms the subject of well testing may be divided into two broad categories,
namely, the testing of exploration or appraisal wells and the testing of development
wells. For offshore reservoirs the exploration and appraisal wells are tested from a
semi-submersible rig and the methodology involves down-hole shut-in with some
form of annulus pressure operated testing string as illustrated in Figure 1. The three
principal elements of the test string are:

• the packer which is usually set by weight on the tail pipe

• the testing valve which is operated

Drillstem by Assembly
Testing annulus pressure

• the bottom-hole pressure transducer which records the response

Casing

Tubing

Testing Valve
(operated by
annulus pressure)

Packer
(set by weight on
string)

Pressure
Transducer

Downhole Surface
Memory Recording

Tailpipe
Figure 1
Drillstem Testing Assembly
Figure 2.1.1
A well test conducted with such a system is commonly referred to as a drill stem test
(DST) although this nomenclature is somewhat out of date since in modern practice
the test string is not set on drill pipe but on special tubing. Historically drill stem tests
were carried out in open-hole conditions but again in modern practice the well will

6
Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
have been cased, cemented and perforated before the DST is performed. The important
SRLQWDERXWD'67LVWKDWWKHWHVWLQJYDOYHLVGRZQKROHDQGWKDWLWLVWKHÀUVWWHVWRQ
a new well and hence the pressure will normally already have been determined by a
wireline formation tester (WFT) survey prior to casing. In the exploration - appraisal
well situation the reservoir is unproduced and all layers of the tested interval are
likely to be at the same potential i.e. pressure corrected to datum level. In a typical
WHVWWKHZHOOLVÁRZHGDQGWKHQVKXWLQE\RSHQLQJDQGFORVLQJWKHWHVWLQJYDOYHDQG
WKHGRZQKROHSUHVVXUHUHVSRQVHUHFRUGHGE\WKHWUDQVGXFHU7KHÁRZUDWHLVQRUPDOO\
PHDVXUHGDWWKHVXUIDFHZKHUHWKHSURGXFHGÁXLGVDUHSDVVHGWKURXJKDVHSDUDWRUDQG
WKHÁRZUDWHVRIRLOZDWHUDQGJDVDUHLQGLYLGXDOO\UHJLVWHUHG9HU\UHFHQWO\VHUYLFH
FRPSDQLHVKDYHLQWURGXFHGDGRZQKROHYHQWXULÁRZPHWHUZKLFKFRPSOHPHQWVWKH
GRZQKROHSUHVVXUHPHDVXUHPHQWZLWKGRZQKROHÁRZPHDVXUHPHQW

7KHÀUVWTXDUW]SUHVVXUHWUDQVGXFHULQWURGXFHGE\+HZOHWW3DFNDUGZDVDVXUIDFH
read-out device and this was welcomed because the pressure data could be analysed
in real time as the test proceeded. However in most DSTs currently being carried
out the pressure data is recorded downhole using electronic memory devices
which are retrieved at the end of the test; this is cheaper and intrinsically
more safe than the surface read-out option which requires a cable connection
to bypass the testing valve.

7KH ZHOO ÁRZUDWH LV FRQWUROOHG E\ D VXUIDFH FKRNH ZKLFK KDV WKH REMHFWLYH RI
keeping the rate essentially constant and within the capacity of the surface separator.
One of the major problems associated with well test interpretation is the fact that the
rate measurement has very poor accuracy compared to the pressure measurement.
The determination of reservoir parameters depends on both quantities being
accurately measured. As the testing string is introduced into the well the mud or
FRPSOHWLRQ ÁXLG LV GLVSODFHG DQG RQ VHWWLQJ WKH SDFNHU WKH SUHVVXUH LQ WKH VHDOHG
volume beneath attains reservoir pressure. When the valve is opened the pressure
immediately changes to the pressure in the tubing above. In order to limit the
pressure differential on the formation a cushion or liquid column is placed in the
tubing as it is being run in. This cushion may be diesel oil or a heavy aqueous
VROXWLRQ,QVRPHFDVHVWKHZKROHWXELQJPD\EHÀOOHGZLWKOLTXLGZKLFKPHDQVWKDW
WKHZHOOUDWHLVXQGHUFKRNHFRQWUROIURPWKHVWDUWRIWKHÀUVWÁRZSHULRG:KHQD
SDUWLDOFXVKLRQLVXVHGWKLVLVGLVSODFHGE\WKHIRUPDWLRQÁXLGDVWKHZHOOVWDUWVWR
ÁRZRQFHWKHWHVWLQJYDOYHLVRSHQHG+HQFHWKHUHLVDSHULRGRIULVLQJOLTXLGOHYHO
until liquid reaches the surface. During this period the rate of gas issuing from the
well used to be assessed by placing a hose in a bucket of water and observing the
´VWUHQJWKRIWKHEORZµ+RZHYHUPRGHUQVDIHW\UHJXODWLRQVXVXDOO\SURKLELWVXFK
DGKRFSURFHGXUHV,QVRPHWHVWVWKHUHVHUYRLUSUHVVXUHLVQRWVXIÀFLHQWIRUÁXLGV
WRUHDFKWKHVXUIDFHDQGWKH'67GDWDLVFRQÀQHGWRDSHULRGRIULVLQJOLTXLGOHYHO
followed by a shut-in; this is known as a slug test and special methods, which account
for the rapidly decreasing rate as the back pressure due to the rising liquid column
increases, are required for interpretation. In shallow reservoirs with competent
formations the well may be tested dry i.e. with no cushion. Some operators require
WKDW WKH GXUDWLRQ RI WKH LQLWLDO VKRUW ÁRZ SHULRG EH VXFK WKDW VD\ IRXU WLPHV WKH
WXELQJYROXPHRIUHVHUYRLUÁXLGEHSURGXFHGDWWKHVXUIDFHWKLVLVWRHQVXUHFRPSOHWH
displacement of the cushion from the well. However if a heavy cushion has been
employed even this precaution may not guarantee displacement.

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 7

The objectives of testing exploration or appraisal wells can be summarised as:

 'HWHUPLQHWKHQDWXUHRIWKHIRUPDWLRQÁXLGV

2. Measure well productivity

3. Measure reservoir temperature and pressure

4. Obtain samples for laboratory PVT analysis

5. Obtain information on reservoir description (permeability, heterogeneity )

 (VWLPDWHFRPSOHWLRQHIÀFLHQF\LHVNLQIDFWRU

However it mustDual Flow that

be stressed - Dual Shut-in
all these Test must be subordinate to
objectives
the issue of safety.

Initial
Flow
Initial
Shutin
Prod.
Rate Afterflow
Final Flow
Final
Shutin

Time

Initial Res. Pressure

BHP Drawdown Buildup

Figure 2
'XDOÁRZ'XDO6KXW
Time In Test

$VFKHPDWLFRIDW\SLFDOGULOOVWHPWHVWLVVKRZQLQ)LJXUHLQZKLFKDGXDOÁRZ
SHULRG DQG GXDO VKXWLQ DUH SUHVHQW  7KH SXUSRVH RI WKH LQLWLDO VKRUW ÁRZ SHULRG
Figure 2.1.2
 W\SLFDOO\ RQO\ ÀYH PLQXWHV  LV WR UHOLHYH DQ\ VXSHUFKDUJLQJ H[FHVV SUHVVXUH
GXHWRPXGÀOWUDWHLQYDVLRQLQORZSHUPHDELOLW\IRUPDWLRQVSUHVHQWDQGHVWDEOLVK
FRPPXQLFDWLRQ ZLWK WKH UHVHUYRLU  7KH YHU\ VKRUW ÁRZ SHULRG HQVXUHV WKDW
negligible depletion of the reservoir will occur even if a small compartment is being
LQYHVWLJDWHG7KH ZHOO LV WKHQ VKXWLQ IRU WKH ÀUVW EXLOGXS WR GHWHUPLQH WKH LQLWLDO
reservoir pressure, denoted piDQGWKHGXUDWLRQRIWKLVÀUVWEXLOGXSLVORQJHQRXJK
for the pressure to essentially stabilise so that no, or very little, extrapolation is
UHTXLUHGWRÀ[Si7KHZHOOLVWKHQÁRZHGIRUDORQJSHULRGWKHVHFRQGGUDZGRZQ
DQGVKXWLQIRUWKHVHFRQGRUÀQDOEXLOGXS$VVKRZQLQ)LJXUHWKHUDWHPD\
be brought up in steps; this may be to investigate any sanding tendency of the

8
Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
formation and an acoustic sand monitor can be installed to register the concentration
RIVDQGSDUWLFOHVLQWKHÁRZLQJVWUHDP7KHPDLQREMHFWLYHRIWKHVHFRQGÁRZSHULRG
LVWRDFKLHYHDVXVWDLQHGSHULRGRIFRQVWDQWUDWHSURGXFWLRQSULRUWRWKHÀQDOEXLOGXS
DQGWKHODVWÁRZLQJSUHVVXUHEHIRUHVKXWLQGHQRWHGSwf(tp), must be accurately known
to allow proper interpretation of the ensuing buildup. If the data obtained in the
(second) drawdown period is analysed the initial pressure, pi , is known. The design
of a well test principally revolves round the decision as to how long the major
ÁRZSHULRGVKRXOGODVWDQGWKHTXHVWLRQRIGHSWKRILQYHVWLJDWLRQRIWKHSUHVVXUH
disturbance is usually the main issue from a reservoir engineering point of view.
However in the context of offshore operations, where the expense of rig time is an
important issue, there is an obvious incentive to curtail the duration of the test. The
ÀQDOGHFLVLRQPXVWUHÁHFWDFRPSURPLVHEHWZHHQFRVWDQGWKHYDOXHRIDGGLWLRQDO
information gained from prolonging the test time. The issue of depth of investigation
ZLOOEHWUHDWHGDWOHQJWKODWHULQWKLVFKDSWHU7KHGXUDWLRQRIWKHÀQDOEXLOGXSVKRXOG
be approximately 11/2WLPHVWKDWRIWKHSUHFHGLQJÁRZSHULRG

,QDQH[SORUDWLRQRUDSSUDLVDOZHOOWHVWWKHFKRLFHRIÁRZUDWHLVJRYHUQHGE\VHYHUDO
IDFWRUV)RUDQRLOZHOOLQDSUROLÀFUHVHUYRLUWKHOLPLWLQJFRQVLGHUDWLRQLVRIWHQ
the capacity of the separator which will be rated, say, at 5000 or 10,000 bbl/day. In
D JDV ZHOO WHVW RQ D VHPLVXEPHUVLEOH ULJ WKH FDSDFLW\ RI WKH ÁDUH V\VWHP PD\
well decide the maximum rate. The highest recorded gas well test rate offshore
SUREDEO\RFFXUUHGLQWKHWHVWLQJRID7UROOÀHOGZHOOLQ1RUZHJLDQZDWHUVZKHUH
million SCFD was achieved generating a drawdown of about 2 psi in the extremely
permeable and thick formation. The buildup took place over a period of about two
minutes. In the testing of very high pressure and temperature gas condensate wells
in the central area of the North Sea basin, the limiting rate is controlled by the
wellhead temperature which cannot be allowed to exceed the rating of elastomers
XVHG LQ WKH %23 VWDFN 7KH ZHOO PXVW EH ÁRZHG DW D ORZ HQRXJK UDWH WKDW KHDW
ORVV WR WKH VXUURXQGLQJ URFN DW JHRWKHUPDO WHPSHUDWXUH VXIÀFLHQWO\ UHGXFHV WKH
WHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHÁRZLQJVWUHDPDVLWSURJUHVVHVXSWKHWXELQJ7KHVXUIDFHFKRNH
is, of course, used to limit the well rate to an acceptable value. In tight formations
the rate is controlled by the reservoir deliverability and in extreme cases no transient
test is possible because a constant stable rate cannot be sustained; this is a problem
with prefracture tests in very low permeability reservoirs. An important part of
the design of a well test is to use a production engineering nodal analysis
VRIWZDUH SDFNDJH WR VLPXODWH WKH ÁRZ EHKDYLRXU RI WKH SURSRVHG V\VWHP YL]
tubing, choke and formation based on estimates of the likely permeabilities
which may be encountered; this exercise also requires estimates of the PVT
SURSHUWLHVRIWKHSURGXFHGÁXLG

7KHÀQDOEXLOGXSLVXVXDOO\DQDO\VHGXVLQJWKH+RUQHUSORWLOOXVWUDWHGGLDJUDPPDWLFDOO\
in Figure 3; here the bottomhole shut-in pressure, pws, recorded by the transducer is
plotted against a logarithmic time function i.e.:

t p  $t
ln (1)
$t

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 9

 Transient Well Testing
Buildup Analysis - Horner (Theis) Plot

ETR MTR LTR

Buildup
affected
p*
by
pws Wellbore
Storage Intercept
affected gives
by skin
q sB M boundaries
slope = factor
4P k h S

t p  $t 0
Figure 3
ln
Semilog Analysis $t Transient Well Testing

where tp is the production time and 6t is time measured from the Figmoment
2.1.3 where the
well was shut in. The theory of this interpretation method will be given later.
The slope and intercept of the middle time region of the semilog graph yield,
respectively, the average permeability of the formation, k , and the skin factor, S. The
physical meaning of the skin factor has been discussed at length in Chapter 1 and is
a combination of formation damage and perforation effects as illustrated in Figure 4.

Near Wellbore Altered Zone

altered
zone

Unaltered
Permeability
pw
k
$ ps ks

pw f
rw rs re

wellbore altered zone external

radius radius radius
Figure 4a
$p = Incremental Skin Pressure Drop 1HDU:HOOERUH$OWHUHG=RQH
s

Fig 2.1.4a

10
 Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
Perforated Completion

S = f(Np , l p , rs , k s ,Q ,k)

Np = Number of perforations per foot

l p = Length of penetration
Q = Phase angle

lp

ks
Figure 4b
3HUIRUDWHGFRPSOHWLRQ rw rs

When an exploration or appraisal well is drilled the mud system will not be optimised
with respect to formation damage; for example water based muds are often employed
for the appraisal wells whereas the eventual development wells will be drilled with
oil based mud which minimises alteration in water sensitive formations. In addition
exploration and appraisal wells are often drilled with a substantial overbalance
ZKLFK DJDLQ ZLOO UHVXOW LQ VLJQLÀFDQW PXG ÀOWUDWH ORVV SURPRWLQJ GDPDJH  7KH
most important feature of transient well testing is that the interpretation allows
the independent assessment of formation average permeability, k, and the skin
factor, S. Thus even if the skin effect in the exploration/appraisal well is high
the productivity index of the future development wells can be predicted using
a formula of the form:
2 Pkh
J SSS 
¥ r 3 ´ (2)
BM¦ ln e  Sµ
§ rw 4 ¶
where the permeability is taken from the appraisal well test and the skin factor is
an estimate of what can be achieved with optimised drilling and perforation in the
future development wells. For example, in the case of tubing conveyed perforation
(TCP) in an underbalanced condition, it is possible to obtain a negative skin of the
order of -1.5. The drainage area radius, re , used in this formula is related to the well
spacing but it should be noted that Jsss is quite insensitive to the value of re since it
enters a logarithmic term. The important point is that the dynamics of Figthe2.1.4b
transient
pressure response allows a discrimination between near wellbore effects - the
skin - and the formation permeability. A simple determination of steady-state or
VHPLVWHDG\VWDWHSURGXFWLYLW\LQGH[XVLQJWKHGHÀQLQJHTXDWLRQ

q s  J sss ( p p wf ) (3)

RQO\UHTXLUHVPHDVXUHPHQWRIWKHZHOOÁRZUDWHTsDQGWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJÁRZLQJ
bottomhole pressure, pwf , assuming the reservoir pressure, p , is known. However
the contributions to the resultant Jsss due to permeability and skin cannot be resolved
without transient information i.e. a pressure buildup. The development of
pressure transient testing and, in particular, buildup analysis has been primarily
motivated by this feature of dynamic discrimination between the effects of
intrinsic formation permeability and near wellbore alteration and perforation
on well productivity.

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 11

,QWKHURXWLQHWHVWLQJRIGHYHORSPHQWZHOOVZKLFKKDYHEHHQÁRZLQJIRUDFRQVLGHUDEOH
time the main objectives of the buildup is to determine the current well skin factor
and reservoir pressure; this is referred to as reservoir monitoring. Again the analysis
will usually be carried out on a Horner plot as shown on Figure 5 but using a synthetic
ÁRZLQJWLPHGHQRWHGWVLDDQGWKHVORSHPD\EHIRUFHGWRWKHNQRZQSHUPHDELOLW\
VLQFHWKLVZLOOKDYHEHHQGHWHUPLQHGLQWKHÀUVWWHVWRQWKHZHOOZKHQLWZDVGULOOHG
Forcing the permeability to a known value means that the skin factor is evaluated on
a common basis and it is possible to make a comparison between the original and
present skin factor i.e. monitor any deterioration in well performance due to scale
GHSRVLWLRQÀQHVPLJUDWLRQDVSKDOWHQHSUHFLSLWDWLRQRUDQ\RWKHUVXFKPHFKDQLVP
The adjustment of the extrapolation of the straight line, p*, to the reservoir pressure
LVNQRZQDVWKH0%+FRUUHFWLRQDQGUHTXLUHVNQRZOHGJHRIDQ\QRÁRZERXQGDULHV
present in the vicinity of the well. Again the theory of this approach will be given in
subsequent chapters. The Horner (semilog) buildup plot is the vehicle for such an
interpretation. In the case of development wells the valve used to shut-in the system
for a buildup is located at the wellhead and the possibility of wellbore storage effects,
GXHWRWKHFDSDFLW\RIWKHFRPSUHVVLEOHÁXLGPL[WXUHLQWKHZHOODWWKHPRPHQWLW
is closed, must be expected. The mechanism of wellbore storage and methods of


modelling the phenomenon will be treated in Chapter 3.
Determination of Average Pressure
ETR MTR LT R

p
$pMBH
p*

pws • Assuming drainage area is at SSS at moment

slope of shut-in

qM • Determine slope and intercept of MTR straight line

m=
4 P kh
• Option to force slope to known permeability
- provides rational basis for monitoring S

$pMBH. . . Miller, Brons and Hazebroek

Figure 5
t + $t correction to average pressure
l n sia
$t 'HWHUPLQDWLRQRI$YHUDJH
If a well is located in a closed drainage area, such as a fault block with perfectly Pressure
VHDOLQJERXQGDULHVDQGLWLVÁRZHGDWFRQVWDQWUDWHWKUHHSULQFLSDOÁRZUHJLPHVDUH
encountered in an extended drawdown test; these are illustrated in FigFigure 6 which
VKRZVD&DUWHVLDQSORWRIÁRZLQJERWWRPKROHSUHVVXUHYHUVXVWLPH7KHSHULRGLQ
2.1.5
which the propagating pressure disturbance has not yet encountered any boundaries
LVNQRZQDVWKHLQÀQLWHDFWLQJRUWUDQVLHQWÁRZUHJLPH,WLVWKLVGDWDZKLFK\LHOGVD
straight line on the semilog plot, i.e. the pressure is varying with the log of time, and
it is also referred to as the middle time region (MTR). Once the pressure behaviour
RIWKHZHOOLVLQÁXHQFHGE\ERXQGDULHVWKHODWHWLPHUHJLRQ/75LVHQWHUHGDQGLQD
closed system produced at constant rate a state of semi-steady-state (SSS) depletion
DVGHVFULEHGLQ&KDSWHULVHYHQWXDOO\DWWDLQHG,QWKLVÁRZUHJLPHWKHERWWRPKROH
ÁRZLQJSUHVVXUHSwf , varies linearly with time as shown in Figure 6. A well test in
ZKLFKWKHÁRZLQJSHULRGLVVXIÀFLHQWO\ORQJIRUWKLVÁRZUHJLPHWREHDWWDLQHGLV
termed a reservoir limit test since the size i.e. pore volume of the closed drainage area
may be found from the slope of the Cartesian plot in the SSS regime. The interval of
WUDQVLWLRQEHWZHHQWKHHQGRILQÀQLWHDFWLQJÁRZDQGWKHEHJLQQLQJRIVHPLVWHDG\VWDWH
depletion is known as the late transient period. This transition is very short when the

12
 Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
well is at the centre of an approximately square or circular drainage area but becomes
VLJQLÀFDQWZKHQWKHZHOOLVDV\PPHWULFDOO\ORFDWHGRUWKHUHVHUYRLUFRPSDUWPHQWLV
UHFWDQJXODURUWULDQJXODU:HOOWHVWLQWHUSUHWDWLRQEHFRPHVYHU\GLIÀFXOWZKHQWKH
LQÀQLWHDFWLQJUHJLPHLVPDVNHGVD\E\ZHOOERUHVWRUDJHHIIHFWV7KHVHÁRZUHJLPHV
refer to constant rate drawdown (CRD); when a buildup follows a period of constant
rate production it is referred to as a constant rate buildup (CRB).
Flow Regimes

pi
SEMI-STEADY-STATE
TRANSIENT
TRANSITION FLOW
I.A. FLOW

LATE dp qsB
=-
p wf TRANSIENT dt F c t P re2 h
WELL PRESSURE
STARTS TO BE
AFFECTED BY
BOUNDARIES

MTR LTR

0
TIME
Schematic Plot of Pressure Decline at Producing Well

• Constant Rate Well

• Bounded Reservoir DEPLETION

Figure 6
)ORZ5HJLPHV&DUWHVLDQ pi depletion
3ORW

Fig 2.1.6
drawdown buildup

0
Time, t
ETR MTR LTR
p**
p*
pws
Horner
Plot

t p + $t
ln
$t

Figure 7
'HSOHWLRQ
closed "tank" of
pore volume V

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 13

Figure 2.1.7
2QHRIWKHPDLQREMHFWLYHVRIDGULOOVWHPWHVWLVWKHLGHQWLÀFDWLRQRIDQ\GHSOHWLRQ
DVLOOXVWUDWHGLQ)LJXUH+HUHWKHSUHVVXUHDWWDLQHGLQWKHÀQDOEXLOGXSLVOHVVWKDQ
the initial pressure, piLQGLFDWLQJDFORVHGV\VWHPRIÀQLWHYROXPH7KHGHWHFWLRQRI
GHSOHWLRQGHSHQGVRQWKHFRUUHFWH[WUDSRODWLRQRIWKHEXLOGXSWRWKHÀQDOVWDELOLVHG
pressure. The prescription that the shut-in time, 6tmax , should be 11/2 times the
ÁRZLQJWLPHWp , has the objective of reducing the uncertainty in the extrapolation
SURFHVVVRWKDWLWLVIHDVLEOHWRGHWHFWDQ\VLJQLÀFDQWGHSOHWLRQ

In recent times the objectives of well testing have developed from the straightforward
determination of an average permeability and skin factor, to be used in the expression
IRUSURGXFWLYLW\LQGH[WRVRSKLVWLFDWHGDSSURDFKHVDLPHGDWGHÀQLQJWKHSDUDPHWHUV
of more complex reservoir models. The progression from the basic methodology
to fuller reservoir description has been possible because of the improvements in
pressure gauge resolution allowing the use of derivative techniques and the use
of interactive software packages based on type curve matching and non-linear
regression. For what might be termed category I well test interpretation a simple
PRGHORIDKRPRJHQHRXVUHVHUYRLUFRQWDLQLQJDYHUWLFDOZHOOZLWKVNLQLVVXIÀFLHQW
this canonical model is illustrated in Figure 8. Interpretation using a homogeneous
model implies that an average permeability will be obtained when data from a
heterogeneous system is processed. The form of average e.g. arithmetic or geometric
depends on the nature of the heterogeneity in the system. The integration of core
analysis data with well test interpretation results essentially revolves around the
GHÀQLWLRQRIVXFKDYHUDJHVDQGWKHPRGHUQDSSURDFKWRJHRVWDWLVWLFVLVJLYLQJQHZ
insights into this activity. In a layered system for example the arithmetic average is
the appropriate method of treating core data.

,QZKDWPLJKWEHFODVVLÀHGDVFDWHJRU\,,ZHOOWHVWLQWHUSUHWDWLRQWKHPHWKRGRORJ\
is extended to include the determination of reservoir description parameters related
to:

• heterogeneity
• boundaries
• layering
• anisotropy

and more complex models are required some of which are also illustrated in Figure
8.

14
 Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
Some Well Test Models

M2
re Skin
r1
M1

k1
k
k2

Homogeneous Finite Composite Infinite

Reservoir Reservoir

d d

Well Image d2

No Flow
Q d1
Boundary
Figure 8
6RPH:HOO7HVW0RGHOV Single Linear Fault Multiple Faults

2.2 RADIAL FLOW THEORY

Figure 2.1.8
2.2.1 The Basic Flow Equations
The mathematical foundation of transient pressure analysis is the theory of
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of the well-bore.

(i) The formation is homogeneous and isotropic with respect to both the
porosity and permeability which are also considered to be constants and
thus independent of pressure.

(ii) The producing well is completed across the entire formation thickness thus
 HQVXULQJIXOO\UDGLDOÁRZ

LLL 7KH IRUPDWLRQ LV FRPSOHWHO\ VDWXUDWHG ZLWK D VLQJOH ÁXLG DQG LV XQLIRUPO\
thick.

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 15

 Model Reservoir

Well in the q
Centre of a
Circular
Reservoir
rw

h
re

h Formation Thickness

Radial re Radius of exterior boundary

Flow rw Wellbore Radius
q Oil Flow-Rate

Figure 9
0RGHOUHVHUYRLU
In certain circumstances it is necessary to partly relax these assumptions and allow
IRUWKHHIIHFWVRIVXFKSKHQRPHQDDVQRQXQLIRUPRUWZRSKDVHÁRZRUWKHSRURVLW\
EHLQJ D IXQFWLRQ RI SUHVVXUH  :KHQ WKHVH HIIHFWV DUH VLJQLÀFDQW DOORZDQFH ZLOO
be made by applying appropriate correction factors to the basic theory. The
basic homogeneous, radial system is illustrated in Figure 9 where the following
nomenclature applies:
Fig 2.2.1
h = formation thickness
k = average permeability
r = general radius
re = external radius of drainage area
rw = wellbore radius
p = pressure
T LQVLWXYROXPHWULFÁRZUDWH
t = time
ur VXSHUÀFLDOYHORFLW\
q = porosity
+ = viscosity
l ÁXLGGHQVLW\

7KH HTXDWLRQV RI PRWLRQ JRYHUQLQJ WKH ÁRZ IROORZ IURP WKH SULQFLSOHV RI WKH
FRQVHUYDWLRQRIPDVVDQGPRPHQWXPWKHDVVXPSWLRQLVDOVRPDGHWKDWWKHÁRZ
is isothermal. For the present purpose the momentum equation takes the form of
'·$UF\·VODZDQGWKHHIIHFWRIWXUEXOHQWRUQRQ'·$UF\ÁRZZKLFKLVXVXDOO\RQO\RI
LPSRUWDQFHLQJDVUHVHUYRLUVZLOOEHWDNHQXSODWHU7KXVWKHEDVLFÁRZHTXDWLRQVLQ
UDGLDOFRRUGLQDWHVH[SUHVVLQJWKHV\PPHWU\RIWKHÁRZV\VWHPDUH
1 u( rRu r ) uR
 F
r ur 1 u( rRu ru) t F uR
Continuity equation: (4)
r ur ut
Darcy’s Law: u  k uR (5)
Mu ur k uR
r

r
M ur
16
¥ rRk up ´
Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
D’Arcy’s law is employed as a quasi-steady approximation to the general momentum
equation, i.e. a form in which the momentum accumulation term has been discarded.
This is perfectly valid provided information is not sought concerning pressure
GLVWXUEDQFHVPRYLQJDWWKHYHORFLW\RIVRXQGLQWKHÁXLG$OOSUHVVXUHYDULDWLRQV
predicted1byu( rthe
Ru rmodel
) uRassociated with local pressure gradients due to laminar
are
 F
ÁXLGÁRZ$OWKRXJKWKHÁXLGFRPSUHVVLELOLW\ZLOOEHLQWURGXFHGLQWRWKHPRGHOVRQLF
r ur ut
effects are still neglected.

k uR
,QSUHVVXUHDQDO\VLVWKHÁRZLVDVVXPHGWREHKRUL]RQWDODQGKHQFHWKHSUHVVXUHS
ur 
M ur
DSSHDUVLQ'·$UF\·VODZUDWKHUWKDQWKHÁRZSRWHQWLDOWKXVJUDYLW\IRUFHVDUHQHJOHFWHG
7KHVXSHUÀFLDOUDGLDOYHORFLW\Xr , may be eliminated between (4) and (5) giving:

¥ rRk up ´
u¦ µ (6)
1 § M ur ¶ uR
F
r ur ut

7KLVLVWKHEDVLFSDUWLDOGLIIHUHQWLDOHTXDWLRQ3'(GHVFULELQJWKHXQVWHDG\VWDWHÁRZ

1 ¥ uV ´
RIDVLQJOHSKDVHÁXLGLQDSRURXVPHGLXPSURYLGHGWKHÁRZLVODPLQDU(TXDWLRQ
c= - ¦ µ
(6) represents a V § up ¶form
general T, mfor the combination of the continuity equation and
D’Arcy’s law or the momentum equation. The PDE is non-linear because the density,
1 uviscosity,
l , and the ( rRu r ) + , areuRpressure dependent. As it stands the equation involves
 F pressure and density, and another equation is necessary to
two dependent variables,
r m ur ut m
R
1 V uRthis of course is the equation of state relating these two
u( rRu r )orsystem;
yield a determinate
quantities, V  F R
r l =ur l(p) , in anutisothermal system.
k uR
2.2.2 Fluid u r  of
Constant Compressibility
M ur
k uR
7KHRFFXUUHQFHRISUHVVXUHWUDQVLHQWVRQO\WDNHVSODFHEHFDXVHWKHUHVHUYRLUÁXLG
ur 
M ur «m º
LVFRPSUHVVLEOHWRVRPHH[WHQWDQGORFDODFFXPXODWLRQRUGHSOHWLRQRIÁXLGLQWKH
u¬ »
reservoir occurs. Although
¥ rRk1 upu´v liquid
R compressibility
­ R¼ ¥
effects  ´safely
can uR be neglected
c 
u¦ ÁRZ VLWXDWLRQV
µp =
WKLV LV QRW WUXHLQ DQ
R RLO ‰
¦ UHVHUYRLU
2 µ¶ up
LQ PRVW ÁXLG ZKHUH YHU\ ODUJH
volumes 1of liquid uruhigh
§ M v at ¶ pressure up
uR mare involved. § R
¥ rRk up ´  F In the case of single phase liquids
r u¦ ur µ ut
WKHWKHUPRG\QDPLFHTXDWLRQRIVWDWHLVDGHTXDWHO\UHSUHVHQWHGE\WKHPRGHORIDÁXLG
1 § M ur ¶ uR
F
RIFRQVWDQWFRPSUHVVLELOLW\7KHGHÀQLWLRQRIWKHFRPSUHVVLELOLW\FRIDÁXLGLV
1 uR
cr  ur ut
R u 1 ¥ uV ´
p (7)
c= - ¦ µ
V § up ¶ T, m
1 ¥ uV ´
c = - c(p¦ pµ )
m V § up ¶m
LHWKHUHODWLYHFKDQJHLQWKHYROXPHRIWKHÁXLGSHUXQLWFKDQJHLQSUHVVXUHLWKDV
RR  Ri eor V = T, m
i
WKHGLPHQVLRQVRIUHFLSURFDOSUHVVXUH(TXDWLRQPD\EHSXWLQWHUPVRIÁXLG
V
m R m
GHQVLW\DVIROORZVIRUDFRQVWDQWPDVVRIÁXLGP
R or V 
upV uR R
cR m  m
hence:
R ut uort V 
V R
hence:
¨ kRr up · «m º
u© ¸ u¬ » «m º
1 ª1 MuVur ¹ R ­ uRp¼ u ¬ ¥ » 1 ´ uR ¥
c =– - 1 uv  FcR R  ­R.R¦ ¼ 2 µ  ´ uR
cr  V uurp m= uupt «m § º p ¶ uRR ¦ ‰ 2 µ
v up m u ¬up » § R ¶ up
c
1 uv
=
R ­ R ¼  R ¥ ‰  ´ uR
u(FR) v1 uuRp ¦ µ
m up § R2 ¶ up
17
i.e.ut1cu=R
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University
c R up
 cc = = V -- M1 u¦¥¦r uVµ´µ R
kV u§R up ¶ , m
u r m kVuR§ up ¶ T T,m m
R u r¥ r RkM uor upr ´ V 
u¦¥V rRM k uupr µ´ R
1 u§¦ M ur ¶µ uR
1 §mM ur ¶  F um R
Rr ¥ rRukr uorp ´ V  F um t «m º
r u¥¦V rRukr1upu´µv uRRt u¬ »
c11  u¦§ M ur µ¶ =uR R ­ R ¼  R ¥ ‰  ´ uR
§ M v ur u¶p F uR ¦ µ
r u1r ¥ uV´F ut m u «ump º § R2 ¶ up
cr = - ur11 ¦¥uuvV µ´ ut ¬ »
cc = - V §¦ up ¶µ=T, m R ­ R ¼  R ¥ ‰  ´ uR
V § u p ¶ ¦ µ
1 u
v up T, m m ««um
R
1 ¥ u V ´ pmºº § R2 ¶ up
i.e. c = - 11 ¥¦uuvV ´µ uu¬¬ »» (8)
c = R- uV p ¦ § u p µ
¶ RR ­ ­ RR ¼¼ ¥¥
  ´´ uuRR
c V =T, m  RR ¦¦ ‰‰ 2µµ
m v §uupp ¶ T ,m m
R  1muR or V  m m uupp §§ RR2 ¶¶ uupp
R
c  V the
Not surprisingly V R
or compressibility is also the relative change in density per unit
RVup c(p p i ) R
FKDQJHLQSUHVVXUHQDWXUDOO\LIWKHYROXPHGHFUHDVHVWKHGHQVLW\LQFUHDVHV)RUDÁXLG
R  mRi e m
R compressibility
of constant
R  1muR or or V equation
V 
m (8) may be integrated to yield:
c V V R
R up c(p p i ) R
R upRi euR (9)
cR  «m º
ut liquid u ¬« m »º
where li is the 1ccu(p
(p
t udensity
v
p ) at someR u­¬ R ¼» pressure,
reference ¥¥ p‰i .  ´´ uuRR
c 
R
R  R
R 1e u v p ii=) R ­ R ¼  R 
p º  R ¦§¦ ‰ R22 µ¶µ up
c u p i vuR up = m i e
c R  v u p «uum
u¨t kequation m u« m to ºtime gives:§
p
u ¬¬­ R »»¼ R ¶ up
R1ruut puv·
Differentiating (8) with respect
R ¥ ´
c uu p© 1uRuv¸ = R ­ R ¼  R¥¦ ‰  ´µ uuRR
cc1Rupª MvuRuur p¹ = upm up  R ¦§ ‰ R22µ¶ up (10)
cR– u1t uRv ut up  FcR m up § R ¶ up
ccr  u1¨t kuRR u rruut p · u t
uR up
1 R©ª uMp ur ¸¹
which on substitution in (6) results in:
up
– 1 uR  FcR
cr u1¨¨)kkuR urr uupp ··
RR ut
cu(FR u R ©© uMprc(p ¸p)
1 utRª uMp c(p u ¸
ur ¹¹ pii )FcR uupp
r
R
R 1 –  ª R
R i e e
–  FcR ut
urr (FR) uurr (11)
i
ut
c(p p i )
Ru(achieved uFR
ut pR ) euc(p auR p i ) uelimination
F F . up from (6). The assumption of
upof theudensity
which has R u p R i e u R
R
partial
 F  R  Fvalid c lR forliquids,
R
uR(FR) 
uR
constant cccompressibility
i
(uFR u
u
t tt)  uutt ut is always ut ut up uprovided
t of course no gas comes
out of solution, ut and is sometimes approximately valid . for gases at high pressures. The
u(uFR ut p)  uFRuR  R uF  Fc R up  R uF up
cR up  uR
WKHRU\RIWKHXQVWHDG\VWDWHÁRZRIUHDOJDVHVZLOOEHFRQVLGHUHGODWHU l
cRuut t1uFutut ut ut up . ut
c uf(FR u¨¨t)kkR R rruuutuppR·· u F u p uF up
uu ©) Development
upFuurR¸¸  R uF ofFthe c lRuAccumulation
p  RuF . up Term
11u(uFR
2.2.3 Further ©F M u p
In the derivation ––utt ªª1 M ofFthe uurt¹¹ RFcuRt 
uRuFr uupt ·continuity
upFc lR ut the
 FuctR utequation ut
R accumulation
up ut
up ut term represents the time
r
cr f u¨ kRurr up · ¨ k u t
UDWHRIFKDQJHRIWKHPDVVRIÁXLGSHUXQLWVXSHUÀFLDOYROXPH:KHQWKHSRURVLW\LVQRW
1and u ©©ªF Mup uwith r ¸¸¹ formation up pressure this term must be written:
constant 1 u(–FRvaries 1) M u r c Ruupp
–
cr f t 1) uuFr
ª  u FFR  ¹l  FF
c c c R
cuur f((uFR uuuttt
f
FR
F ) upr
u(uuFR tt F) upFRc  c up
l f
which can cuuul(((be uFRt=expanded
) S c as + Souuctpo
follows:
FR
FR) ) wc w

tt ))  FRuRc l  cuf F uupt

uu((uuuFR t  FR c  c up uF .. up
FR F  R  Fc R  R
c l ut= Swc cuwt + uSto cuot ll ut l f
c t ut= c l + c f = Swc c w + So cuo p + .
ut c f (12)
u
cul(FR ( FR ) u R u F u p uF. up
=) Swc F cuwR +R uSFo cohas Fc lRupdenoted  RuF up
where thecliquid u =t compressibility
c F+ ut cf R=S uto cSowcFccwbeen
lR + ut SoRc oup+c1u2QGHÀQLQJWKHFRPSUHVVLELOLW\
t
k
of the formation =
=
lt ut 1 ulF
k
S
as:
wc cuwt +
(S ) ut ut up utc f
cf  o wc
c t = F culp + c f = Swc c w + So c o + c f
ckt = 11 kcuuloFF(S + wcc)f = Swc c w + So c o + c f
c 
c ff  F up (13)
ku(FR = F) kuop (Swc ) up
this may kbeuwritten:  FRc l  c f
=
t k o (Swc ) ut
u(FR) up
u(FR)  FRc l  c f up
 FRc  c (14)
c l uutt= Swc c w l + fSo cuuott

c = Swc c w + So c o
c ltl == cSl wc c w c+
+ Sc
f = o Sowc c w + So c o + c f

18 c = c l + c f = Swc c w + So c o + c f
cktt =
= cklo (S
+ wcc)f = Swc c w + So c o + c f
 ¨ kRr up ·
u ©t ut ¸
1 ª M ur ¹ up
–  FcR
r ur ut

u(–FR)
r
¨ kRr up ·
Pressure uTransient
1 ©ª M ur ¸¹
ur
Analysis
 FcR
up
ut
In Drawdown And Buildup
2
ut

u(FR)
u(FR) uR uF up uF . up
ut  F R  Fc lR  R
Although inutreality the
ut q on uthe ut sideuof
t right-hand ut
p equation (14) is still a function of
SUHVVXUHDVDÀUVWDSSUR[LPDWLRQLWFDQEHWUHDWHGDVDFRQVWDQWHYDOXDWHGDWVRPH
.
u(FR)average
representative uR formation
uF pressure. up InuFthisupform equation (14) adequately
 F  R  Fc R  R
uF effect of rock compressibility
allows for the1small
up utin all but the most exceptional
l
c f ut ut ut ut
circumstances. F up

1 uF
$IXUWKHUUHÀQHPHQWRIHTXDWLRQLVZDUUDQWHGLQDQXQGHUVDWXUDWHGUHVHUYRLU
are) in fact presentup- oil and immobile connate water - both of which
cuf(FR
two liquids
F upFRc l  c f
ut
are compressible. Hence the uliquid
t compressibility, cl , is given by the sum
of two contributions:
u(FR) up
FRcwc l 
c l = Swc + c fS o c o (15)
ut ut
where cw and co are the compressibilities of water and oil and Swc and So are the
c = c l + cThus
respective = Swccompressibility,
c + So c o +c c, fin the basic equation (11) is
c lt saturations.
= Swc c w +f Sothe
co w
LGHQWLÀHGZLWKWKHWRWDOV\VWHPFRPSUHVVLELOLW\FWGHÀQHGDV
k = k (S )
c t = c lo + wcc f = Swc c w + So c o + c f (16)

Note that the permeability, k , in equation (11) is not the absolute permeability of the
k = kbut
porous medium o (S wc )
the permeability to oil at the connate water saturation, i.e.

k = ko (Swc) the end-point permeability

6LQFH WKH ÁRZ PRGHO DVVXPHV KRUL]RQWDO ÁRZ WKH SHUPHDELOLW\ DOVR UHIHUV WR
this direction, i.e. it is the radial permeability. When the total compressibility,
ct , is employed the density, l, refers to the mass per unit pore volume of oil
and connate water.

2.2.4 Linearisation of the Radial Flow Equation

7KHSDUWLDOGLIIHUHQWLDOHTXDWLRQGHVFULELQJWKHXQVWHDG\VWDWHUDGLDOÁRZRIDÁXLG
of constant compressibility has just been derived as:

¨ kRr up ·
u© ¸
1 ª M ur ¹ up
–  Fc t R
r ur ut (17)

This form still involves two dependent variables, p and l, and remains non-linear. In
up into a linear PDE in a single dependent variable, i.e. pressure,
u[rR (17)
order to transform } Fc RM
1 ur assumptions
t up
–
further simplifying  – are necessary. Such a transformation is desirable
r
because linear ur
PDE’s k from
derived ut (17) have analytical solutions which are easily
manipulated and circumvent the necessity of employing cumbersome numerical
methods. The latter are especially time-consuming when the inverse problem of
1 ¥parameter
u 2 p estimation
up up uR ´ Fc tThe RM additional
up
non-linear
¦ rR 2  R  r is– involved. µ – assumptions necessary
r § ur of u(17)
for the linearisation ur ¶ no kmore severe
r areurcertainly ut than those already made
concerning formation homogeneity etc.

1 uR
For a liquid the
c t  permeability, k , and the viscosity, +, are independent of pressure and
equation (17) Rmay
up be written:

uRof Petroleum
Department up Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 19
 c tR
ur ur
 ¨ kRr up ·
u©
1 ª M ur ¸¹ up
– ¨ kRr up ·  Fc t R
r u ¨ kRurr up · ut
© ¸
1 u ©ª M ur ¹¸ up
1 – ª¨¨kkMRRrr uuprp¹··  Fc t R up
r – uu ur  Fc t R ut
1r1 u[©ª©ªrRMMuurpuu}rr ¸¹¸¹ uuptp
1 –– u r F
 cFFt ccRM tR R up (18)
rr – uurr  t u – tt
u
r urup k ut
u[rR }
1 u[rR uupr } Fc t RM up
1 – ¨¨kkRterm ururprpuupp ·· Fthe c t RM – up side of (18) may be expanded using the
2R
The derivative on left-hand
r – u
u[ © r u
R r
u ©differentiation; } 
¸ k uup– puupttuR ´ Fc t RM up
chain rule 1r1 ¥for
1 u[ ª uruR
M rpuru}r ¹¸uFpFcctkRM RM thus:
¦– rR M urR  Ftcrt R u–– p–up µ  –
rr §– ªuurur2rur ¹u r Fkc t Ruur tutur ¶ k ut
r u2rur k utut F c RM
1¥ u p up up uR ´ up
1 ¥¦ rR u 2 p2  R up  r up – uR µ´  Fc t RM – up
t
(19)
1rr ¦§¥§ u[1ruu
rR uu2rp2R u p  R uupr  r uupr – uuRr ¶µ´  Fc kRM – uupt
c11t¦¥rR uRr2 2pup}R uuFrpct RM r uurp u– puurR¶µ´  Fckt RM – uutp
t

r1§–¦ ru[ RRurRur p2ur}RurFct RM r ur– u– upr ¶µ  k – ut

rr §– 1uuurrRur ur k ur– utur ¶
7KHFRPSUHVVLELOLW\LVGHÀQHGDV k ut
c  1 uR r u r k u t
cuttR R 1u uR pup (20)
c1t¥R1ucu2tuRppR u p u p u R ´ Fc t RM up
cu1t¦r¥rRRuu22ppur R up  r up – uRµ´  Fc t RM – up
r § Rurup this u
and differentiating equation urwith ¶
ur respect ut
kto ‘r’ results in:
urR¦§ rR ur 2up R ur  r ur – ur µ¶  k – ut
r
uR  c t R up
1uuR¥rr  ucc t2R p uuprr up ¥ up ´ ´ Fc t RM up
2
 R
uRrR1 ut RupR  rRc t ¦ µ µ  –
crut¦§r1ucrtuR2Rur ur § ur ¶ ¶ k ut (21)
cutr  R u2 p ur
1¥ u p
Substitution of (21) in up
(19) gives: ¥ up ´ 2 ´
2
F c RM up
1 ¥¦ rRRu 22up2p  R up  rRc t ¦¥ up µ´ 2 µ´  Fc t RM – up
t

1ur 2¦¥§prR u1rp2up R uFprc M rRucpt §¦¥ upr ¶µ´ ¶µ´  Fc tkRM – upt
ur1R§¦¥ rRuur2 2pup R ur t rRc t §¦ ur ¶µ 2¶  k – ut
rur§2rR curtrRur R uurpk  r–Ruct §¥¦ uurp¶´µ µ¶´  Fckt RM – uutp
urur¦R ur 2 uurp ur t
§ ur ¶ µ¶ u
(22)
§  c t R k t
uu2rp 1 upur Fc M up
u 22 p2  1 up  Fc tt M – up
uur¥p2¥ u1r2pisuu´prnow  uFpmade ckt M – uuthat p
– utt ¥ uthe ´ Fc t RM
2
rr2u2pr¦Rrurr1puuµ rrp  p ´ pressure up ,p/,r is small and hence
The assumption
1u gradient
R k  r
Fc ctkMt M uuptpUnderR c ¦ µ 2µ assumption, – and cancelling r throughout,
2 u
1r1¦¥ §safely u 22¶be neglected.
r F
§ 2 uur p  uurp – – §¥ uurp¶´ ¶´ Fckt RM utp
(,p/,r) can t this
equation ru r rRubecomes: rr ur R kk  ruRutctt ¦§ µ¶ µ  –
r ¦§ ¥ uupr 2´
(22)
ur ur ¶ k ut
u¥¦ r up µ´
1 2uu¦§¥¦ rr uupr ¶µ´µ Fc t M up
1u p§§ uu1rr u¶¶p F FccMM– uupp
1 r 2u2¥¦ rur p ´µ   Fcktt Mt¥ –– –uuuppt ´
ur r ur uk¦Mr uuut tµp
urr1up p§ uurru1rku¶ p 1FFckkct M §t u–urtp¶ (23a)
2 – – –
urutr uFM rr cutr r kk uuruput t
or, alternatively: ¥ up ´ ¥ ´
u u¦ r kµ 1 u u
¦¥¥ r uupp µ´´
§ r ¶µ
1uupp §
p uurk ¶ – 1F–cut M¦§¦§ r u r
uuuurrpp¶µ¶
¥ p
k ´  1 –
uturFM
ru1ut r ¦§ruFM r  cµt – qr s–B
c¶ r F kcuM¥¦  ruurruuktpµ up
´
u r
up w k t 2P1rw ht § – uMr ¶ ur r  r
r t (23b)
 – –
ur t uFM r c r k urut w
t
q s B ¥ ukp ´ up
u  q s Bu. ¦ r k µ up
)RUWKHÁRZRIOLTXLGVWKHDERYHDVVXPSWLRQVDUHTXLWHUHDVRQDEOHDQGKDYHIUHTXHQWO\
upu r r  rw kq2s B PM r h§1 usimple Mr ¶ ur r  r w
r r  rw
1
been applied. However  2– Pr–wwthis h ¥ ,uMpt ´ru0r linearisation by deletion must be treated with
u rt r  r FMc2t Pqrkh s Bur¦wu r r k µ up r  r w
uupr r  rw k 1 §  ur ¶
FDXWLRQDQGFDQRQO\EHDSSOLHGZKHQWKHIROORZLQJFRQGLWLRQLVVDWLVÀHG
w
 2– Pr–w. h M ur r  r w
cuuutpppt FM 1 cqqt sssB B
rM . 1 ur
MB 1 , kt ru0p (24)
u
uur rr ¥r rwr ´2 Pkh s rw p q q B M , t r 0
u
lim r r ¦rrrww w µ2q2PB
s
,Mt ur0
For example ru mp0 r  §when ur ¶ the Pkh
s 2
rMwcPh.prkh 1wwproduct isr 0.1
r the solutions of (22) and (23) differ by
q s B , kt ru0p w
t
about 5%. uru rr rrwrw 2 Pkh rw
This condition makes it necessary to modify the assumption concerning
compressibility ¥ usuch p ´ that 2 P r
qqws.B h
itM M u r
¥¦¥¦ rr uupp µ´´µq s B 1MMis, not tt 
just rconstant
rw but both small and constant. When
uur mp
lim
lim p0 reservoir§  ¶ 

Mq ssB
Bsystems , r 

00 have
rm0 ¦ urrr 0µ¶¶2,Pkh
lim
dealing with r
§ u t2 2P P0kh kh , , tt
which 00 a high compressibility, so that (24) is not
ru mr0 § u 2 P kh
r
ur r ¥rwe up ´ q s.BM
r  r w
lim up ¦ r µq sBM 1 , t  0
20 r m 0 § u r ¶ 2 Pkh, t r 0
uuppr r  rw 2 Pkh rw
u
up ¥ u p0 , t q 00 M
lim r  00´,, tt  s B 0 , t0
 uR up

2
 c tR
ur ur
Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup

1 ¥ u2 p ¥ up ´ ´ Fc t RM up
2
up
rR  R  rRc t ¦ µ µ  –
r ¦§ ur 2 ur § ur ¶ ¶ k ut

valid, it isunecessary
2
p 1 upto linearise
Fc t M u(24)
p or its equivalent using some form of mathematical
transformation.  Suchan approach
–
ur 2
r ur k ut will be required when dealing with a gas reservoir,
since in this case the compressibility of the gas alone, assuming it to be ideal, is the
UHFLSURFDORIWKHSUHVVXUHKHQFHWRDÀUVWDSSUR[LPDWLRQWKHFtp product is unity and
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u¦ r µ
1 § ur ¶ Fc t M up
2.2.5. Initial  –
r uandr Boundary
k ut Conditions
7KHOLQHDULVHGUDGLDOÁRZHTXDWLRQ

¥ up ´
u¦ r µ
up k 1 § ur ¶
 – –
ut FMc t r ur

is a second-order, linear, parabolic PDE having pressure as the dependent variable and
qB k up
u r r and
radial position rw 
timesas the  independent variables. Similar second-order parabolic
equations of this form 2 Prware M ur r  r wencountered in the theory of diffusional
h frequently
transport processes, e.g. unsteady-state heat conduction, and all equations of this
type are referred to as ‘the diffusivity equation’. Hence the quantity k/(q+ct) is
up
known as the hydraulic q B M .
1 2 -1
 s diffusivity,
, t r 0_, and has dimensions L T . However it should
ur r  rwthat 2there
be emphasised Pkh isrwno diffusional aspect to D’Arcy’s law and its similarity to
Fourier’s law of heat conduction, for example, is purely mathematical. Fortunately,
because of its importance in transport phenomena, almost every conceivable analytical
solution to the up ´ q s B
¥ diffusivity M
equation is available in the literature.
lim ¦ r µ  , t0
r m 0 § ur ¶ 2 Pkh
In order to determine the solution of a second-order PDE of the parabolic type an
LQLWLDOFRQGLWLRQDQGWZRERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVPXVWEHVSHFLÀHG7KHIXQGDPHQWDO
solutionsuofp interest in the development of pressure analysis methods are those
IRU WKH FDVH  0, LQWR
t  0D FHQWUDOO\ ORFDWHG ZHOO DW D FRQVWDQW YROXPHWULF UDWH RI
ur r RI
re
ÁRZ
production, q. Later on it will be demonstrated how the principle of superposition
may be used to yield solutions for arbitrary rate histories. The geometry of the
system is again shown in Figure 10; the reservoir is assumed to be cylindrical
in shape with thickness, h , and external radius, re . The well is of radius rw and
in all cases of interest rw << re.

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 21

 Model Reservoir

¨ kRr up ·
uu©¨ kRr up¸·
11 ª©Well M inurthe
¸ q up
ª M uofr¹¹aFFcct RR up
–– Centre
rr uurr
Circular t ut
ut
Reservoir
rw
uupp
u[rR }
11 u[rRur } FFcct RM up
–– ur  t RM–– up
rr uurr kk uutt h
re
11¥¥ uu22pp uupp uupp uuRR´´ FFcct RM up
¦¦rrRR 2 RR rr –– µµ  t RM–– up
rr§§ uurr 2 uurr uurr uurr¶¶ kk uutt
h Formation Thickness

Radial11 uuRR re Radius of exterior boundary

t 
ccFlow
t  R up rw Wellbore Radius
R up q Oil Flow-Rate

Figure 10
uuRR up
 cct RR up 0RGHO5HVHUYRLU
uurr t ur
ur
(a) Initial Condition

11¥¥ uu22pp ¥¥uupp´´ 2´´ FFcct t RM

2
uupp RM– uupp
%HIRUHDQ\ÁRZLQWRWKHZHOOWDNHVSODFHWKHZKROHF\OLQGULFDOHOHPHQWLVDVVXPHG
¦ rrRRuniform
 R rrreservoir
2  Rinitial
RRcct ¦ µ pressure,
µ  pi . – Using the notation p(r,t) to
to be at the
r §¦ uurr 2 ur ¦ µ
t§ ur ¶ ¶µ uutt
represent rthe r ¶ ¶ of kradial
§ pressure asura general§ ufunction k position, r , and time, t , the
initial condition may be written succinctly as:
Fig 2.2.1
uu22pp 11uupp FFcct MM uupp
pr2 , o - = p i ,t –rW b r b re (25)
uurr 2  rr uurr  kk – uutt
+HUHRVLJQLÀHVDQ\WLPHSULRUWRW 
¥ up
´´
uu¦¥rr upCondition
(b) Boundary µ at the Well Bore - Constant Rate Inner Boundary
11 §¦§ ur ¶µ¶ FFcct MM uupp
Condition ur  t –
rr uurr  k – ut
k ut
$WWLPHW WKHZHOOLVVHWLQSURGXFWLRQDWDFRQVWDQWYROXPHWULFÁRZUDWHTs , and
PDLQWDLQHGDWWKLVOHYHOIURPWKHQRQ7KLVRLOÁRZUDWHTs , is measured at stock
¥ up ´
uu¦¥rr upµ´
WDQNFRQGLWLRQVDQGKHQFHWKHLQVLWXUHVHUYRLUÁRZUDWHLVJLYHQE\T T B where B
is the oil u p k 1 §¦factor.
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up  k – 1– § ur ¶
formation volume
 c as–ra constant,
pressure itutis treated – ur evaluated at the initial reservoir pressure. Applying
ut FM FMct t r ur
D’Arcy’s law just inside the formation at the sand face gives:

qB k uupp
uur r  rw  qss B  k
r r  rw 22PPrrw hh MM uurr r  r w
w rrw
or, on re-arranging:
uupp q BM . . 1
 qss BM 1 ,, tt rr00
uurr r  rw 22PPkh kh rrww (26)
r  rw

¥¥ uupp´´ qqs BBMM

lim ¦r µ  s , t  0
m 0 §¦ r ur ¶µ  2 Pkh , t  0
rlim
r m 0 § ur ¶ 2 Pkh
22
uupp
 0, t  0
 ¥ up ´
u¦ r µ
up k 1 § ur ¶
 up– –

2
ut u[FM rR c t }r Fc uRM r
1 u r t up
Pressure– Transient  Analysis – In Drawdown And Buildup
r ur k ut
qB k up
u r r  rw  s 
1 ¥ u 2 p 2 Pruwph Mup uruRr ´r w Fc t RM up
¦ rR R r – µ  –
r § ur 2 ur ur ur ¶ k ut
up a constraintq BM . on1 the formation pressure gradient at the well-bore and is
This imposes  s , tr0
ur r  r1w uR2 Pkh rw
NQRZQDVDERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQRIWKHVHFRQGNLQG)RUDOORUGLQDU\SXUSRVHVWKHÀQLWH
t 
wellbore cradius
R boundary
up condition (26) may be replaced by the alternative form:

¥ up ´ q BM (27)
lim ¦ r µ  s , t  0
ru
mR0 § ur ¶up 2 Pkh
 c tR
which is known as uthe
u r r ‘line source’ approximation to the original condition. This
has beenup shown to yield identical results (from a practical standpoint) to those
obtained ufrom  0, t of0the problem 2with the exact, less-tractable version. The
solution
1r¥ r  re u 2 p up Fc t RM up
¥ up ´ ´well-bore
rR 2  R assumes
line source¦ approximation rRc t ¦ theµ µ –
radius to be vanishingly small
r § ur because
and is acceptable § ur ¶ ¶ of thekwell-bore
ur the dimension ut is very small compared
to the radius of the volume drained by the well. When fractured wells are
WUHDWHGDVF\OLQGULFDOZHOOVRIODUJHHIIHFWLYHUDGLXVWKHIXOOÀQLWHZHOOERUHUDGLXV
u 2 p be1 employed;
solution must up Fc t M this
up
  – is really the only occasion when the line source
ur isr not
approximation 2
ur valid.k ut

(c) External Boundary Condition

¥ up ´
u¦ r µ
1 § forms
Three distinct ur ¶ ofFexternal
c M up boundary condition arise, each one pertaining to a
 t –
r ur k ut
GLIIHUHQWSK\VLFDOVLWXDWLRQ1DWXUDOO\HDFKVSHFLÀFERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQ\LHOGVLWVRZQ
unique solution to the PDE. The three basic cases of interest are:

  ¥ up ´
,QÀQLWH5HVHUYRLU
u¦ r µ
up k 1 § ur ¶
,Q WKLV FDVH  ZHOO– LV– DVVXPHG WR EH VLWXDWHG LQ D SRURXV PHGLXP RI LQÀQLWH
ut WKH
FMc t r ur
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any pressure disturbance generated at the well never reaches the outer boundary
of the reservoir whichqremains
sB kat uthe
p initial pressure, pi , throughout the period of
u r rcondition
interest. This  rw  maybe written:
2 Prw h M ur rrw

p(r, t) = pi as rA' ,t > 0 (28)

up q BM 1.
 s , tr0
(2) ur r  r 2 Pkh r
w Bounded Reservoir
w

In this case the well is assumed to be located in the centre of a cylindrical reservoir
¥ upQR M
´ q s BDFURVV
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UH ZLWK , t WKH
0 H[WHULRU ERXQGDU\   7KH QRÁRZ FRQGLWLRQ
r m 0 § ur ¶ 2 Pkh
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gradient must also be zero, i.e.

up
 0, t  0
ur r  re (29)

(3) Constant Pressure Outer Boundary

Here the well is situated in the centre of a cylindrical area with a constant
pressure, equal to the initial pressure, pi, maintained along the outer boundary.
This condition takes the form:

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 23

 p(re, t) = pi, t > 0 (30)

7KHVSHFLÀFDSSOLFDWLRQRIHDFKRIWKHVHFDVHVZLOOEHFRPHDSSDUHQWODWHU

2.2.6 Dimensionless Form of the Diffusivity Equation

The OLQHDULVHG SDUWLDO GLIIHUHQWLDO HTXDWLRQ RI FRPSUHVVLEOH ÁXLG ÁRZ LQ D
porous medium, embodying the principle of mass conservation and D’Arcy’s
law, takes the form:

¥ up ´
u¦ r µ
up 1 § ur ¶
A –
ut r ur

k (31)
where A = = hydraulic diffusivity.
FMc t
$W\SLFDOVHWRILQLWLDODQGERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVLQÀQLWHUHVHUYRLUFDVHDUH
up q s BM 1
 –
ur 2 Pkh rw
I.C. at t < 0 : p = p i for all r (32)
up q BM 1
B.C.1 at r = rw :  s – for all t r 0 (33)
k [
u p ( r , t )] ur 2 Pkh rw
u r ( r, t ) 
B.C.2 at M r = ud r : p = pi for all t r 0 (34)

The solution to the problem is a mapping p(r,t) representing the pressure as a

function Rof t )  Ri exp
( r,position and;ctime;
t ( p( r, t ) p i )=
naturally the solution p(r,t) must satisfy both the
differential equation ¥andupthe ´ prescribed initial and boundary conditions which in
u ¦ r µ
combinationup are 1referred §¥ uprto¶´ as the differential system. The constants appearing
2– u¦ r
in this system,  Ae.g.
r _, p andµ the quantity qsB+ /(2/kh) are known as the system
turpt0A .11r – § urui r ¶
SDUDPHWHUVDQGWKHVHPXVWEHVSHFLÀHGEHIRUHDSDUWLFXODUVROXWLRQFDQEHREWDLQHG 
u t A ur
r
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LV TXLWH LQGHSHQGHQW RI DQ\ k VSHFLÀF YDOXHV JLYHQ WR WKH SDUDPHWHUV 2QFH WKLV
where
is available A = solution,
anyrw2particular = corresponding
hydraulic diffusivity.
to a certain set of parameter values,
t  FMkc t
where
is readily obtainable.
w A = = hydraulic diffusivity.
The general solution is achieved by transforming the differential
A FMc
system into dimensionless tform. This is a standard procedure in engineering
mathematicsup and q sB M 1 always be carried out where possible.
should
 – 2
u
t pr 0.12qtP
sBM0.1r1wre
kh

 e in–terms of pressure, p(r,t) , has been established the remaining
When the solution
ur 2 Pkh rwA
variables, if required, follow from D’Arcy’s law and the equation of state, i.e.
u[p( r, t )]
t D k kt
tuDer ( r, t ) 2 k u[pu(2rr, t )]0.1
M
u r ( r, t )rDe  FMc t re (35)
M ur
R( r, t )r Ri exp;c t ( p( r, t ) p i )= (36)
rD( r, t )  Ri exp;c t ( p( r, t ) p i )=
R
rw
In order to understand the philosophy behind the procedure for rendering the system
2
r
GLPHQVLRQOHVVLWLVKHOSIXOWRFRQVLGHUEULHÁ\WKHQDWXUHRIVROXWLRQVWRWKHGLIIXVLYLW\
t r  0.1 2
r At
tt r  0.t1 A

t w A rw2
D
24
r2
t  w2
 Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
HTXDWLRQ6RPHW\SLFDOSUHVVXUHSURÀOHVLQDF\OLQGULFDOUHVHUYRLUDWYDULRXVWLPHV
following the well being set in production are shown in Figure 11; initially the reservoir
was everywhere at pressure pi .

q
pi

¥ up ´ p(r,t)
u¥¦ r up ´µ
Well- u p 1 §
u¦ r urµ ¶
Boreup  A 1 – § urt¶
ut  A r – ¥ uuurpp ´
ut r u¥¦ rur ´µ
uupp 11 u¦§§ r ur µ¶¶
A – ur
Figure 11 uutt  A rr – uurr k Tr a n s i e n t D e v e l o p m e n t o f
where A = k = hydraulic i diffusivity.
7UDQVLHQW'HYHORSPHQWRI where A = FMc t =t h ehydraulic Fo r m a tdiffusivity.
on Pressure
FMc t Distribution
WKH)RUPDWLRQ3UHVVXUH kk
where A
where A = FMc = hydraulic diffusivity.
= = hydraulic diffusivity.
'LVWULEXWLRQ
uupp qq sln BM r 1FMc tt
 s BM –– 1
ur 22PPkh
u r kh rrw Fig 2.2.2
uupp qq s B M 1 w
$WHDUO\WLPHWKHSUHVVXUHGLVWXUEDQFHGXHWRÁXLGH[SDQVLRQDQGPRWLRQLVORFDOLVHG
 s BM – 1
in a region uurr 2 
around – central well but this progressively propagates itself further
the
2P Pkhkh rrThe
k uuw[[pp((difference
w
out into the reservoir.
k rr,,tt))]] in pressure between the initial value, pi , and
that in theu ( r
well, t )
u rr ( r, t )  w 
(r
= r ) is known as the drawdown and increases with the depth of
M
M uurr
k u[[pRI ]]
penetration of the kpressure u p(( rr,, tt ))disturbance into the formation. Note that, at the
uu r ((WKH
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rr,, tt ))JUDGLHQW
 M WKH SUHVVXUH SURÀOH LV LGHQWLFDO DW DOO WLPHV ZKLFK
r
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R( r, tedge
the leading )  RRiof exp
i expthe;;ccttpressure ppi i))==
((pp((rr,,tt)) disturbance to reach a radial position, r, is

exp;;cc tt (( pp(( rr,, tt ))

pp ii ))==
given approximately by :
R
R(( rr,, tt ))  R Rii exp
r 22
t rr  0.1
A
rrA22 (37)
tt r 
and the quantity: 0 . 1
r  0.1 A
rrw22 A
tt w 
w  A
w

rrA 2 (38)
2
tt w  w
w  A
w
A
FDQEHUHJDUGHGDVDFKDUDFWHULVWLFWLPHFRQVWDQWRIWKHV\VWHP)RUDUHVHUYRLURIÀQLWH
r 22
t  0.1t e  0.1 ree
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t  0.1t e  0.1 A2
rreA
2
tt  0 . 1 t
 0.1t e  0.1 A
e  0 .1 e

t ktA
i.e. t De  t2DD  kt 2  0.1 (39)
t De  rDe2  FMc t re 2  0.1
tt De 
ttrDeD FMktc r 0.1
 kt t 2e 
 rrDe 2D 
FM  0.1
FMcc tt rree2
De 2
r De

which is rthe D condition

r that the pressure disturbance has not yet reached the external
rD  rrw
ERXQGDU\WRDQ\VLJQLÀFDQWH[WHQW
rrw
rrD 
D  r
rww
t At
t D  t  A2t
t D  ttw  Arwt2
Department tt D of ttw  Ar2wtEngineering, Heriot-Watt University
Petroleum 25
D  t  r2
t ww rww
kt
 R( r, t )rrw2 Ri exp;c t ( p( r, t ) p i )=
2

tt ww  A w
A
r2
t r  0.1
r22
t  0.11tteeA 00..11ree
AA
r2
tw  w
tt kt
kt
t De  Arw2D2Dasa characteristic
Thus choosing  0.1 dimension of the system and tw as a characteristic
22  0.1
rrDe
WLPH LW LV SRVVLEOH
De
FM
WRFM cc
GHÀQHr r
t t e e WKH GLPHQVLRQOHVV LQGHSHQGHQW YDULDEOHV UD and tD as
follows:
r2
t  0.1t e  0.1 e
r A
rrD  r
D rrw
w
t kt
t De  2D   0.1
rtDe AFM 2
t c t re
t D  t  A2 t
t D  t w  rw2 (40)
t w rw
r
or rD 
rw kt
t D  kt 2
t D  JMc t rw2 (41)
JMc t rw
t At
tD   2
When consideringt(wp i the rpw) dependent variable, i.e. pressure, p , it is convenient to form
( p i pby ) 2 Pkh by the quantity q B+/(2/kh) suggested by the
p D  ratios
dimensionless q s BM  dividing p)
Pkh( pini order
q2Also,
s
p D  2condition.
inner boundary qktB M  s BM ( p p )to ensure that the dimensionless boundary
Ps kh i
q s BMa form as possible, it is preferable to formulate the
conditions 
t D assume as2 compact
system in termsJM 2cPpressure
of kh
t rw deviation from the initial value. Hence the dimensionless
SUHVVXUHGLIIHUHQFHLVGHÀQHGDV
q BM
t D(rpw2 i p) sq BMp D
t rD rw p  p i
r =2 Pkh 2 Pkh
2
p D t DArqws BM  ( p i p) s pD (42)
t r q=s BrMD rw p  p i 2 Pkh
A2pPkh p 2 Pkh
pD = i
q BM
=  p i p
This is equivalent sto measuring M
q s Bpressure relative to a datum of pi. Note that ‘qs’ is
positive for production2 Pkh and a positive pD represents drawdown.
q BM
t D rw2 s pD
t  substitutions:
Making the r = rD rw p  p i 2 Pkh
A
t r2 q BM
t = Dw r = rD rw p = pi s pD
A 2 Pkh
into equations (31), (32), (33) and (34) the dimensionless differential system
becomes:
¥ up ´
u¦ rD D µ ¥ up ´
up D 1 § urD ¶ u¦ rD D µ (43)
 up D 1 § urD ¶
ut D rD urD 
ut D rD urD
I.C. at tD  0 pD  0 for all rD (44)
up D
 1 ufpfppDDD
BBu.C
.rC
.1.1 atat rDrD==1,1,  111 allttDD  00
forall
for (45)
D
ufrfrDrDD
B.C.2 at rD  d, pD  0 for all t D  0 (46)
ux ux
u{z } u{z
ux 1 uz ux 1
}
 z 1  uz z 1
ut z uz ut z uz
26
ux ux
Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
¥ up D ´ been put ¥ into ´
upfundamental
u¦ rDhas now
The differential system
µ u r D form amenable to solution
1 § uuprD ¶methods
up D mathematical
by the standard ¦ µ parabolic PDEs of the diffusivity
D linear
 analyticalD solution 1 § urD ¶ for
type. The general
ut D rD uruD t  to the system can be obtained without any
reference to the physical situation
D r urD In this systems engineering approach
itD represents.
the mathematical analysis, i.e. the mechanics of deriving the solution, whether by
analyticaluor
p Dnumerical methods, is completely divorced from the engineering aspects
concerned with 1 upuequations
 setting pD which adequately describe the physical situation
ur
and interpreting the solution  1
D
urDonce it is available. Indeed it may be preferable to rewrite
the system using the conventional nomenclature of the mathematical literature, e.g.

ux
u{z } ux
ux 1 uz u{z } (47)
 z
ux 1 1 uz
ut z u¥z up ´ z 1
u¦ rD ut µ z uz
D

tu<p0, 1 § xu=rD0¶ all z

D

uuxt D rD
 1 ¥ uruuDpxD ´
u z u¦ rD µ
up D 1 §¥ uuprD ¶´ 1
z = 0, all t > 0
 u r uzD
up ¦ D D 0µ
zu=pt DDD', r1D1 § urx= urD ¶ all t > 0
urD  q B M ¥ r A t ´
pu(trD, t ) rDp i usrD p d ¦ , 2 µ
up 2 Pkh
p ( r , t ) § prw rwq¶s BM p ¥ r , At ´
where x is Dthe  1
dependent variable i and ‘t’ and d‘z’ ¦ are the 2 µ independent time and
u r u x 2 P kh § r r ¶
uupxDD 1 urespectively.
space variables {z } w w
In this way the problem is posed as a purely
mathematical 1 uz
one. z 1
ut z uuz¥ r up D ´
u rD
¦D µ
up D solution
The analytical 1{z u§ xof
u } uthe
rD ¶dimensionless ¥ updifferential
´ system is denoted pD(rD, tD),
u x  1 u z u ¦ r D
µ
uuxt D ruD{z uxu}ruDpzD  1 1 § urD ¶
or equivalently x(z, t), and represents theD general solution to the basic system for all
values ofuux 1z1 uz and dimensions.
t  parameters
the  A particular solution is easily obtained
uz ut z  1 r
from the ugeneral
z  solution using
D equation
D u(42),
rD i.e.
ut z uz
ux ¥ up D ´
ru
lim¦ rD1 µq sB M1 ¥ r At ´
Dz u
pu(xr, t )  p i D ¶
m0 § r p¥ d ¦ up, ´ µ
 1 2 Plimkh ¦ rD§ rw Drwµ2 ¶ 1 (48)
uz rD m 0 § urD ¶
q BM ¥ r At ´
p( r, t )  p i 1s ¥ p d ¦rD2 ´, 2 µ
7KH/LQH6RXUFH$QDO\WLFDO6ROXWLRQLQDQ,QÀQLWH5HVHUYRLU
p D ( rD , t D ) ¥ 2 Pukh p ´ § r r ¶
Ei
 u ¦ rqD2s BMD¦§µp 4¥t Drwµ¶, Awt ´
p ( r , t ) p ¦ 21 ¥ rDtakes
µ system 2
´ the form:
2 Ppukh
i §
up D the 1dimensionless
For this case rD ¶ ddifferential
 (
D D Dr , t§ r)w 
rw ¶ Ei ¦ µ
ut D rD ur 2 § 4t D ¶
¥d uuDp D ´
u¦ reD µ
¥
°
%upi(D x) 1 §¥ uuprdu
 u r u D´
up ¦x ´D
D ¶
µ
u pDD ¦ rDr1D D§ µuruD rD1 ¶
t
ulim
d u
e rD > 0
rD m 0 §
ut D rD
urD ¶ %i( x) 
urD ° x
u
du
tD < 0, pD =d0 u all rD
¥ u p e ´
%lim
rD m 0 §
°
i( x)¦ rD D µ du 1
upxrD u¶´ 1 ¥ rD ´d u
2
¥ u
p D ( rD , t D ) D Ei ¦ µ
lim ¦ rD µ 2% i(1§x)  4 t D ¶ e du
rD m 0 § urD ¶ ° u all tD > 0 (49)
22 x
11 ¥ GrrDD ´
p DD ( rDD , t DD ) d uEi
e22 ln ¦§ 4 t2D µ¶
%i( x)  ° 1 du¥ rDD ´
p D ( rD , t D ) x u Ei ¦ µ 1 ¥ GrD2 ´
2 § 4 t ¶
D)  University
p ( r , tHeriot-Watt ln
Department of Petroleum Engineering, D D D ¦ µ 27
2 e u
d 2 § 4t D ¶
r
%i( x)  d u du
D
 ur D
uuprDD  1
D  1
urD
ux
u{z ux }
ux 1
ux  1 u{z uuuxzz} z  1
uuuxtt  1z u{zuz } z  1
 z uzuz z 1
ut z uz
ux
ux  1
1
uuxz 
ruD z= ', p1D = 0 all tD > 0
uz
The analytical solutionqofBthis
q sBM
¥ rr AAtist´´given
M problem
¥
in many textbooks concerned with
p ( r , t )  p
( r, t )  p ii e.g. Carslaw
transportpphenomena, s p ,
p dd¦¦ and, Jaeger µ (7)
. In 1949 Hurst and van Everdingen(8)
2
q P M
kh
B ¥
§ rr A
r 22t µ
´
¶
2 P kh p d §¦ ww , ofw2wthe
, t )  p i s description
presentedpa( rcomprehensive r r ¶ solution of the radial diffusivity equation
µ
Pkh
applicable to reservoir2engineering § rw problems.
rw ¶ Their solutions were obtained by
applying the Laplace transformation to the diffusivity equation primarily in order
¥ up DD ´
WRVROYHWKHSUREOHPRIZDWHULQÁX[LQWRDUDGLDOUHVHUYRLUIURPDVLPLODUO\VKDSHG
u ¦ rDD µ
up D 1 u¥§ r uuprDDD ´¶
DTXLIHURIERWKÀQLWHDQGLQÀQLWHH[WHQW7KHÁRZRIUHVHUYRLUÁXLGVLQWRWKHZHOO
 ¦ D µ
ERUHKDVSUHFLVHO\WKHVDPHQDWXUHDVWKHÁRZRIZDWHULQWRDUDGLDOUHVHUYRLUEXW
uupt DDD r1DD § uruDDrD ¶
on a different  scale. A more concise analytical solution of the present problem, not
involvinguLaplace urD
t D rD transformations has been quoted by Matthews and Russell. Only
the result of these analyses will be given here and the references can be consulted
¥¥ uuifpprequired.
D´
´
for further
lim details D  1
lim
rD m 0
¦r
¥§¦§ rDD uuuprrDD ´¶µ¶  1
µ
rD m 0
lim ¦ rD D µ of  1
rD m 0 § solution
The analytical urD ¶ the differential system (49) is:
1 ¥¥ rD22 ´´
p D ( rD , t D )  1 Ei ¦ rD2 µ
p D ( rD , t D )  12 Ei¥§¦ 4rt ´¶µ (50)
p D ( rD , t D )  2 Ei ¦§ 4DtDD µ¶
where -Ei(-x) is a standard 2 §mathematical
4t D ¶ function called the exponential integral
ZKLFKLVGHÀQHGE\ d
e u
%i( x)  °dd e uu du
%i( x)  °°xx u du
%i( x)  eu du
x
u (51a)
d
e u
%i( x)  °dd e u du
%ii((xx))  °x eu du
u
du
% °xx uu (51b)

and hence Ei(- x) = - Ei(x). 1 ¥ The GrD2 ´Ei function is tabulated in mathematical data
, t D )  plotted
p D (isrDshown,
books and ln ¦ on a2 µlog-log scale, in Figure 12; Ei(x) is large for
211 §¥¥ 4GGrtrD2 ¶´Fortunately
´
pp DD ((rrDD ,, tt DD ))  2 lnln ¦ D µ
small values of x and vice-versa. when x is small, i.e. x < 0.01, the
¦
§ 4 t µ¶
exponential integral is very
Single Well in
2 an §Infinite
4 t DD ¶Reservoir (NobySkin)
closely approximated a simple logarithmic function
given below; 2 thus for x < 0.01
rD
 0.01
4rtD22D10 10 4
105 106 107 108 109
D
 0.01
4t D
q BM ¥ r At ´
p( r1, t )  p i s pD ¦ , 2 µ
q2 PBkh
M §¥¥ rrwr A
rwt ¶´´
At
pp , t)  pi s
( rD p DD¦¦ ,, 22 µµ
2 Pkh §§ rrww rrww ¶¶
10-1

EXPONENTIAL INTEGRAL SOLUTION

Figure 12
10-2
10-1 1 10 102 103 104
6LQJOHZHOOLQDQ,QÀQLWH
t D/r D2 5HVHUYRLUQRVNLQ

Figure 2.2.3

28
 up 1 § q BM ¶ ¥ r At ´
p( rD, t ) p i s D p d ¦ , 2 µ
ut D rD 2uPrDkh § rw rw ¶
1 ¥ rD2 ´
p ( rD , t D )  Ei ¦
PressureD Transient ¥ up D¥ ´ 2upAnalysis
lim ¦ rD u¦ rµD  D1 µ
ru
Dpm 0 § 1ur § ¶ ur ¶
D
 D D
µ
§´ 4 t D ¶ In Drawdown And Buildup
2
ut D rD d u
eurD
%i( x)  ° du
x 1
u ¥ r2 ´
p D ( rD , t D )  Ei ¦ D µ
¥ up ´ 2 § 4 t D ¶
lim ¦ rD = d DEi(x)
-Ei(-x) µ  1= -ln (ax) 
rD m 0 § urDe ¶ u (52)
%i( x)  ° du
d u u and has a value of 1.781 or e
0.5772
where a is Eulers constant . Hence the general
x e written in the simpler form:
analytical%isolution
( x)  may °x u1be du ¥ r2 ´
p D ( rD , t D )  Ei ¦ D µ
21 ¥§ 4GrtD2D ´¶
p D ( rD , t D )  ln ¦ µ
d u2
e § 4t D ¶ (53)
%i( x)  ° d du u
ue du
%i2( x)  xand
or, on re-arranging
rD
° entering the numerical value of a:
u
 0.01 x

4t D 1
;
p D  rD , t D = 1 ln¥ t D G/rD2rD2´ + 0.80907
p D ( rD , t D )de u2 ln ¦ µ
= (54)
%i( x)  ° 2du § 4 t D ¶
The latter equation xis,uofq course, BM only ¥ r valid ´
Atwhen:
p( r, t )  p i s pD ¦ , 2 µ
rD2 2 Pkh § rw rw ¶
 0.01
1 ¥ Gr 2 ´
p4Dt D( rD , t D )  ln ¦ D µ
2 § 4t D ¶
Fortunately this is nearly always the case in connection with pressure testing
when the wellbore pressure at rD = 1 is required and hence (54) is the most useful
q BM ¥ r , At ´
form of the
pr(2ranalytical s
, t )  p solution. p
i
 0.01 D ¦ µ
D
2 Pkh § rw rw2 ¶
4 t D in terms of the actual variables and system parameters follows
The solution
from the equation:

q BM ¥ r , At ´
p( r, t )  p i s pD ¦ µ (55)
2 Pkh § rw rw2 ¶
Noting that:

2 2
FMcc t rr 222
rrrDD22  rrr 22  FM
FMc tt r
tt DD  Att 
(56)
A  ktkt
t DD At kt
the exact solution becomes:

p ( r , t )  p qqq sBBMM ¥¥¥ 11 Ei¥¥ FM

FMcct rr222 ´´ ´´
pp(( rr,, tt ))  s BM
¦¦¦§ 1 Ei¦¥¦ FMc tt r µ´µ µ´µ
 pp ii
i
22sP §§ 222 Ei§¦§§ kt
kt µ¶ µ¶
Pkh (57)
2 Pkh
kh kt ¶¶ ¶¶
and the approximate version:

qq B M
BM
111 ¥¥¥ kt ´´
pp(( rr,, tt ))  qsssBM
 pp i ... ln
¦¦ ln kt
kt 2 + 0.80907´µ
+ 0.80907
p( r, t )  pi 22 P Pkh 222 ¦ ln FMcc t rr 22 + 0.80907µµ¶ (58)
i 2 Pkh
kh §§§ FM FMc t r ¶¶
t
The condition that the latter is valid may be written:
kt
kt
kt 2  25

FMcc t rr 22
FM  25
25
FMc t rt

1
 11 ;;ln 80907=
ln t D  00..80907
ppp DD (1,  0.80907==
(1, tt D )) 
D (1, t DD) 2 2 ;ln tt DD 
2
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 29

qqq sB
BMM 1 ¨¨ kt ···
BM 1¨ kt
 rD2 r 2 FMc t r 2
 
rtDD2 Ar 2t FMkt
ct r 2
 
t D At kt
q BM ¥ 1 ¥ FMc t r 2 ´ ´
p( r, t )  p i s ¦ Ei¦ µµ
q2 PBkhM ¥§ 12 ¥§ FMkt c r 2 ¶¶
´ ´
p( r , t )  p i s ¦ Ei¦§
t
µµ
Indeed when kt/(q+ctr2) 2isPequal kh § to 25 the error kt in ¶using
¶ the log approximation is still
only about 2%. Note that q BM 1
for values ¥ of t /r kt
2
less than ´
5 the line-source solution
p ( r , t )  p s . ln
D D
+ 0.80907
based on the Ei function i ¦ from the
starts to deviate 2 solution to theµ radial diffusivity
corresponding to the proper q2 PBkh
boundary FMkt
M 12 ¥§ condition c r(27).
t ´¶
p( r , t )  p s . ¦ ln + 0.80907 µ
i 2 Pkh 2 § FMc r 2
The preceding equations give the pressure ast a general function of both time and
¶
kt reservoir. However in most applications the important item of interest
position in the  25
FMkt c t r 2at the well-bore; this is the observable quantity in well tests. The
is the pressure
 25 pressure, i.e. that corresponding to rD = 1 is given by:
dimensionless 2well-bore
FMc t r
1
p D (1, t D )  ;ln t D  0.80907= (59)
2
1
It is convenient
2
;ln t D the
p D (1, t Dto) represent 0.80907 = just inside the homogeneous formation
pressure
adjacent to the well-bore by the symbol pw and hence from equation (58):
q BM 1 ¨ kt ·
p w ( t )  p i s – ©ln  0.80907 ¸
q2 PBkh
M 12 ¨©ª FMkt c rw2
t  0.80907¸¸¹ ·
p w ( t )  p i s – ©ln
2 Pkh 2 © FMc rw2 ¸¹ (60)
ª t
$ps
S
q BM
2.2.8 Well-bore $s ps Damage and Improvement Effects
S  2 Pkh treatment only the dynamic pressure behaviour within the
In the preceding q BM
s
homogeneous formation has been analysed. It is now necessary to relate the
2 Pkh
SUHVVXUHLQWKHZHOOERUHLWVHOILHWKHERWWRPKROHÁXLGSUHVVXUHDVPHDVXUHGE\D
p D (1-, t D ) = p D (1, t D ) + S
transducer, to that in the adjacent formation, pw7KHERWWRPKROHÁXLGSUHVVXUHDW
p D (1-, t D ) = p D (1, t D ) + S
WKHPLGSRLQWRIWKHSURGXFLQJLQWHUYDOLQDÁRZLQJZHOOLVGHQRWHGS wf
. In general
the two quantities pw and pwf are not identical 1 because of the method of completing
p (1-, t
the well. DThe phenomenonD ) = p = [ln t
ofwfDskin effect and well-boreD + 0.80908 + 2S]
damage or improvement
has already been introduced in Chapter 1 12 discussed at length in the treatment of
and
p D (1-, t D ) = p wfD = [ln t D + 0.80908 + 2S]
2
VWHDG\VWDWHÁRZ2QHZD\RITXDQWLI\LQJVXFKGDPDJHWRRSHUDWLQJZHOOVUHSUHVHQWV
1¨
the well-bore conditionqby BMa steady-state pressure drop at the·well-face in addition
kt
 p i sSURÀOH
p w f ( t )SUHVVXUH
WR WKH QRUPDO – LQ ©lnWKH IRUPDWLRQ
 0.80908 + 2S
 WKLV LV ¸
LOOXVWUDWHG LQ )LJXUH 
q2 PBkh ¨©ª FMthe
2
M 12called c r ·¸
The incremental pressure
p ( t )  p s – ©ln ktt  0.80908 + 2S¸¹
drop ‘skin
w effect’ is presumed to occur over an
LQÀQLWHVLPDOO\WKLQ¶VNLQ]RQH·LQZKLFKWKHSHUPHDELOLW\LPSDLUPHQWLVFRQÀQHG
wf i
2 Pkh 2 © FMc rw2 ¸¹
ª t
$FFRUGLQJO\WKHERWWRPKROHÁRZLQJSUHVVXUHLVJLYHQE\

pwf(t) = pw(t) + 6ps (61)

where the skin pressure drop, 6psLVDIXQFWLRQRIWKHLQVWDQWDQHRXVZHOOÁRZUDWH

qs%WKHÁXLGYLVFRVLW\+, and the characteristics of the altered zone, i.e. its average
radial thickness and permeability. The important assumption is made that, since the
VNLQLVVRWKLQWKHUHLVLQVLJQLÀFDQWDFFXPXODWLRQRUGHSOHWLRQRIÁXLGLQWKLVUHJLRQ
and hence quasi-steady-state conditions exist. For all practical purposes the skin
pressure drop reacts immediately to any changes in production rate, e.g. if the
ÁRZ VWRSV 6ps GLVDSSHDUV ZLWKRXW GHOD\  2I FRXUVH HYHQ DW FRQVWDQW ÁRZUDWH
long term changes in 6ps can occur due to progressive plugging of the well-face,
hence the term ¶TXDVLVWHDG\VWDWH·.

30
 Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
rD2 r 2 FMc t r 2
 
t D At kt Dimensionless Skin Factor S

t
q BM ¥ 1 ¥ FM c t r 2 ´ ´ PROFILE
PRESSURE
p( r, t )  p i s ¦ Ei ¦ IN THEµ µFORMATION
2 P2 kh § 2 § kt ¶ ¶
2
rD r 2
FMc t r p
 2 
w

trD A
2
r t $pFMkt ct r 2 $p
 
s
s
"SKIN" S=
qM
t D At kt q spBM 1 ¥
wf kt 2P k h ´
p( r, t )  p . ¦ ln + 0.80907 µ
i r 2 Pkh 2 FMc 2 r 2
q BM ¥POSITIVE §
1 ¥SKIN t ´ ¶
tr ´
FMcFACTOR
w

p( r, t )  p i s Ei ¦ µ
q BM ¦§¥ 21 ie DAMAGE µ
c t r 2 ¶´ ¶´
§¥ FMkt
p( r, t )  p i 2sPkh ¦ Ei¦ µµ
kt 2 Pkh § 2t § kt ¶ ¶
 25
FMc t r 2 PRESSURE PROFILE
qp BM 1 ¥
wf
ktIN FORMATION ´
p( r, t )  p s . ¦ ln + 0.80907 µ´
i
s 21 §¥ FMSKIN
q2 PBkhM RIGOROUS ckt r 2 ¶
p( r, t )  p $ 1 . t
¦ ln= PROFILE2 + 0.80907µ
p D (1, t D ) i ;ln2p tPDkh 0CONCEPT
sp
.80907
2 § FMc r
2 w
t ¶
STIMULATED ZONE
Figure 13 k >k
kt a

'LPHQVLRQOHVV6NLQ  25
FMktct r 2 q BM NEGATIVE1¨ ktSKIN FACTOR ·
( t )r 2  25
)DFWRU6
pFMwc p i s – ©ln  0.80907¸
t 2 Pkh 2 © FMc rw2 ¸
7KH GLPHQVLRQOHVV VNLQ 1 SUHVVXUHª GURS LVt GHQRWHGFigure E\ 6¹2.2.4
DQG LV GHÀQHG E\ WKH
equation:p D (1, t D )  2 ;ln t D  0.80907=
1
p D (1,$tpDs)  ;ln t D  0.80907=
S 2
q s BM
¨ ·
kh p q sBM – 1 ©ln kt  0.80907¸
(62)
p w ( t2) P
21 ©¨ damaged
khM the ·
i
Since the pressure dropq PB
2over FMckt rw2 zone, assuming
pw (t )  pi s – ©ln ª t  0.80907¸¹¸ steady-state laminar
'·$UF\ ÁRZ
p D (1-, VKRXOG Pkh
t D ) EH=2SURSRUWLRQDO
p D 2(1,©ª t DFM
WR + rw2S
) cWKH SURGXFW TsB+ ¸¹ the dimensionless skin
t
factor, S , only depends on the nature of the impairment. The dimensionless form
of equation $ps now be written:
S (61) may
q s BM 1
p (1-,$pts D ) = p wfD = [ln t D + 0.80908 + 2S]
S 
D
pD (1-, 2qPtBkh
D
)M = pD (1, tD) + S 2 (63)
s
2 Pkh r = 1- implies pressure in the well-bore. Hence the
where the notation
p D (1-,ZRUNLQJ
GLPHQVLRQOHVV t D ) qD=HTXDWLRQV
BMp D1 (1, t D )WUDQVLHQW
¨ IRU + S ÁRZ ZLWK D ZHOOERUH
· VNLQ HIIHFW
s kt
p
take the form: ( t )  p –
p D f (1-, t D ) 2=Pkhp D2 (1, tFM
w i © ln ) +2S  0.80908 + 2S ¸
©ª D c t rw ¸¹
1
p D (1-, t D ) = p wfD = [ln t D + 0.80908 + 2S]
21 (64)
p D (1-, t D ) = p wfD = [ln t D + 0.80908 + 2S]
2
and the corresponding equation in actual variables and parameters becomes:
q BM 1 ¨ kt ·
p w f ( t )  p i s – ©ln  0.80908 + 2S¸
q2 PBkhM 21 ©ª¨ FMcktt rw ¸¹·
2

p w f ( t )  p i s – ©ln  0.80908 + 2S ¸ (65)

2 Pkh 2 © FMc rw2 ¸¹
ª t
This formulation is the basis for constant rate drawdown analysis on a semilog graph
illustrated in Figure 14 in which the permeability is obtained from the slope and
the skin factor from the intercept.

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 31

 Ideal (CSFR) Drawdown CRD

pi
CARTESIAN PLOT

pw f

0 TIME, t

INTERCEPT SEMILOG PLOT

pwf (t = 1)

pw f
SLOPE, m
qM
=-
4P k h
Figure 14
0
ln t ,GHDO&6)5'UDZGRZQ

Figure 2.2.5
2.2.9 Analytical Solution for the Case of a Bounded Circular Reservoir
2I FRXUVH QR UHDO UHVHUYRLU LV LQÀQLWH LQ H[WHQW DQG WKH VROXWLRQ RI WKH SUHFHGLQJ
VHFWLRQLVRQO\YDOLGZKLOHWKHSUHVVXUHWUDQVLHQWLVFRQÀQHGZLWKLQWKHOLPLWVRID
particular cylindrical volume. As soon as the pressure at the outer boundary starts
to deviate from the initial value one of the external boundary conditions becomes
operative. Usually the alternative form most consistent with physical reality is the no
ÁRZFRQVWUDLQW2FFDVLRQDOO\WKHPDWKHPDWLFDOERXQGDU\PD\FRLQFLGHZLWKD
physical barrier, i.e. the extremity of the reservoir. However, a much more common
situation arises when several producing wells, placed more or less symmetrically,
DUH GLVWULEXWHG RYHU WKH UHVHUYRLU ,Q WKLV FDVH QR ÁRZ ERXQGDULHV DULVH EHFDXVH
of the reservoir drainage patterns which develop; deviation from the transient,
LQÀQLWHUHVHUYRLUVROXWLRQRFFXUVZKHQWKHH[SDQGLQJUDGLDOO\V\PPHWULFSUHVVXUH
GLVWXUEDQFHV IURP DGMDFHQW ZHOOV ÀUVW FRPH LQ FRQWDFW 7KH FRQFHSW RI GUDLQDJH
volumes will be taken up in detail later.

In the meantime an individual well will be assumed to be located in the centre

of a cylindrically shaped drainage area of uniform thickness, h, and external
radius, reZLWKQRÁRZDFURVVWKHH[WHUQDOERXQGDU\7KHGLPHQVLRQOHVVGLIIHUHQWLDO
system now takes the form:

¥ up ´
u¦ rD D µ
up D 1 § urD ¶
 •UD•UDe
ut D rD urD

tD < 0,1 pD = 0 all rD

up D
urD

32
up D
urD
Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
¥ up ´
u¦ rD D µ
2
up D 1 § urD ¶

ut D rD ur
¥ uDp D ´
u r
¥ up ´ ¥ r 1up¦§D ´D ur µ¶
u¦ rD upDDµu¦ D µ D
up D 1 up§D uurp1tDD¶ § r urD ¶ur
rDut= 1,  r ut D ur urrD = -1
D D D
D D D D
u rD
all tD > 0

up
ruD p= rDe, up D= 0 up D all tD > 0 (66)
D ur D
urD r urD urD
e D
where rDe =
rw
up
up D uup¥Dr up DD´
¦ D urD µ 2 ¥ rD2 ´ rDe 2
ln rD
The derivation §D purDD( r¶Dsolution,
uupr D of1theuanalytical
r , t )  using ¦
the  t
Laplace µ
transform
technique, to this
D  D e
ut D rD
differential system is urD
also given by r 2
Matthews
De 1 §
and4 ¶
Russell r
and
2
De
the1result is:

2 2 ¥ rDr22De ¥ ´rD2 r 2 ln´ r rDe

2
ln rD
2
p ( ¥
r r, t ) ´ 2
ln ¦r  t µ
puDp( rD , t D )pD ( r2D ,(t3DDr)De¦D4 rDe 
De D
4 D 4

2 lnerµDe
D t ¦
2 4 2t D
µ
22 r1De§ ¶ 41) r 2 ¶ 1 rDe 1
e 2
D r
rDe 1 § 4 De 2¶ rDe 1 1 r
§De
e
De
urD 4( rDe 1)
¥ 4 up4 D4´ 4 2
4 (u
De 1 1)
4
(u3prDe 4 rDe ln rD 4(r23Derr2ln
3r¦rDeDe 4Der1De) ln
µr 2 rDe 2)rDe2

up D  1 § u r De
De ¶   
D D d 2
exp(
2 A m1t)D )J1 (A m rDe ) A
2 2

uutrD r4D( rDe u1rPD) ¤ De

2 4 ( r 41()rDe
m 1 A m [ J1 (A m rDe ) J1 (A m )]
2 2
D

)J12 (AA (At Dm)rJDe12 )(A

d 2 22
D ))JAA
d
d
A 2m texp( exp(tDe Am rDe ) A
u
P¤p D
exp( P ¤ PD
¤ 22
mr
m 1m
2A [¥JrD(AA2 [rJ2´2t()DA rDeJrln(A)rD )]J 23(A )]d
2 2
exp( A 2m t D )J12 (A m rDe )
puDmr (r1D , A
t Dm)[Jm1(1A A
1 4 m¤
2
r m¦) 1 J (t µ )] 1De m 1
p
m mDe(11,
D1 § 4D
t )m
1m
e
De1
m 
m ln r  2
m (67)
r¶De De
2 2
D rDe 2 rDe 1 A m 2[ J1 (A m rDe ) J1 (A m )]
2 2

where A = J1(_m)Y0(_mrD) -2 tY1(_m)J0(_ d mr3 ) d

d 2 A t ) J (A
2 2
3A 2m texp(
D ) J1 (Aexp( D ) 1A tm rDe )2
m D ) J1 (A m rDe )
2
2 t(1D, t ) 2 D 3 ln 2 t exp(
¤ m rDe
D
u ¤ 
p 4 4 p
p(3Dr(D1,4t Dr ) lnDr 2 pD2ln ( r
1
DrDe r,
De t
tD1
2 )  2r D
De  ln r 2  2 ¤ m
2 kt 4 De m 21 A 2[ J (A2 r 2) J (A )] 2
2 2
urthe roots 2rof:  DeD 4 rDem 1 A m20[.J314(A mmrmDe1) 1 AJm1 m(2A[DeJm1)](A m1rDe )m J1 (A m )]
De De De
and _m are De t
D 4( rDe 1) De
r2
FMc r 2
De t e
J1(_mrDe)Y1(_m) - J1(_m)Y1(_mrDe) = 0 (68)
t D t ktt D  2t kt kt
t Ded exp( De A 2 2t 2 2)J 0DA.D3 r 2´) A 0rDe
¥2 r(FM 2.3
lnrD0.3
t2D )  FM rtDe c r2 t 31 and for the case where re >> rw
¤
pPD ( rD ,rDe
For the dimensionless
A [ J 2r p
(
2
A
mc r
De
pressure
D
r
D
e ¦ r
1
1 at 2the
m tt e µFM
well-bore,
Dee Dc r
(1§), t4DDeJ)2(A¶2 )] rtDeln
2
2 r =
rDe1D ,
e
, i.e. rDe >>m11HTXDWLRQVLPSOLÀHVFRQVLGHUDEO\DQGFDQEHZULWWHQ
De
m 1 m De 1 rm
De 4
2t 3
p2D t(1D, tDln
p(3Dr(41,4t Dr 4) ln ) 2rDe 2D3 ln 2rtDe 3 2
r 2 p 2 r 1 )
(1,rtDeD 43 2  tln De A m t D ) J1 (A m rDe )
Dd
De 2 r t D D De 4 rexp( 2

De¤
De De
p D (1, t D )  2 2 t ln rDe
De  r 2 D
5 2 4
4( rDe rDe 1)De < 4 0.1 m 1 r A m 2[ J1 (A m rDe ) J1 (A m )]
2
2 (69)
D
t tD
t Ded < t De 0.1 2 < D2 20.1 5 2
 5t
The _m values texp( in A kt
equations m t De 1 (A
rD)J(67) < or rD(69)
m rDe0.1
)1A take 5
D on monotonically increasing values
P
t ¤
as ‘m’ increases,
De 
m 1 A
D

2 i.e. 2_ < p
D

2 (1, . 0
.t..32)
. 
. . < [ ln rt
2
D + 0.80907]
. . . . Thus for a given value of tD the
Dem [ J1 (A mt rD
FMc
FM eDe ) JD1 (A m )]
r 1 r _ 2
_m D
2
exponentials decrease monotonically. Also the Bessel function portion of the terms
1lesstas)‘m’ 1 increases. Hence as t becomes large, the terms for
[ln Dt D  + [ln
in the series becomes
p D (1, t D )pD (1, t D + 0.80907]D
0.80907]
large ‘m’ become progressively 22tt DD p (1,2tsmaller
2 33)  1 [dln andt theexp( 0.80907]
A 2m t D )J123is(Arapidly
+summation m rDe )
convergent.
D2 t D
  2¤
p ( 1, t ) D r D
ln
p ( 1, t )   ln
p D (1,r
WD tall  2 =terms 2of the e
lnrseries
,QGHHG IRU D VXIÀFLHQWO\ 2 ODUJH 4D ) the are2 negligibly small;
D D 2 De
rrDe
D De
for practical purposes
De
this occurs4 form tD1/rDe A2rmDegreater
2[ J12 (A mDthan
rDe ) 4 about
J1 (A m0.3,
)] i.e. if the
2 t 2 t 3 3
= t D ) 2D = lnrDe 2  ln rDe
D
p D (1, t D )p D (1,
IROORZLQJFRQGLWLRQLVVDWLVÀHG
2 t 3
r r 4 4
tt De  < t D 0.1 ktptDD (1, 0
De t )
 . 5
3 FM D c r 2=
De D
 lnrDe
 2  0.3 t e rDe2
4 (70)
FMctt rreD2
De
rDe2
FM k
20.3FMc r 2
0.3FMtc t re t e
t
k 21t k 0.3FMc t re2
p (1, t )  [ lnt  30.80907]
, t DD)  2Engineering,
p DDof(1Petroleum D
 lnDrDe+ Heriot-Watt
t q s BM 1¨ kt ·
rDe p w ( t )  p4ki
Department University 33
2
v ©ln  0.80907¸
2Mkh 2ktª FMc t rw · 2
¹
q BM 1 ¨q s BM kt1 ¨ ·
 rDe 1 § 4 ¶ rDe 1
urD

(3rDe4
4 rDe4
lnrDe 2 rDe 2
1)
2 ¥ rD2  ´ rDe
2
ln r
p D ( rD , t D4)( r 2 1) ¦  t e µ 2 D
2

De 1 § 4 ¶ rDe 1
De r

ln r2DeA m t2Dr)De
2J1 (A m rDe ) A
d 2 2
4 exp(
P(3¤ 1)
4
rDe 4 rDe
m 1 A4 m([rJ21 ( A1m)rDe ) J12 (A m )]
De
the dimensionless pressure is given by equation (67) without the series summation
u2pD
2 tAD2 t function
A m3rDe
d
exp( A m t D is 2
A m rDe ) irrespective
)J1a(constant,
)  a linear ¤
d 2
and hence (1, t exp(
p becomes
PD¤ D ln)Jr1 (
m D De  )2tA
of D
. In this case
2 ut D
A m [ Jr12De(A m rDe ) J124(A m m)]1 A m 2[ J1 (A m rDe ) J1 (A m )]
2 2
m 1
of position, which implies that the dimensionless pressure is changing at the same
UDWHHYHU\ZKHUHLQWKHV\VWHPDQGWKDWWKHSUHVVXUHSURÀOHVDUHWKHUHIRUHQRWDOWHULQJ
in shape as time t proceeds.kt This situation d is described2 as the semi-steady-state
exp( A m t D )J12 (A or
tpDe (1, t 2D) 2 t D  ln2 r 0 .33  2 m rDe )
SVHXGRVWHDG\VWDWH
D rDDe FM 2 c t re De
ÁRZ SHULRG DQG WKH ¤
GLPHQVLRQOHVV SUHVVXUH DW WKH
4 m 1 A m 2[ J12 (A m rDe ) J12 (A m )]
ZHOOERUH
during this period is rgivenDe by:

t 2 t Dkt 3
tpDeD (1, t D2D)  r 2  ln2 r .3
De 0
4 (71)
rDe FM De c r
t e
The concept of semi-steady-state is an important one and is treated at length
subsequently. It has already
2 t t D been3indicated that for values of the parameter tD/rDe2
less thantp0.1 the<pressure  5 has not yet reached the outer boundary at r and
0.1D disturbance
D , tD )  2  r ln2 rDe
De (1
e
r
the solutions to systems D 4 are indistinguishable provided the line-source
De (49) and (66)
approximation is valid. Thus when the dual condition
1 t
tpDeD (1, <t D ) 0.1[ln tDD + 0.80907]
2 r2  5
(72)
D
LVVDWLVÀHGWKHERXQGHGUHVHUYRLUVROXWLRQPD\EHUHSODFHGE\WKHPDWKHPDWLFDOO\
2t D
PXFK VLPSOHU OLQHVRXUFH LQÀQLWHUHVHUYRLU
1 3 VROXWLRQ   1DWXUDOO\ ZKHQ WD/rD2
plogarithmic
D (1, t D ) approximation
=  lnto exponential integral, i.e. equation (54),
rDethe
D (1, t D )  [ln t D r + 0.80907]
> 25 the p 2
2 De 4
is preferable. The pressure behaviour in this period is not affected by the external
ERXQGDU\DQGLVHVVHQWLDOO\WKHVDPHDVLQDQLQÀQLWHUHVHUYRLUWKLVLVGHVFULEHGDV
WUDQVLHQWÁRZRUWKHLQÀQLWHDFWLQJSHULRG
0.3FMc t re 2
2t D 3
tp 
D (1, t D ) = 2
 lnrDe
k rDe 4
7KHLQWHULPWLPHGXULQJZKLFKQHLWKHUWKHLQÀQLWHDFWLQJQRUWKHVHPLVWHDG\VWDWH
asymptotes are applicable to the pressure behaviour of the bounded reservoir is
known as the late transient period and occurs when:
0.3FMc t rqe s BM 1 ¨
2
kt ·
w (t )  pi
tp  v ©ln  0.80907¸
0.1 < tDe < k 0.32Mkh 2 ª FMc t rw
2
¹ (73)

Thus the pressure behaviour domain is divided into three distinct regimes viz.
FM
0t ).3WUDQVLHQW
WUDQVLHQWp ODWH ¨
M 1VHPLVWHDG\VWDWH
c t rqe2s BDQG kt HDFK·FRUUHVSRQGLQJ WR D VSHFLÀF
t 
w ( p i v ©ln  0.80907 ¸
physical state of the 2Mkh 2 ª FMc t rw
k reservoir.
2
¹
Condition (39), upon which conditions (72) and (73) are partially founded, was
.3FMc t rqe2s Bthe
arrived at by0considering M ¨error 3 · pressure at the external boundary.
2 ktin the predicted
r
t
p 
,I LW LV RQO\( t
w WKH)  pSUHVVXUH
i ©
DW WKH  ln e ZKLFK
ZHOOERUH ¸ LV RI FRQFHUQ WKH LQÀQLWH DFWLQJ
k 2Mkh ª FMc t re 2
rw 4 ¹
solution is acceptable for a bounded, circular reservoir over a longer period of time.
Indeed up to values of tDe of 0.3 the deviation between the values of well-bore
pressure predicted byq s B M ¨ 2 kt(59) andre ((70))
equations 3 · is less than 1%. Hence, in a
p ( t )  p ©  ln
circular drainage area 2Mwith a central well,
rw for4 ¸¹ all practical purposes regarding
w i
kh ª FM 2
c t re
WKH ZHOOERUH SUHVVXUH WKHUH DUH RQO\ WZR ÁRZ UHJLPHV  WKH LQÀQLWH DFWLQJ
and semi-steady-state periods - with the demarcation occurring at tDe equal to
0.3. Thus in summary:

&LUFXODU%RXQGHG5HVHUYRLU:HOOERUH3UHVVXUH

34
 rtDe FMkt c t re
t Ded exp( D
 2 2 2 0.3
A mctt rDe )J1 (A m rDe ) A
P ¤ rDe FM
2

2
m 1 A m [ J 21t(DA m rDe ) J31 (A m )]
2 2

Pressure , t D )  2  lnAnalysis
p D (1Transient rDe In Drawdown And Buildup
rDe 4
rpDD (1, trD )  FMDct rlnrDe 3
2 2 2 t 2
  2r 2t 43 d
exp( A 2m t D )J12 (A m rDe )
pt DD (1, tADt)  De2Dkt ln rDe  2 ¤
rDe t D 4 m 1 A m 2[ J12 (A m rDe ) J12 (A m )]
t De < 0.1 2
 5
trDD
t De < 0.1 q B2 M ¥5 1 ¥ FMc r 2 ´ ´
t ktsrD
t Der,t ) 2D pi .3 Ei¦
(a) tpDe(7UDQVLHQWÁRZ t
 ¦
0 µµ
rDe 1FM2c P rkh
2 § 2 § kt ¶ ¶
p D (1, t D )  [lnt teD + 0.80907] (74)
12
p D (1, t D )  [ln t D + 0.80907]
22t D q BM 31 ¥ kt ´
(b) tp r(,1t,)t D)p 2  sln2rDet . ¦ ln 3
pDe(D!6HPLVWHDG\VWDWHÁRZ + 0.80907 µ
i
p D (1, t D ) rDe= 2 Pkh2D 42ln§rDe FMc t r
2
¶
2rDe
tD 34 (71)
p D (1, t D ) = 2
 lnrDe
t D rDe 4
t Dekt < 0.1  5
0.32 FM  c25r 2 r 2
tFM
This is very  c t rconvenient t e since
D the complicated late transient solution involving
Bessel functions k
0.3FMc t re
need 2 not be employed. Alternatively in terms of actual variables
t
and parameters these become:
k 1
pp D (1,(1, tt D ))  1 [ln ln t D  0+.80907 0.80907]
2
q 2;BMt D 1 ¨ kt = ·
D
0 . 2 FM
D
c r
(a ) pt w( t )  p i t 2e
s 7UDQVLHQWÁRZ
v ©ln  0.80907¸
k 2qMBkh M 12 ¨ª FMkt
2
c t rw ·¹
p w ( t )  p i s v2 t ©ln 2 3
 0.80907¸
p D (1, t D ) 2M=kh q BM 2 ªD ¨FM
2 1
lnrcDterwkt
¹ ·
p w (0t ).3FM  cpri 2 s rDe– ©ln 42  0.80907¸ (60)
t e 2 Pkh 2 © FMc rw ¸¹
t ª t
0.3FM k c r2
t  0.3FMct re2
(b) t  k te  6HPLVWHDG\VWDWHÁRZ
$pks
S q BM ¨ 2 kt r 3·
p w ( tq) s BpMi s ©  ln e ¸
2 Pkh 2qMBkh M ¨ª FM2cktt re
2
rrw 34 ·¹ (75)
p w ( t )  p i qs BM © 1 ¨ 2 ktln e ¸ ·
pw (t )  pi 2 Ms kh FMc r
vª ©lnt e r 4 ¹
w 0.80907
2 M kh 2 FM c r 2 ¸
p D (1-, t D ) = p D (1, t D ) + S ª t w ¹
2.2.10 Analytical Solution for a Constant Pressure Outer Boundary

.3FM
In this event 0the c t re
condition
2
1 takes the form:
at the external limit
tp 
D (1-, t D ) = p wfD = [ln t D + 0.80908 + 2S]
k 2
rD = rDe , pD = 0 all tD (76)

M M¨ 2¨kt kt re 3 ·
qqs BB ·
DQGLQÁRZWKURXJKWKHRXWHUERXQGDU\WDNHVSODFHDWDUDWHGHWHUPLQHGE\WKHORFDO
pressure p w ((tt))pp
pgradient and s ©– 1 law,
i D’Arcy’s ©ln  ln  0.80908
i.e. ¸ + 2S¸
i 2 Mkh FMc r 2
r2 4
2 Pkhª 2 © t eFMc rww ¹
wf
ª t ¸¹
up q e BM

up e 2qPe B
u r r  r khrMe (77)

where qeuu pr r  re 2qPekhr BMe
LVWKHLQÁRZIURPDVLQNVXUURXQGLQJWKHF\OLQGULFDOYROXPH8VLQJWKH

ur r  re up2D Pkhre
GHÀQLWLRQVRIGLPHQVLRQOHVVTXDQWLWLHVHTXDWLRQPD\EHZULWWHQ
qe  q
uuprD r  r
q e  q D D De
uuprD r  r (78)
q e  q D D De
urDonly d
B 2m t D )Jfor
exp(solution 0 (B m
2
rDe )dimensionless well-bore
D (1, t D )  ln rDe 2 ¤
For the pmoment r  r the analytical the
; =
D De

pressure will be given, i.e. md1 Bexp( B2mt) )JJ20((BB mrrDe))

2 2 2
m J1 (B
p D (1, t D )  ln rDe 2 ¤ 2 2 m D 02 m De
md ;
1 Bexp(
m J1 ( =
BBm2)t )JJ02((BBm rrDe ))
p D (1, t D )  ln rDe 2 ¤ 2 2 m D 02 m De
q BM r
;
m 1 B m J1 (B m ) J 0 (B m rDe ) = (79)
pw  pi s ln e
q2 PBkh M rrw
Department p i sEngineering,
p wofPetroleum ln e Heriot-Watt University 35
2qPB khM rw
2 Pskh$p re 0.0002637kt
 up q BM
 e
ur r  re 2 Pkhre

where the `m are the roots of:

up D
q q
J1 e(`m) Yu0r(`m rDe) - Y1 (`m) J0 (`m rDe) = 0 (80)
D rD  rDe

$JDLQ IRU VXIÀFLHQWO\ ORQJ WLPHV WKH VXPPDWLRQ LV QHJOLJLEOH DQG HTXDWLRQ
(79) reduces to: d 2
exp( B m t D )J 0 (B m rDe )
2
p D (1, t D )  ln rDe 2 ¤
pD (1, tD) = ln rDe m 1 ; =
B 2m J12 (B m ) J 20 (B m rDe ) (81)

or, in terms of actual variables

q BM r
pw  pi s ln e (82)
2 Pkh rw
,Q WKLV FLUFXPVWDQFH WKH LQÁRZ DW WKH H[WHUQDO ERXQGDU\ DQG WKH SURGXFWLRQ
rate are pequal, i.e.2 qPekh=$qps and a true 0.0002637
t D steady-state
kt within the cylindrical
exists
D = =
volume. Note that 887 2q s BM (82) pi represents FM
in .equation 2
thecpressure
t rw
at the outer boundary
and is synonymous with pe .

up Field
Ei(x)
2.2.11 SPE = M x + a 0 + a1x + a 2 x 2 + a 3x 3 + a 4 x 4 + a x 5 + E(x)
q e Bln
 Units 5
ur r  re treatment
In the preceding 2 Pkhre the equations have been presented in fundamental
form applicable in any system of consistent units e.g. strict metric S.I. where
the basic units are: 1 x  a1x  a 2 x  a 3x  a 4
. 4 3 2
Ei(x) =  E( x )
up D xe x3 x 4  b1x 3  b 2 x 2  b 3x  b 4
q e rate,
Production q qs : m /s Formation thickness, h : m Permeability, k : m2
Viscosity, +:
u rD r
:r Ns/m2
Pressure, p : Pa Radius, r:m Table 1
D De

Time t:s Compressibility, ct : Pa-1 6,0HWULF8QLWV

q dT
 engineers
k d
exp( in B mat Dmore
)J 0 (Bpractical
2 2
m rDe )
HoweverpAmost
¤
dr prefer to work
D (1, t D )  ln rDe 2
B 2
H[DPSOH63(ÀHOGXQLWVZKLFKDUHGHÀQHGDV
m 1 J 2
(B; ) J 2
(B r )
system of units, for
=
m 1 m 0 m De

qs : STbbl/day h : ft k : md
+ : cp
q k dp p : psia r : ft Table 2
hr 
t :
M qdrBM
pAw  p i s ln e
crt : psia-1 63()LHOG8QLWV

2 Pkh
,Q WHUPV RI 63( ÀHOG
rw GHÀQLWLRQV RI GLPHQVLRQOHVV SUHVVXUH DQG WLPH
XQLWV WKH
take the form: 1 ¥ rD2 ´
Pkh$p
p d = 2Ei 0.0002637kt
p D = 2 ¦§ 4 t D µ¶ tD =
887.2q s BM FMc t rw2
DQGDQ\HTXDWLRQFDQEHFRQYHUWHGLQWRÀHOGXQLWVXVLQJWKHDSSURSULDWHGHÀQLWLRQV
2
trDD.
of pD andEi(x) = ln x + a 0 + a1x + a 2 x 2 + a 3x 3 + a 4 x 4 + a 5 x 5 + E(x)
4t D
2.2.12 The Depth of Investigation and Radius of Drainage
1 . to
These analytical solutions  adiffusivity
x 4the 1x  a 2 x  a 3 x  a 4
3 2
equation predict the dynamic response of
Ei(x) = 1
the pressure in a model reservoir 0
after . 2194
3 it is put
 E( x)
2 on production at a constant rate, q. The
x
x =b1x  b 2 x 0b.11
p D (rDi ) = xeEi(1) 4
3 x  b4
pressure response to 2a variable (time-dependent)
2 production rate will be considered
subsequently. The distributed pressure behaviour of the reservoir is conveniently
represented on a plot of pressure drop versus radial distance from the well-bore at
particularqtimes, allri on a dimensionless basis;
4 ktsuch a diagram is shown in Figure 15.
rDi = k dT= 4t D =
A rw dr FMc t rw2
36

4 kt
 Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
In order to compute this information it is necessary to evaluate the full exponential
integral solution using an algorithm of the form:

0)x)1

Ei(x) = - ln x + a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3 + a4x4 + a5x5 + ¡(x)

where ap0 = - 2Pkh$p

0.57721566 0.0002637kt
yaD3 = 0.05519968
ct r w
D 2
a1 = 887 .2q s BM
0.99999193 a4 = - FM0.00976004 ¡(x) < 2x10-7
a2 = - 0.24991055 a5 = 0.00107857

1)x)'
1 x 4  a 1x 3  a 2 x 2  a 3 x  a 4
Eix  .  E x
xe x x 4  b1x 3  b 2 x 2  b 3x  b 4

where a1 = 8.5733287401 b1 = 9.5733223454

a2 = 18.05901(70)73 b2 = 25.6329561486 ¡(x) < 2x10-8
a3 = 8.6347608925 b3 = 21.0996530827
a4 = 0.2677737343 b4 = 3.95849(70)22
EXPONENTIAL INTEGRAL FUNCTION
The Ei function has the form shown in Figure 15; as the argument, x, becomes large
the function asymptotically approaches zero. Noted that e- u the region in which
the log approximation is valid occurs atEivery
x small ( )
= - values
x < 0.01. The exponential function is mainly required -x
°
duthe argument viz.
of
u for the interpretation
of well to well interference tests where the radius, r, is the distance between
observation and active well. HENCE E1 (x) IS DENOTED -Ei(-x)

E1(x) 3

-Ei(-x)
EXPONENTIAL INTEGRAL FUNCTION 2

d 1
Ei(x) = - ° e du
-u
Figure 15 u 0
'LPHQVLRQOHVV3UHVVXUH
-x
0.4 1.0 1.6
GLVWULEXWLRQVLQ5DGLDO)ORZ HENCE E1 (x) IS DENOTED -Ei(-x)
x

Fig 2.2.7
:KHQWKHZHOOLVSXWRQÁRZDWWLPHW WKHRLOSURGXFWLRQUDWHTLVLQLWLDOO\
E1(x)
VXVWDLQHG E\ WKH H[SDQVLRQ RI ÁXLG LPPHGLDWHO\ DURXQG WKH ZHOOERUH  +RZHYHU
3
this expansion is, of course, accompanied by a reduction in pressure and a local
-Ei(-x) 2
SUHVVXUHJUDGLHQWLVHVWDEOLVKHGLQWKHUHVHUYRLU7KXVÁXLGIURPWKHQH[WDGMDFHQW
DQQXODU]RQHÁRZVWRZDUGWKHZHOOERUHDWDUDWHJRYHUQHGE\'·$UF\·VODZDQGWKH
1
SURFHVV RI ÁXLG H[SDQVLRQSUHVVXUH GHFOLQH LV H[WHQGHG IXUWKHU LQWR WKH UHVHUYRLU
0
In this way0.4a progressively
1.0 1.6
increasing zone of pressure drawdown propagates out
from the active wellx until it reaches the external boundary. The propagation of this
pressure disturbance is analogous to the temperature transient in a cylindrical block
Fig 2.2.7
RIPDWHULDOVXEMHFWHGWRDFRQVWDQWKHDWÁX[DWWKHIDFHRIDFHQWUDOFDYLW\6LQFHWKH

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 37

well is produced at a constant rate the pressure gradient at the well-bore, r = rw , is
WKHVDPHDWDOOWLPHV7KHVKDSHRIWKHLQVWDQWDQHRXVSUHVVXUHSURÀOHDWDQ\WLPH
GXULQJWKHWUDQVLHQWSHULRGLVVWLOOPXFKLQÁXHQFHGE\WKHUDGLDOQDWXUHRIWKHÁRZ
i.e. rapidly increasing gradient as the well-bore is approached, and this results in
WKHZHOOERUHSUHVVXUHH[KLELWLQJWKHVWURQJHVWG\QDPLFUHVSRQVHWRDZHOOÁRZUDWH
change. In most transient well tests this is precisely the quantity which is observable
by measurement using down-hole pressure recording instruments.

,Q )LJXUH  WKH GLPHQVLRQOHVV SUHVVXUH SURÀOHV DW WD = 103, 104 and 105 have
been constructed using the exponential integral solution i.e. equation (50); the
dimensionless pressure, pD , is plotted as a function of dimensionless radius, rD , for
various values of dimensionless time, tD . It is not until tD/r2De = 0.1, equivalent to
tD = 105 in this reservoir, that the external boundary pressure starts to decline and
WKHH[SRQHQWLDOLQWHJUDOVROXWLRQLVLQYDOLG7KHSURÀOHVIRUWD = 5x105 and greater
have been computed from the semi-steady-state solution and it is apparent how
the pressure decline takes place uniformly without change in the shape of the
distribution. For dimensionless times between tD = 105 and 5x105 strictly speaking
the bounded reservoir (late transient) solution should be employed but, as previously
stated, there is very little error in omitting this regime; the graphical presentation of
WKHSUHVVXUHEHKDYLRXUVKRZVQRVLJQVRIGLVFRQWLQXLW\EHWZHHQLQÀQLWHDFWLQJDQG
semi-steady-state behaviour. Remember,
Dimensionless however,
Pressure that this is only true for a well
Distributions
in the centre of a circular drainage area.
in Radial Flow
0
103
104 10
5
5x10
5

1
6
10
2
r De=10 3
pD 3 2 x 1 06
4

5
6
t D= 3 x 1 0
6

8
Figure 16
9
1 200 400 600 800 1000 ([SRQHQWLDO,QWHJUDO
rD )XQFWLRQ

'XULQJ WKH LQÀQLWHDFWLQJ SHULRG D UHJLRQ RI SUHVVXUH GLVWXUEDQFH SURSDJDWHV RXW
Fig 2.2.6
IURPWKHZHOODWZKLFKDÁRZUDWHFKDQJHKDVRFFXUUHG7KLVSHQHWUDWLRQDVSHFWLV
quite characteristic of systems whose behaviour is described by the second-order,
parabolic diffusivity equation and is well-known in heat conduction and mass
transfer. The analogy between diffusional transport processes and compressible
ÁXLG ÁRZ LQ D SRURXV PHGLXP GHULYHV IURP WKH VLPLODU PDWKHPDWLFDO QDWXUH RI
underlying phenomenological description.

For example, the basis of unsteady-state heat conduction is:

38
 w

Ei(x) = 2 P khln$xp + a 0 + a1x

2
pD = tD =
887.2q s BM
Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
. 4
1 x  a 1x 3  a 2 x 2 
Ei(x) =
Ei(x) = x e lnxx +b1xa 0 +b 2 xa1x
x 4 3 2

1 . x 4  a 1x 3  a 2 x 2
Ei(x)
q = dT x 4
D ORFDOÁX[HTXDWLRQ)RXULHU·VODZ  k xe x  b1x 3  b 2 x 2
A dr
(b) relation between energy density
and temperature (state equation) de = l Cp dT
q dT
q  kk dp
(c) law of energy conservation A dr
up q e BM A M dr

ZKHUHDVFRPSUHVVLEOHÁXLGÁRZLVGHVFULEHGE\
ur 2 Pkhr
r  re e

q k ¥ rD2 ´
1 dp
D ORFDOÁX[HTXDWLRQ'·$UF\·VODZ p d = Ei¦ µ
up D A M2 dr§ 4 t D ¶
qe  q
urD r  mass
(b) relation between
r
density and
pressure (state Dequation)
De
dl = l c dp
1 ¥ rD2 ´
2
r
p dD = Ei¦ µ
(c) law of mass conservationd exp( B m t D )J 0 (B m rDe )
2 2 4t D 2 § 4t D ¶
p D (1, t D )  ln rDe 2 ¤ 2 2
m 1 B m ; J1 (B m ) J 0 (B m rDe )=
2
$OWKRXJKFRPSUHVVLEOHÁXLGÁRZLQSRURXVPHGLDLVQRWGLIIXVLRQDOLQQDWXUHWKH
2 1 importance 0.2194
governing equations have the same mathematical form. Because prDD(rDi ) =
of the Ei(1) = 
of the diffusivity equation in transport phenomena, analytical 2 solutions 2
4 t Dor numerical
exist for almost every conceivable geometry and boundary condition.
q BM r
pw  pi s ln e
2 Pkh rw
Radius of Influence r 4k
rpDi (r= ) = i 1 =Ei(1)4 t D= =0.2194 
rw 2 2 FMc
D Di

2 Pkh$p 0.0002637kt
pD = tD =
887.2q s BM FMc t rw2
r 4 kt 4k
riDi =4At i  = 4 t D =
2
10
3
10
3
5x10 t =10
D
4
rw FMc t FMc
Ei(x) = ln x + a 0 + a1x + a 2 x 2 + a 3x 3 + a 4 x 4 + a 5 x 5 + E(x

4 kt
1 . x 4  a1x 3  a 2 x 2  a 3x  a 4 ri  4At  FMc t
Ei(x) =  E( x )
xe x x 4  b1x 3  b 2 x 2  b 3x  b 4
Pressure
1 100 200
Disturbance rD
Front

q dT pD = 01
.
Figure 17  k
A dr
The velocity with which the pressure disturbance moves out through the reservoir
is determined by the system hydraulic diffusivity, _ = k/(q+ct). The leading edge
RI WKH SUHVVXUH IURQW GHÀQHG ORRVHO\ DV WKH ORFDWLRQ ZKHUH WKH SUHVVXUH LV VD\
q from
1% different k the
dp initial value, is shown in Figure Fig 2.2.8
17. The dimensionless

pressure A drop at Ma distance,
dr rD , from the wellbore and at time, tD , is given by
the exponential integral solution:

1 ¥ rD2 ´
pd = Ei¦ µ
2 § 4t D ¶

rD2
4t D
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 39
 A dr
q k dp q k dp
 
A
q M
k dpdr A M dr
q  k dp
A  M dr
A M dr 2
1 ¥ rD ´ 1 ¥ rD2 ´
pd = Ei¦ µ pd = Ei¦
21 §¥ 4rtD2D ¶´ µ
2 § 4t D ¶
pd = 1 Ei¥¦ rD2 ´µ
pd = 2 Ei¦§ 4 t D µ¶
2 § 4t D ¶
rD2 rD2
If the argument
4rtD2D of the Ei function is arbitrarily set to unity, i.e. = 1, the value
of pD is given2 by: 4t D
r
4 tDD
4t D
1 0.2194
p D (rDi ) = Ei(1) =  0.11 1 0.2194
12 2
0.2194 p D (rDi ) = Ei(1) =  0.11
p D (rDi ) = 1 Ei(1) = 0.2194  0.11 2 2
p D (rthat
This implies Di ) =at any2 Ei(1) 2  0.11 pressure drop is less than 0.1 at
time, tD=, the dimensionless
2
a distance rDi fromrthe wellbore where: 4 kt 2
rDi = i = 4 t D = r 4 kt
rrwi FM4cktt rw2 rDi = i = 4 t D =
rDi = ri = 4 t D = 4 kt 2 rw
(83) FMc t rw2
rDi = rw = 4 t D = FMc t rw
rw FMc t rw2
4 kt in radial geometry is given by:
i  4ofAtpenetration

Thus the rdepth 4 kt
FM
4 ktc t ri  4At 
ri  4At  4 kt FMc t
ri  4At  FMc t
FMc t (84)

$OWKRXJKWKLVGHÀQLWLRQRIGHSWKRILQYHVWLJDWLRQRUUDGLXVRILQÁXHQFHLVERUURZHG
from transient heat conduction, where it is termed depth of penetration, the concept
is extremely useful in well test analysis and is a measure of the extent of the reservoir
ZKLFKKDVEHHQLQÁXHQFHGE\WKHSUHVVXUHGLVWXUEDQFH(TXDWLRQPD\DOVREH
written in the alternative dimensionless form:
tD kt
t Di    0.25
rDi FMc t ri2
2
(85)

7KHGHÀQLWLRQRIWKHUDGLXVRILQYHVWLJDWLRQLVVRPHZKDWDUELWUDU\VLQFHWKHSUHVVXUH
4 sDV\PSWRWLF
SURÀOH LV LQ IDFW 0.0002637WRktSi and0no .00105
sharpktfront exists. kt
Hence the value of
ri    0.032
the constant in (85), for FMc t
example, depends FMc t
on the level of FMc t from pi which
deviation
LV FKRVHQ WR EH VLJQLÀFDQW 7KH YDOXH RI  KDV EHHQ DFFHSWHG DV GHÀQLQJ WKH
reservoir volume which has contributed to the dynamic pressure response measured
( p( r, tt)
at the well-bore. Taking )) P
p wf (kt
tthe kh
constant as 0.1,ras suggested previously, would seriously
t Di  D2   0. =
25 ln
RYHUHVWLPDWHWKHUHJLRQZKLFKKDGDQ\UHDOLQÁXHQFHRQSUHVVXUHDWWKHZHOOERUH 
M c t ri2
rDi q s BFM rw
,Q63(ÀHOGXQLWVHTXDWLRQEHFRPHV

4 s 0.(0002637 kt2 Pkh 0.00105

p i p wf ( t )) 1 kt 4 t D
= ln kt
r
rpi D(1, t D )   = ln  0.032 rDd = ln d
FMc t q s BM FMc2t G FMc t rw
(86)

( p( r1, t ) 4pAsince
In practical terms, t ( t ))the
 P
porosity,
kh rd q , and the compressibility, ct , do not vary
r is largely determined by the reservoir
i.e .
very much the dynamicln wf = ln ln
pressure =response
2 qGrwB 2
r
M oil viscosity,
permeability, k , and s the
w + . rwThe implication of this statement is that,
LIWKHUHVSRQVHWRDÁRZUDWHFKDQJHLVPHDVXUHGDQGWKHRLOYLVFRVLW\LVNQRZQLW
should be possible to1infer the value of the reservoir permeability. This is one of
the main< rd t =)  of ( ptransient
i p wf 2=Pkhtesting.
4(Att))well 0.7493 1 4A4tt D r
pobjectives
D (1, D G = ln = ln r = ln d
Dd
q s BM 2 G rw
The concept of depth of investigation is particularly useful in estimating how far
from a well information is being obtained at a particular time in a transient well test.
1 is of 4(Apti pimportance ¥
( t ))r2 Pkhin 1estimating ´
4 ktthe duration
In addition, )  2vital
ip.eD.(itt Dln = wf ln d  ¦ ln  2Sµ of a proposed well
2 theGrentire s BM rw area of GFMc t rw2
test to evaluate w qdrainage 2 §a well. ¶

40
1 2 Pkh 2Pkh
<
J t =rd = 4At = 0.7493
= 4At
 Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
Depth of Investigation

CLASSICAL FORMULA DOES NOT TAKE ACCOUNT

OF GAUGE RESOLUTION
q

ACTIVE OBSERVATION
WELL WELL

MINIMUM OBSERVABLE $p
DEPENDS ON GAUGE RESOLUTION

1 ¥ r2 ´
p D  Ei¦ Dt µ
2 § 4D ¶

rD

pi
$p 2P kh
p wo pD =
qM
= 01
.
"ARBITRARY"
OBS CRITERION
WELL
PRESSURE
Ei SOLUTION
0
t
Figure 18
'HSWKRILQYHVWLJDWLRQ INTERFERENCE TEST

Fig 2.2.9
The nature of the transient pressure response is further illuminated by considering
the behaviour of a well to well interference test illustrated in Figure 18a where
the pressure is measured in an inactive observation well some distance, r, from
WKH ÁRZLQJ ZHOO  7KH SUHVVXUH DW WKH REVHUYDWLRQ ZHOO DJDLQ PRGHOOHG E\ WKH
exponential integral solution, is plotted as a function of time in Figure 18b. Since
sonic phenomena are disregarded in the diffusivity equation the analytical solution
predicts that the pressure at the observation well starts to change immediately the
DFWLYHZHOOLVVHWLQÁRZ,QUHDOLW\RIFRXUVHSUHVVXUHGLVWXUEDQFHVFDQQRWH[FHHG
the speed of sound in the porous medium. However the pressure propagation process
essentially follows a diffusional model and after some time the dimensionless
pressure change at the observation well, pD , exceeds the arbitrary value of 0.1;
at this point the depth of investigation is deemed to have reached the observation
well. It is readily apparent from this physical situation that the actual moment at
which a pressure change at the observation well becomes detectable is related
to the resolution of the pressure transducer; once the pressure deviation from
pi becomes larger than the gauge resolution, bp, it is resolvable. In Chapter 4
DQ DOWHUQDWLYH GHÀQLWLRQ RI GHSWK RI LQYHVWLJDWLRQ EDVHG RQ SUHVVXUH WUDQVGXFHU
resolution, will be given.

A related concept to depth of investigation is that of radius of drainage which is

LOOXVWUDWHGLQ)LJXUHZKHUHWKHGLPHQVLRQOHVVSUHVVXUHSURÀOHDWVRPHWLPHWD, is
plotted versus ln rD . Over a large range of rDWKHSUHVVXUHSURÀOHH[KLELWVDVWUDLJKW
line on this plot indicating that quasi-steady-state conditions exist in the vicinity of the
wellbore i.e. the pressure distribution follows the steady-state model:

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 41

 rD d rD i
0
Steady-State
1 Pressure Profile
for Same pD(1,t D)
2
pD I.-A. Transient
Pressure Profile
3 5
at t D = 10

Radius 5
tD kt rD i = classical depth
t Di of 2   0.25 of investigation
DrainagerDi FM6c t ri2
tD kt
t Di 
r   0.25 2 5
DrDi
2
FMc0t ri2 1 3 4 6 7
4 s 0.0002637kt 0.00105 lnktrD kt Figure 19
ri    0.032
FMc t FMc t FMc t
4 s 0.0002637kt 0.00105kt kt
ri    0.032 Fig 2.2.10
FMc t FMc t FMc t
( p( r, t ) p wf ( t )) Pkh r
= ln
q s BM rw (87)
( p( r, t ) p wf ( t )) Pkh r
= ln
q s BM rw
7KHUDGLXVRIGUDLQDJHLVGHÀQHGWKURXJKWKHHTXLYDOHQWDQQXOXVKDYLQJWKHVDPH
overall steady-state pressure t ))2 P
( p i p wf (drop kh
as the dynamic 1 case;
4t r
p D (1, t D )  = ln D thus: = ln rDd = ln d
q s BM 2 G rw
( p i p wf ( t ))2 Pkh 1 4t D rd
p D (1, t D )  = ln = ln rDd = ln
q s BM 2 G rw
1 4At rd
i.e. ln 2 = ln
2 Grw rw
1 4At r
i.e. ln 2 = ln d
2 Grw rw
1
< rd = 4At = 0.7493 4At
G
1 (88)
< rd = 4At = 0.7493 4At
G
( p p ( t ))2 Pkh 1 ¥ 4 kt ´
p D ( t D )  toi r =wf 0.75r . Thus
which corresponds  ¦ ln the radius2 of  2drainage,
Sµ rd, is somewhat
d q BM 2 § GFMc t rw
s
i
¶
smaller than the classical
( p p wf depth
( t ))2ofPkh 1¥
investigation, 4rkt
i
. ´
pD (t D )  i  ¦ ln  2Sµ
7KLV GHÀQLWLRQ RI UDGLXV2RI
M
q s BGUDLQDJH 2 § GFMc tWR
FRUUHVSRQGV
2
¶ WKH LQWHUFHSW U , of
rw ÀQGLQJ
Pkh 2 Pkh Dd
Jt = =
WKHVWUDLJKWOLQHSRUWLRQRIWKHG\QDPLFSUHVVXUHSURÀOHVKRZQLQ)LJXUH7KH
¥1 4 kt ´ ¥ rd ´
BM¦ ln2 Pkh 2  Sµ BM¦2lnPkh  Sµ
LPSRUWDQWIDFWHPHUJHVWKDWWKHÁRZFRQGLWLRQVLQWKHYLFLQLW\RIWKHZHOOERUHFRQIRUP
Jt =
WR TXDVLVWHDG\VWDWH GFMc t rwWKDW WKH
§ 2 LPSO\LQJ ¶ = § rw Tr¶ , is indistinguishable
ORFDO ÁRZUDWH
¥1 4 kt T RYHU ´ TXLWH D UDQJH
¥ rd RI UDGLL
´
M¦ ln
IURP WKH À[HGBVDQGIDFH UDWH  Sµ BM¦ ln  Sµ  WKLV LPSOLHV WKDW
§ 2 GFMc t rw 2
¶ § rw
WKHUHLVQHJOLJLEOHH[SDQVLRQRIÁXLGRFFXUULQJLQWKHQHDUZHOOERUHUHJLRQ7KLV¶
1
REVHUYDWLRQLVFUXFLDOLQWKHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIPXOWLSKDVHÁRZIRUH[DPSOHDQGWKH
p wD = [ ln t D + 0.80908]
2
behaviour of radial composite systems.
1
p wD = [ ln t D + 0.80908]
2
2t 3
42 p wD  2D  ln rDe
rDe 4
2t 3
 t t t

( p( r, t ) p wf ( t )) Pkh r
( p( r, t ) p wf ( t )) Pkh = ln r

2
q s BM = ln rw
Pressure Transient q s BM Analysis rIn
w Drawdown And Buildup
( p p wf ( t ))2 Pkh 1 4t D rd
p D (1, t D )  ( p ii p wf ( t ))2 Pkh = 1 ln 4 t D = ln rDd = ln rd
p D (1, t D )  q BM = 2 ln G = ln rDd = ln rw
q ss BM 2 G rw
t kt
t Di 1 D2 4At  0r .25
tFMc=t ri lnis rclosely
2
The idea iof rDi 4ofA2drainage
1 ln
.e.radius d
related to the concept of transient productivity
i.e. 2 ln Grw2 = ln rwd
index denoted Grw
2 JtDQGGHÀQHGE\WKHHTXDWLRQ
rw
qs = Jt4(psi -0p.wf
0002637 kt
0.00105kt
(t)) kt (89)
r  1   0.032
<i rd = FM 1 c t 4At = 0.7493 FMc t At
4 At FMc t
< rWKLV
d =GHÀQLWLRQ At =WKH0.7493
G 4ZLWK WUDQVLHQW4ÁRZ
&RPSDULQJ G H[SUHVVLRQ LQFOXGLQJ D VNLQ
effect:
( p( r, t ) p wf ( t )) Pkh r
pp wf (( tt ))
(( pp i P=
))22 Pkh ln1 ¥ 4 kt ´
q s Bi M wf
p D (( tt D ))  kh  1 r¥¦wln 4 kt 2  2S´µ
p D D BM
q sB  ln
2 ¦§ GFM GFMcc t rrw2  2 Sµ¶ (90)
q s M 2 § t w ¶
Jt is given by: ( p p ( t ))2 Pkh 1 4t D r
p D (1, t D )  i 2 Pwfkh = ln 2 Pkh= ln rDd = ln d
2 Pqkhs BM = 2 2GPkh rw
JJ tt ==
¥¥ 11 4 kt ´ = ¥ r ´
BM M¦ ln ln 4 kt  S´ BMM¥¦ lnln rdd  S´ (91)
B ¦§ 2 GFMc t rw22  Sµµ¶ B ¦§ rw  Sµµ¶
1 4A § t2 GFMc t rrw ¶ § rw ¶
i.e. ln 2 = ln d
Thus the transient 2 Grwproductivity rw index is just another way of expressing the p
1
1 [ ln t + 0.80908]
IXQFWLRQDQGVHUYHVWRGHPRQVWUDWHWKDWWKHWUDQVLHQW3,DVGHÀQHGDERYHGHFUHDVHV
D
p
p wD = =
with time wD 2 [ disturbance
ln t DD + 0.80908]
12
as the pressure propagates out into the reservoir. Note that
< rof
the concept d =
transient PI 4 A
is t
very = 0.7493
useful when4A thet pressure drop or drawdown is
held approximately constant G and the rate declines as a consequence of the sandface
2 t DD 3
pressure pgradient
p wD  2 t2decreasing
wD   ln
 ln rrDe as 3the disturbance moves deeper into the system. Note
De
that Jt LV GHÀQHG rrDe
2LQ WHUPV RI WKH
De 4 LQLWLDO SUHVVXUH Si , since the notion of average
4
( p i p wf ( t ))2 Pkh 1 ¥
SUHVVXUHUHDOO\KDVQRPHDQLQJLQDQLQÀQLWHDFWLQJV\VWHP 4 kt ´
pD (t D )   ¦ ln  2Sµ
q s BM 2 § GFMc t rw 2
¶
2.2.13 The Dynamics of Reservoir Pressure Response
The theoretical well-bore pressure 2 t D response for 3 the same reservoir (rDe = 1000) is
p D (1 , t D )  p wfD   ln r +2SPkh
shown in more detail in2 PFigure kh r 20 where the
2 De dimensionless pressure drop, pwD
Jt = De = 4
, is plotted against ¥1 dimensionless
4 kt ´time, t D
, ¥ rd
on both ´
logarithmic and linear
VFDOHV  'XULQJ BMWKH¦ ln
LQÀQLWHDFWLQJ  S µ
SHULRG B M
ZKHQ ¦ lnWKH  S µ
ORJDULWKPLF DSSUR[LPDWLRQ
to the Ei function§ qisBvalid
2 GFMcthe 2
¶
t rw dimensionless §pressure
rw ¶drop (for the case of
s M
¨ 2 kt re 3 ·
t )  p iby:
p wfis(given  ln S
2 Pkh ©ª FMc t re2 rw 4 ¸¹
zero skin)
1
p wD = [ ln t D + 0.80908] (59)
2
and this is clearly shown as a straight
p _ p line on the semi-log plot (Figure 20a) Equation
p wfD  p Dwhen
(59) is applicable (1 , t Dt ) > 25i andwft < 0.3 as indicated. For t between 10 and
2t D D
q3ss BMsolution
De D
p wD exponential
25 the proper
2
 ln r
integral
De
should be used and for tD < 10 the line
rDe 24Pkh
VRXUFHVROXWLRQGRWWHGOLQHRQ)LJXUHDPXVWEHUHSODFHGE\RQHEDVHGRQDÀQLWH
well-bore radius shown in Figure 21. Note that it is not valid to extrapolate the
1 semi-log plot back to early times.
linear portion
p of the
wfD 
p wfD ;lnt  0.80908  2S=
2 ; lnt DD  0.80908  2S=
2
2t D 3
p D (1 , t D )  p wfD  2
 ln rDe +S
rDe 4

q s BM ¨ 2 kt r 3 ·
p wf ( t )  p i ©  ln e  S¸
2 Pkh ª FMc t re
2
rw 4 ¹

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 43

p i _ p wf
p wfD  p D (1 , t D ) 
 tD kt
t Di    0.25
rDi FMc t ri2
2

4 s 0.0002637kt 0.00105kt kt
ri    0.032
FMc t FMc t FMc t
Pressure Drawdown at Wellbore
( p( r, t ) p wf (0t )) Pkh r
= ln
q s BM rw rDe = 1000
2

p wD(p4 tD = 10
p wf ( t ))2t P=kh
25 1 4t D rd
p D (1, t D )  ln = tDe
ln=rDd
0.3 = ln
D
i
=
q s BM 2 G rw
6

1 4At 8 rd
i.e. ln = ln
2 Grw2 rw
10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

1
ln tD
< rd = 4A10
t = 0.7493
2 3 4 At 4 5 6
G1 10
tD
10 10 10 10

( p i 1 p wf ( t ))2 Pkh 1 ¥ q 4 kt PRODUCTION

´
pD (t D )   ¦ ln  2Sµ
q s BM 2 § GFMc t rw
2
¶
2 SHUT-IN
0
p wD 0 tD
2 Pkh 3 2 Pkh
Jt = =
¥1 4 kt ´ ¥ r ´
BM¦ ln
4  Sµ BM¦ ln d  Sµ
§ 2 GFMc t rw2
¶ § rw ¶
5 Figure 20
3 3 3 3 3
0 2 x 10 4 x 10 6 x 10 8 x 10 10 x 10 3UHVVXUH'UDZGRZQDWZHOO
1
p wD = [ ln t D + 0.80908]tD ERUH
2
For values of tDe greater than 0.3 the semi-steady-state solution:
Figure 2.2.11
2t D 3
p wD  2
 ln rDe (71)
rDe 4
is applicable and the well-bore pressure declines more rapidly than the prediction
RI WKH LQÀQLWHDFWLQJ PRGHO  +HQFH WKH WKHRUHWLFDO SUHVVXUH UHVSRQVH IDOOV
below the extrapolation of the linear portion of the semi-log plot as indicated
on pFigure 2t 3
(1 , 20.
D t )  p  D  ln r
D wfD 2
+S De
rDe 4

q s BM ¨ 2 kt r 3 ·
p wf ( t )  p i ©  ln e  S¸
2 Pkh ª FMc t re
2
rw 4 ¹

p i _ p wf
p wfD  p D (1 , t D ) 
q s BM
2 Pkh

1
p wfD 
2
;lnt D  0.80908  2S=

44
 Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
tD kt
t Di    0.25
10 rDi FMc t ri2
2

4 s 0.0002637kt 0.00105kt kt
ri    0.032
1 FMc t FMc t FMc t

pD ( p( r, t.)0 p wf ( t )) Pkh r

r D= 1 = ln
-1
q s BM rw Exponential Integral
10
Solution
2

( p i p wf ( t ))2 Pkh
1.

1 4t D rd
p D (1, t D )  = ln = ln rDd = ln
2.0

q s BM 2 G rw
20

10 -2
10 -2 10 -1 1 10 10 2 10 3
Figure 21 1 4At r t D /r 2

i.e. ln 2 = ln d D

2 aGrdirect
Figure 20 shows w plot ofrwwell-bore drawdown versus time on a dimensionless
basis and demonstrates the very rapid initial rate of change of pressure when
the well is put on production.
1 SSS Depletion
< rd = 4At = 0.7493 4At
G
)LJXUHGHOLQHDWHVWKHWKUHHÁRZUHJLPHVDQGLOOXVWUDWHVWKDWLQWKH666UHJLPHWKH
plot of well-bore pressure versus time is linear.
qs
( p i p wf ( t ))2 Pkh 1 ¥ Well4inktCentre of
´
pD (t D )   Closed
¦ ln Circular Sµ a
 2Reservoir
q s BM 2 § GFMc t rw 2
¶
pe
p
2 Pkh 2 Pkh
Jt = =
¥1 4 kt ´ ¥ r ´
BM¦ ln  Sµ BM¦ ln d  Sµ
§ 2 GFMc t rw
2
¶ § rw ¶
Stabilised
Pressure 1
p wD =
Distribution [ ln t D + 0.80908]
pw f
2
rw re
Figure 22 2t D 3
666'HSOHWLRQ
p
Po rwD
  ln r
e Vorl2u m e =DeF h A4
De

Fig 2.2.13
7KHDGGLWLRQRIWKHVNLQHIIHFWWRWKHVHPLVWHDG\VWDWHÁRZHTXDWLRQUHVXOWVLQ

2t D 3
p D (1 , t D )  p wfD  2
 ln rDe +S (92)
rDe 4
and the corresponding equation in actual variables and parameters becomes for semi-
VWHDG\VWDWHÁRZ q BM ¨ 2 kt r 3 ·
p wf ( t )  p i s
 ln e  S¸
2 Pkh ©ª FMc t re2 rw 4 ¹

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 45

p i _ p wf
p wfD  p D (1 , t D ) 
 2t 3
p wD  2 t2DD  ln rDe 3
p wD  rDe2
 ln rDe 4
rDe 4

2t 3
p D (1 , t D )  p wfD  2 t2DD  ln rDe 3 +S
p D (1 , t D )  p wfD  rDe2
 ln rDe 4 +S
rDe 4

q BM ¨ 2 kt r 3 ·
p wf ( t )  p i q ss BM ©¨ 2 kt 2  ln ree 3  S¸·
p wf ( t )  p i 2 Pkh ª© FMc t re2  ln rw 4  S¹¸ (93)
2 Pkh ª FMc t re rw 4 ¹
where

p _p
p wfD  p D (1 , t D )  p ii _ p wf
p wfD  p D (1 , t D )  q BMwf
q ss BM
2 Pkh
2 Pkh
The pressure distribution
1 in the reservoir during the SSS period is illustrated
p wfD  2 ;lnt DD  0.80908  2S==
p wfD
LQ )LJXUH 1 ;lnt WKH
ZKHUH  0 . 80908
VWDELOLVHG VKDSH
2S RI WKH SUHVVXUH SURÀOHV DW VXFFHVVLYH
times is apparent.
2

2.3 PRESSURE DRAWDOWN TESTING

2.3.1 Introduction
The analytical solution to the diffusivity equation for a uniform pressure initial condition
DQGDFRQVWDQWÁRZUDWHLQQHUERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQKDVOHGWRDQH[SUHVVLRQIRUWKH
dynamic well-bore pressure behaviour of a model reservoir having homogeneous
formation permeability and instantaneous skin effect. The objective of a well test is
to measure the dynamic response of an actual reservoir under these same conditions
and determine unknown reservoir parameters by inference. The two most important
such parameters are the permeability thickness product, kh , and the skin factor,
S. The productivity of a well can only be predicted if these quantities are known.
The problem of well testing is essentially one of parameter estimation in which the
unknown properties are adjusted until the theoretical solution or ideal model matches
the measured system behaviour. In linear systems this can often be achieved directly
without a search process.

2IWHQWKHÀUVWVLJQLÀFDQWWUDQVLHQWHYHQWDWDQRLOZHOOLVWKHLQLWLDOSURGXFWLRQSHULRG
that results in a pressure drawdown at the formation face. Provided the production
rate can be controlled at a constant value, the physical situation corresponds to the
model conditions and thus it seems logical to investigate what can be learned about
the well and the reservoir from pressure drawdown data. In this section constant-rate
GUDZGRZQWHVWLQJLQWKHLQÀQLWHDFWLQJDQGVHPLVWHDG\VWDWHÁRZUHJLPHVZLOOEH
considered. Although drawdown testing is not limited to the initial productive period
of a well, that may be the ideal time to obtain drawdown data.

Figure 23 schematically illustrates the production and pressure history during a

drawdown test. Ideally the well is shut-in until it reaches static reservoir pressure
before the test. This requirement is met in new reservoirs; it is less often met in old
UHVHUYRLUV7KHGUDZGRZQWHVWLVUXQE\SURGXFLQJWKHZHOODWDFRQVWDQWÁRZUDWH
while continuously recording bottom-hole pressure. While most reservoir information
obtained from a drawdown test can also be obtained from a pressure build-up test,
there is an economic advantage to drawdown testing since the well is produced during
the test. The main technical advantage of drawdown testing is the possibility of
HVWLPDWLQJUHVHUYRLUYROXPH7KHPDMRUGLVDGYDQWDJHLVWKHGLIÀFXOW\RIPDLQWDLQLQJ
a constant production rate and the fact that the skin factor, S, may change due to the
well cleaning up.

46
 1
p wD = [ ln t D + 0.80908]
2

Pressure Transient
2t D
p wD 
Analysis
3
2
rDe
In Drawdown And Buildup
 ln rDe
4
2
Pressure Drawdown Testing Fig
2.3.1
2t D 3
p D (1 , t D )  p wfD  2
 ln rDe +S
rDe 4
RATE
q PRODUCING
q s BM ¨ 2 kt r 3 ·
p wf ( t )  p i ©  ln e  S¸
Figure 23 2 Pkh FMc r 2
S HªU T- I tNe
rw 4 ¹
0
3UHVVXUH'UDZGRZQ
Testing 0 TIME, t

p _p
p wfD  p D (1 , t D )  i wf
q s BM
3UHVVXUH'UDZGRZQ$QDO\VLVLQ,QÀQLWH$FWLQJ5HVHUYRLUV
p ws = p i
The bottom-hole pressure at an active well producing at a constant rate in an
BOTTOM 2 Pkh
LQÀQLWHDFWLQJUHVHUYRLULVJLYHQE\HTXDWLRQ
HOLE
1
PRESSURE
p wfD 
Pw f 2
;lnt D  0.80908  2S= (94)

or in terms of actual variables:

0 TIME, t

p p s
q BM 1 ¨ kt
Deviation from straight line
·
wf ip 2 Pkh – ©ln + 0.80908 + 2S ¸ (95)
2 © FMcaused
c rww22 by damage and ¸
t=1 ª t
wellbore storage effects ¹
i.e. BOTTOM
q BM
HOLE slope, m= - s
q BM 1 ¨ k 4 Pkh ·
pp  
PRESSURE pp ss – lnt + ln + 0.80908 + 2S
wf
wf i
i 22 P – ©©ln t + ln + 0.80908 + 2S¸¸
Pwf Pkh
kh 22 ªª FM 2
FMcctt rrww2 ¹¹
(96)
if the reservoir qis B at p0i initially; here t is the time from the start of production.
BM
qSORW
s M ln t
m
7KHRUHWLFDOO\
m s
 4 PkhRI PHDVXUHG ÁRZLQJ ERWWRPKROH SUHVVXUH YHUVXV WKH QDWXUDO
D
4 Pkh
ORJDULWKPRIÁRZLQJWLPHFRPPRQO\FDOOHGWKHVHPLORJSORWVKRXOGEHDVWUDLJKWOLQH
of slope m and
NOTE : lnintercept pt=1 - when lnt =TO
t = 0 C ORRESPONDS 0, tt == 1.
1 Hence the analysis of drawdown
data consists of making a plot of pwf against lnt giving: Fig 2.3.2
¨¨ kk ··
pp t  1= p
m i 
lnt m
+ © ln
pwft 1  p i  m ©lnt=1
p  0 . 80908  2
 0.80908  2S¸¸S (97)
ªª FM
2
FMcc tt rrww2 ¹¹
Such a graph is shown in Figure 24; from equation (97) the slope is given by:

11 ¨¨ pp t 1 pi kk ··
© t 1 p i ln
S 
S 2© m ln FMc r 22 0.80908¸¸
0.80908
2 ©ª© m FMct rww ¸¹¸
ª t ¹

¨¨ 0.0002637kt ··
pp  p
887.217q
887.217qsB BM
M ©©ln 0.0002637kt
wf
wf
 pi
i

2 P
s
kh.2 ©ª©ln FMc r 2 + 0.80908 + 2S¸¸¸
+ 0.80908 + 2S
2 Pkh.2 FMct rww2
¹¸
ª t ¹

70.6q BM ¨ k ·
p  p 70.6qssBM
pwf  pi ©¨lnt + ln k 2 7.43173 + 2S ¸·
wf i kh
kh ©ª©lnt + ln FMc r 7.43173 + 2S ¸¸
FMct rww2 ¹¸
©ª t ¹

70.6 q BM
m  70.6 qssBM
m of
Department Petroleumkh
Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 47
kh
 2.3.1

RATE
q PRODUCING

S H U T- I N
0

0 TIME, t

p ws = p i

BOTTOM
HOLE
PRESSURE
Pw f

0 TIME, t

Deviation from straight line

p t=1 caused by damage and
wellbore storage effects
BOTTOM
q BM
HOLE qq sB
BMM
11 ¨¨ kt
kt slope, m= - s ··
pp 
wf
 pp s –– ©©ln
ln 0.80908 ++ P2S
++ 0.80908
4 k2S
h¸
¸
wf ii 22P
PRESSURE
Pkh
kh 22 ©©ª FMFMcc rrww
2
¸¹¸¹
2

Pwf ª t
t

q0 BM ··
lntt ++ ln ln t k 22 ++ 0.80908
p p s 1 ¨ k
wf i 2 Pkh – 2 ©ln ln 0.80908 ++ 2S 2S¸¸
FMccttrrww
FM ¹¹
q B M 1 ¨ª kt ·
NOTE
p p
: ln t = 0 s
C ORRESPONDS TO t = 1
i 2 Pkh – 2 ©ln FMc r 2 + 0.80908 + 2S¸
Figure 24
wf Fig 2.3.2
©ª tw ¸¹
q sBM
m 
4 Pkh
q BM 1 ¨ k
(98)
·
p
and the intercept  pcorresponding
s – to lnt©ln t
equal + to ln0 by: + 0.80908 + 2S¸
wf i 2 Pkh 2 ª FMc t rw 2
¹
¨ k ··
p t 1  p i  m ©ln 80908  2S
2  0.80908  2S¸¸
ª FMc ttrww2 ¹¹ (99)
q BM
m  s
Once the slope 4of Pkh the straight line portion of the semilog plot, m , has been
determined the ¨permeability thickness product, kh ··, can be calculated from equation
1 p t 1 ofp icourse, that k the oil production rate, q , has been measured
(98). ThisS presumes,© ln 0.80908¸
2 0.80908¸
FMc rww2volume
s
in the test and2 that ©ª the m oil formation
t ¸¹¸¹ B, and viscosity, +, are known
factor,
¨ k ·
p t 1  pPVT
from laboratory i  m ©ln
studies. If the formation
0.80908 thickness 2S¸ (net pay), h , is known from
ª FMpermeability,
2
log evaluation the formation c t rw k , can be¹obtained. Equation (99) may be
rearranged as an explicit 887.217q BM
expression for ¨¨
the skin factor, i.e.
0.0002637kt
0.0002637kt ··
p p s ©© ln
ln ++ 0.80908
0.80908 +
+ 2S
2S ¸¸
wf ¨ i 2 Pkh.2 FM
FM · cc rr 22
1 p pi k ©©
ªª tt w w ¸¹¸¹
S  © t 1 ln 0.80908 ¸ (100)
2© m FMc rw2 ¸¹
ª t
70.6q BM ¨ kk ··
Hence ifpthe initial  p reservoirspressure, © ln t pi++ ln
ln
, the porosity,
q, 7.43173
7.43173
the total ++ 2S
2S ¸¸
compressibility,
wf i 887.217q khr , areB©known M ¨ FM
FM rrw2w2 can be calculated from
cfactor
c ·
ct, and the well-bore radius, sª the0.0002637kt
skin tt ¸¹¸¹ the
p p w
© ln + 0.80908 + 2S ¸
slope and wf intercept i of the 2plot Pkh.2using equation (100). FMc rwNote 2 that both the numerator
©ª t ¸¹
DQGWKHGHQRPLQDWRULQWKHÀUVWWHUPLQWKHEUDFNHWVLQHTXDWLRQDUHLQWULQVLFDOO\
negative. 70.6 q BM
m  s
kh70.6q BM ¨
It is apparent from Figure 24 sthat the data points corresponding k to early times ·do not
p p © ln t + ln 7.43173 + 2S ¸
wf i FMc rw2
FRLQFLGHZLWKWKHÀWWHGOLQHDUSRUWLRQRIWKHVHPLORJSORW,QGHHGWKHRU\VXJJHVWV
kh ©ª t the initial measured data ¸¹
early points should lie below the straight line whereas falls
¨ deviation
k ··
p tt 11  p ii  m ©ln
considerably above it. This 7.43173
from43173  22SS¸¸
ideal behaviour is due to well-bore storage
70.6 q BM ª FM c t
t
rw
22
w ¹¹
m  s
48 kh
¨
1 p p k ··
Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
DQGGDPDJHHIIHFWV7KHWKHRUHWLFDOPRGHOHQYLVDJHVDVWHSFKDQJHLQWKHRLOÁRZUDWH
at the well-face at time t=0. However in practice it is impossible to achieve such an
LQVWDQWDQHRXVFKDQJHDQGWKHZHOOIDFHÁRZFKDQJHVIURP]HURWRWKHÀQDOYDOXHRYHU
DÀQLWHWLPHLQWHUYDO(YHQLIWKHVXUIDFHRLOUDWHFRXOGEHUDSLGO\VHWDWWKHGHVLUHG
FRQVWDQWYDOXHWKHFRPSUHVVLELOLW\RIWKHODUJHDPRXQWRIÁXLGLQWKHZHOOERUHZLOO
VXVWDLQWKHLQLWLDOSURGXFWLRQDQGWKHDFWXDOZHOOIDFHÁRZZLOOODJVLJQLÀFDQWO\EHKLQG
WKHVXUIDFHÁRZ7KLVSKHQRPHQRQLVNQRZQDVZHOOERUHVWRUDJHDQGZLOOEHWUHDWHG
in detail in the next chapter.

p
q BM 1 ¨¨ kt
 p qssBM – 1 ©ln kt 2 + 0.80908 + 2S¸
·
·
7KHLQÁXHQFHRIZHOOERUHVWRUDJHLVFRPSRXQGHGE\WKHSUHVHQFHRIDVNLQHIIHFW
p wf  p i 
i 2
wfthe bottom-hole – 2 ©©ln FMc rw2 + 0.80908 + 2S¸¸
Pkh pressure
In principle 2 Pkh 2 ª© FMct rw
should decline by an amount ¹immediately
tbecause of the lag in thes ¸¹build-up of
6p
ª
1 ¨ ·
the well is put on production.
q BM However,
p p s kt
– © ln + 0.80908
ZHOOIDFHÁRZWKHVNLQSUHVVXUHGURSGRHVQRWUHDFKLWVIXOOYDOXHLQVWDQWDQHRXVO\
wf i 2qPkh + 2S¸ 
BM 2 1 © ¨ FM c r 2
k ¸ ·
 p qssBM – 1 ª ©¨lnt + t wln
In fact there is also some capacity associated with the skin zone itself and this further
p
p wfto a pdelay k 2 + 0.80908¹ + 2S¸·
contributes i 2inPthe –
establishmentln t +of ln FM. Thus + deviation
c t rw2 the 0.80908of+the2S early
2 ª©ª is a result FM ¹¸
kh 2 6p
wf i 2 Pkh s
data points from the idealised model of cthe
t rw combination of well-bore ¹
q BM 1 ¨
VWRUDJHDQGVNLQHIIHFWV%HIRUHGHWHUPLQLQJWKHVORSHDQGWKHLQWHUFHSWRIWKHÀWWHG
k ·
wf q siB
straight line M s to exclude
p itisqp essential
B – © lnall + ln affected
t points + 0.80908 + 2S
2 by these phenomena. ¸ A
m  s doing
rational method
M 2 Pkh 2 ª FMc rw
a log-log plot twill be given in Chapter 3¹on
m  4for P kh
this based on
well-bore storage. 4 PNote
kh that the intercept, pt=1 , must be determined by extrapolation
RIWKHOLQHDUWUHQGRQWKHVHPLORJJUDSK2QFHWKHGDWDSRLQWVLQÁXHQFHGE\ZHOOERUH
q BM
s have been eliminated from consideration, the most convenient
m damage
storage and
way of determining 4 Pkhthe¨ bestkslope and intercept ·is to use a least-squares linear
p t 1  p i  m ©¨ln k 2  0.80908  2S¸·
p t 1  p i  m ©ln FMc t rw2  0.80908  2S¸
UHJUHVVLRQURXWLQH+RZHYHULWLVHVVHQWLDOWKDWWKHSORWWHGGDWDEHÀUVWH[DPLQHG
ª FMc r ¹
visually for anomalousªpoints. t w ¹
¨ k ·
p t 1  pequations
i  m ©ln can be2 used  0.80908  2S¸of the sets of consistent units.
1 ¨¨ p t 1 ªp i FMc t rw k ·¹
The preceding with either
+RZHYHUS ZLWKLQ 1 RLO
1 © p tWKH ln k WKHUH
p i LQGXVWU\ 0.80908
LV VWLOO ¸·SUHIHUHQFH IRU XVLQJ ÀHOG XQLWV
D
S  2 © m ln FMc rw22 0.80908¸
2 ©©ª m FMct rw ¸¹
DQGWKHZRUNLQJHTXDWLRQVDUHHDVLO\WUDQVIRUPHGWRDFFRPPRGDWHWKLV7KHÀHOG
¸¹
ª
units version of¨ equation (96) is: t
1 p t 1 p i k ·
S © ln 0.80908¸
2 © m 887.217q FMB c Mrw2 ¨ 0.0002637kt ¸¹ ·
p ª p 887.217qssBtM ©¨ln 0.0002637kt + 0.80908 + 2S ¸·
p wf  p i ©
P ln FM + 0.80908 + 2S¸¹¸
2
wf i 2 kh.2 ©ª c r
2 Pkh.2 ©ª FMct rww 2
¸¹
t (101)
887.217q BM ¨ 0.0002637kt ·
p p
or on rearranging: s © ln + 0.80908 + 2S ¸
wf i 2 Pkh.2 FMkc rw 2
70.6q BM ¨¨ ©ª · ¸
p  p 70.6qssBM ©lnt + ln k t 2 7.43173 + 2S ¸· ¹
p wf  p i
wf i kh
kh ©ª©lnt + ln FM c r 7.43173 + 2S¸¸
FMct rww2 ¹¸
©ª t ¹
70.6q BM ¨ k ·
p p s © lnt + ln 7.43173 +
(102)
2S ¸
wf 70.6 i q BMkh wf (psi) versus lntFM
+HQFHLQÀHOGXQLWVDSORWRIS c rw2gives a straight line of ¸slope,
(t:hr)
70.6 q s B M ©ª t ¹
m 
m , and intercept, s
m  pt=1 kh
where:
kh
70.6 q BM
m  s
kh¨ k · (103)
p t 1  p i  m ©¨ln k 2 7.43173  2S¸·
p t 1  p i  m ©ln FMc t rw2 7.43173  2S¸
ª FMc r ¹
and ª t w ¹
¨ k ·
p t 1  p i  m ©ln 7.43173  2S¸
¨
1 p ªp FMc t rw k
2
¹ ··
S  1 ¨© p tt 11 p ii ln k 2  7.43173 ¸
S  2 ©© m ln FMc rw2  7.43173 ¸¸
2 ©ª mEngineering,FM
Department of Petroleum ct rw University ¹¸
Heriot-Watt 49
ª t ¹
1 ¨p p
t 1 i k ·
 1 ¨¨ p ppi k ··
S  ¨1 © p tt k11 70.6qi lnBM k¨ · 0.80908¸k ·
S 
p t 1  p i p m ©2ln © ln
s
 0.80908 rSrw2¸t + ln ¸¸¸k 2
Mcc¨©2ln 0.80908
2©ª©FM
p m BFM 7.43173 + 2S ·¸
2
wf i cm rw2 70.6q FM
ª
p ª p
wf i
t kh s ©ªtlnw¹t + ln FM¹¹c t rw2
t 7.43173 + 2S ¸¹
kh ©ª FMc rw ¸¹
t
1 ¨ p p i 70.6 q887.217q k BM BM· ¨ ··
S  © tp1  pln 887.217q ssBM¸ ©¨ln 0.0002637kt
0.80908 0.0002637kt
2© m
ª
m  70.6
p wf
wf
pi FMqc B
i
s 2
rw2
M P kh.2
t 2 Pkh.2 ¹ © ¸ © ln FM cc rrw22 0.80908 + 2S¸¸
++ 0.80908 + 2S
kh s ©
ª FM tt w ¸¹¸
m  ª ¹
kh
887.217q BM ¨ 0.0002637kt ·
p p s70.6q©lnBM ¨ + 0.80908 + 2S¸ ··
wf i P ¨
70.6q B M
ssk FM ¨ k·
k

2
2 kh.2 © c r
p p
t 1 ppi i
p wf
wf
© ln t
m ln ª k 2 ©ln7t.t43173
i ¨©ª kh
w+ ln
+ lnFM ¸
7.43173
2S·¸ 22 7.43173
c r
¹ + 2S¸¸
+ 2S
p  p  m ln FM
kh c r ©
t w FM
ª© 7.43173  2S¹t wc rw ¸¹¸
(104)
t 1 i © FMc r 2 ª ¸t ¹
ª t w ¹
70.6qfor
which on solving BM ¨ k becomes: ·
p p s the©lnskin t +
factor, S,
ln 7.43173 + 2S ¸
70.6 q B M
wf i
m 1 ¨kh

70.6
p t 1 qssp©ªB M FM 2
k c t rw · ¸¹
m ¨©
S i
ln  7.43173 ·¸
1 p kh pi k 2
S  2 ©©ª t 1m kh ln FMc t rw2  7.43173 ¸¸¹
70.6 q 2B©ªM m FMc rw ¸¹
s t (105)
m 
kh 1 4 t¨ kk ·
The preceding
p 1   m ©¨Dln
 treatment
p i ln 
is Sbased
on7.the
43173
usage SS¸·the natural logarithm, lnt , and
 22of
t 1  p1i  m
p wfD ln 7 . 43173
2 lnpwf4Gtª©ªagainst ¹¸¹ graph paper; this approach is
t 
D FM
2
c rrw2 on ordinary linear
advocatesp plotting
wfD  FMS ctlnt
t w
more amenable ¨ to G
2 kanalysis ·
using least-squares regression procedures. The natural
p t 1is fundamental
log p i  m ©ln 7.43173  2S
2the basic theory¸ and the working equations are simpler if it is
ª ¨FM cto
t rw
retained. However, 1 ¨ 2pp.t3026
1
it ispalso 4 t D k ¹to plot pwf· versus
¨ possible ·· t directly on semilog graph
p 1 © p i log k 0.86859  S¸
paper and S
S 
wfD
this
2 ©approach
t 1
2.3026 2m ¨ªhas
i ln
© lnbeen
4GtFM much
D c r2
2  ·¹ the ¸¸past. Hence it is necessary to
7.43173
7.43173
used in
p wfD ª2 ©
© m log
© basis FM c 0r. 86859 S ¸ ten ¸¹¸
derive 1 ¨the p i ª 2 onkthe
p t 1 equations G of ttlog
w
w · to the base
¹ on which logarithmic graph
S  ©is founded.
paper
ª 
lnThe dimensionless 7.43173 ¸
drawdown
¹ equation is:
2© m FMc rw2 ¸¹
ª t ¨ ·
11 44tt D 887.217q BM
2.3026 0.0002637 s 4kt
 ln  s ©
– ·¸
p wfD  p SS log + 0.86859 S
22 iln GG887.217q
D
p wf BM ¨
2 Pkh 2.3026
2 © FM
0.0002637
c r 2
sG 4kt
+ 0.86859 S¸¸¹
wfD
1 p 4 t D p s – ©ªlog t 2w (106)
p  lnwf  S i Pkh
to log102becomes: 2 FMc rw G
which on
wfD
2 converting
G ©ª t ¸¹

p wfD  3026 ¨¨log 44tt DD  0.86859S··

22..3026
p  © log G  0.86859S¸¸
2.3026 ¨ 42
wfD
2t D ª© G S· ¹¹ (107)
p  log  ª0.86859
2 ©ª ¸
wfD
G ¹
&KDQJLQJWRDFWXDOYDULDEOHVLQÀHOGXQLWVWKLVEHFRPHV
887.217q
887.217qsB BM ¨ ··
 M 2.3026 0.0002637 ss 4kt
2.3026 ©¨log 0.0002637 4kt·
p wf  pp
p 887.217q
i s
BM s
2.3026
2–2Pkh
¨ –
– 0.0002637
2 © s
log 4kt FMc r 2G S¸
2 0.86859 S¸¸
++ 0.86859 S
p p
wf i
wf i Pkh2 © log ©
2FMc ª©r 2 G + 0.86859
FMct rw G
w ¸¹¸
tª w ¹
2 Pkh ©ª t ¸¹
(108)
DQGWKHZRUNLQJHTXDWLRQVLQÀHOGXQLWVDQGORJ10 become:
162.6 q BM
162.6 qqssB
m  162.6 BM
M psi / log cycle
m 
m kh s psi
psi // log
log cycle
cycle (109)
kh
kh

¨ k ·
pt  1  pi  m ©¨¨log kk 2 3.2275  0.86859 S ·¸· (110)
pp tt  1  p m
 1  p ii  m
©ª©log FMc rw2 3.2275  0.86859 S ¸
c t rw2 3.2275  0.86859 S ¸¸¹
©ªlog FM
©ª FMctt rw ¹¸
¹
¨ p t 1 p i k ·
S  1.1513 ©¨¨ pp t 1m p i log k 2  3.2275·¸
log FMkc t rw2  3.2275¸¹·
S  1.1513
S  1.1513 ª©© t 1m p i log FM c r  3.2275¹¸ (111)
ª m FMctt rww2
ª ¹
Again in equation (111) pt=1 must be from the semilog straight line. If pressure data
at r1 ,houru
measuredr  udo
q BM
p not fall
p  q ss BonM that line, the line must be extrapolated to 1 hour
r  rw
,
and the extrapolated u p
r  2qPkhr
B Mwmust be used in equation (111). This procedure
r  rww , urvalue 2ofPskhr
pt=1
is necessary to avoidur calculating
2 Pkhrwwan incorrect skin by using a well-bore storage
LQÁXHQFHGSUHVVXUH
up q ( t )BM
r  rw , up  q ss ( t )BM
r  rw , upr  q2sP(khr
t )BM
50 r  rw , ur  2 Pkhrww
ur 2 Pkhrw
Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
,IWKHGUDZGRZQWHVWLVORQJHQRXJKWKHERWWRPKROHÁRZLQJSUHVVXUHZLOOHYHQWXDOO\
GHYLDWHIURPWKHVHPLORJVWUDLJKWOLQHDQGPDNHWKHWUDQVLWLRQIURPLQÀQLWHDFWLQJ
to semi-steady-state behaviour.

Although a properly run drawdown test yields considerable information about the
UHVHUYRLUWKHWHVWPD\EHKDUGWRFRQWUROVLQFHLWLVDÁRZLQJWHVW,IDFRQVWDQWUDWH
cannot be maintained within a reasonable tolerance the analysis technique presented
in this section cannot be used. Variable rate procedures are considered in Chapter 6.
Another practical problem is that of measuring accurately the small pressure drops
encountered, at the162.6 BMabsolute pressures involved.
fairlyqhigh
m s psi / log cycle
kh
2.4 THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

2.4.1 Introduction ¨ k ·
p  p  m © log for2 the diffusivity equation¸in section 2 were all
3 . 2275  0 .86859 S
t  1 i
The analytical solutions developed
©ª BMFMc t rw ¸
for the idealised case of assingle well operating at a constant¹ rate from time zero
162.6 q
onward. m  real reservoir systems
Since
psi usually
/ log cycle
have several wells operating at varying
kh
rates, a more general approach is needed to study problems associated with transient
¨ p p i the diffusivity
k · is linear, variable-rate,
S  1Fortunately,
well testing. log
.1513 © t 1because  3.2275
equation
¸
multiple well problemsª canm be handledFMbyc t applying
2
rw the ¹principle of superposition.
¨ k ·
The constant
p rate pinner
 mboundary
©log condition takes the form: ¸
t  1 i 2 3.2275  0.86859 S
©ª FMc t rw ¸¹
up q s BM
r  rw , 
ur 2 Pkhrw
¨ p t 1 p i k ·
 1.well
in whichSthe 1513production
© m rate, log
qs , remains  3unchanged
.2275¸ throughout the whole
production history.upExcept
ª q s ( t )BM
under FM
specialc r
test
t w
2
¹
conditions this will not normally be
r  r , 
WKHFDVHDQGÁRZLQJZHOOUDWHVPD\FKDQJHEHFDXVHRIGHPDQGYDULDWLRQRUDOWHUHG
w
ur 2 Pkhrw
reservoir conditions. Some well tests, by their very nature, involve variable rate and
production upe.g. short
q sB M stem tests or offshore exploratory well tests. In
r histories,
rw ,  drill
the general case qthe urwell production
i B jM
2 Pkhrw rate is time dependent and should be written
$ p
q(t). The inner  p D ( t D , rDjnow
i , j boundary condition ) takes the form:
2 Pkh
up q ( t )BM
r  rw ,  s
Mur 2 Pkhr (112)
$p3  (q1B1p D ( t D ,wrD1 )  q 2 B2 p D ( t D , rD 2 ))
2 Pkh
and the dynamic pressure behaviour of the reservoir under such a time dependent
boundary condition jM obviously much more complex than in the simple constant
q i Bis
rate case.$ p i , j  M pn D ( t D , rDj )
P
The superposition
2 kh
¤
$p( t, r ) principle states
2 Pkh j 1
q jBthat
j p Dadding
( t D , rDjsolutions
) to a linear differential equation
results in a new solution to that differential equation, but for different boundary
M
conditions. Superposition can be applied to include more than one well, to change
$p3  (nq1B1p D ( t D , rD1 )  q 2 B2 p D ( t D , rD 2 ))
2MPkh
UDWHVDQGWRLPSRVHSK\VLFDOERXQGDULHV6XSHUSRVLWLRQLVHDVLO\DSSOLHGWRLQÀQLWH
systems $ but ¤
p for bounded {( q jB j itqmust
systems j 1 Bbe j 1 )( ( t more
p wDwith
used  S)}
t j 1 )D care
2 Pkhbutj 1because the basic solutions frequently do not give the necessary
- not because the
principle is different
M superposition.
n
information for correct
$p( t, r )  ¤ q jBjpD (t D , rDj )
BM 2 Pkh j 1
$p  {q1 ( p wD ( t D )  S)  (q 2 q1 )( p wD ( t D t1D )  S)}
2 Pkh
M n
$p  ¤1 {(q jBj Heriot-Watt
2 Pkh jEngineering,
Department of Petroleum
q j 1 B j 1 )( p wD ( t t j 1 )D  S)}
University 51
2.4.2 Multiple-Well Situations
The simplest illustration of superposition is that of determining the pressure drop at
VRPHSRLQWLQDÀHOGLQZKLFKWZRVLQNVDUHORFDWHG&RQVLGHUWKHWKUHHZHOOLQÀQLWH
system shown in Figure 25. At time t = 0 well 1 starts producing at rate q1 and well
2 starts producing at rate q2. It is desired to determine the pressure at the shut-in
observation point, well 3. To do this the pressure change at well 3 caused by well 1
is added to the pressure change at well 3 caused by well 2, i.e.

162.6 q BM
m s psi / log cycle
kh Well 1
q
162.6 q BM r1 1
s
m  162.6 q BM psi / log cycle
m
Wellkh s3 psi / log cycle
kh¨ k ·
p t  1  p  m ©log 3 . 2275  0 . 86859 S ¸
i ©ª FMc trr2w
2
¸¹
¨ k ·
Well 2
p t  1  p  m ©¨log 3 . 2275 q 0 . 86859 S ¸·
i k 2
p t  1  p  m ©ª©log FMc t rw2 3.2275  0.86859 S ¸¹¸
2

i ¨ p pFM c rw k ·
S  1.1513 © t ©ª1 i
logt  3.2275¸ ¸¹
ª m FM c r
t w
2
¹
¨ p t 1 p i k ·
S  1.1513 ©¨ log  3.2275¸·
p p k
log FMc t rw2  3.2275¹¸
2
S  1.1513upª© t 1m q B i
Observation
m s M Well FMc t rw
r  rw , ª  ¹ Figure 25
ur Active 2 Pkhr Well w 7KUHH:HOO6\VWHP
up q s BM
r  rw ,  Three
up BMw Well System
2qPskhr
r 3 r=w , 6p3,1uupr+ 6p3,2
6p t )BM
q s (khr (113)
r  rw , ur  2 P w Figure 2.4.1
ur 2 Pkhrw
In order to utilise uequation p ( t )BMexpressions for the individual pressure drops
q s(113)
r  r , 
of the form: w uupr q ( t )BM
r  rw , q B M  2sPkhrw
$p i , j  i urj p2DP( tkhrD , rDj )
w (114)
2 Pkh
q B jM
PXVW EH$HPSOR\HG
p i , j  q i BZLWK p D (DSSURSULDWH
WKH t D , rDj ) ZHOO ÁRZUDWH TjBj , and dimensionless
2 iPkh jM
distance,$prDji , j , toMthe observation p D ( t D , rDj )point, i , for each sink, j. Thus equation
$pbe 2 Pkh(q B p ( t , r )  q B p ( t , r ))
(113) may 3  written: 1 1 D D D1 2 2 D D D2
2 Pkh
M
$p3  (q1B1p D ( t D , rD1 )  q 2 B2 p D ( t D , rD 2 ))
M (115)
$p3  2 Pkh (q1Bn1p D ( t D , rD1 )  q 2 B2 p D ( t D , rD 2 ))
2 PkhM
which can $pbe r) 
( t,extended to ¤ q jB j p D (number
an arbitrary t D , rDj ) of wells:
2 PMkh j n1
Mkh ¤
$p( t, r )  n q j B j p D ( t D , rDj )
2 P
$p( t, r ) 
2 P
¤1 q jBjpD (t D , rDj )
j
nkh j 1

(116)
M
$p 
Note that equation 2 PMkh
¤
(116) n
{(q jB j q j 1 B j 1 )( p wD ( t t j 1 )D  S)}
j 1 adds pressure changes (or dimensionless pressures). If the
$p  is an operating
point of interest ¤n {(q jBj qthej 1skin
2 PMkh j 1 {(q Bwell
B jfactor
1 )( p wD ( t bet j added
must 1 ) D to S)}the dimensionless
pressure for that well¤
$ p  only. Ifj the q
j wells B
j 1 do jnot )( p
1 allwD ( t t
start producing
j 1 D)  Sat)}the same time t
2BPkh
Mshouldj 1
D
in equation
$p (116)
 {q1 ( pbewDreplaced
( t D )  Sby )  t(Djq ,2 the
qdimensionless
)( p ( t t production
)  S )} time for
1 wD D 1D
each individual2B Pkh
M There is no restriction on the number or location of sinks (or
well.
$p  {q ( p ( t )  S)  (q 2 q1 )( p wD ( t D t1D )  S)}
BM 1 wD D
$p  2 Pkh {q1 ( p wD ( t D )  S)  (q 2 q1 )( p wD ( t D t1D )  S)}
2 Pkh
52
 Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
162.6 q BM
m s psi / log cycle
kh valid to consider two or more sinks as coincident, i.e. at
sources) and it is perfectly
the same point in space in order to generate a variable rate history at this point.
162.6 q BM
m  s psi / log cycle
kh¨
2.4.3 Variable Rate Situations k ·
p t  1  p  m ©log 3 . 2275  0 .86859 S ¸
7RLOOXVWUDWHWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIWKHSULQFLSOHRIVXSHUSRVLWLRQWRYDU\LQJÁRZUDWHV
i ©ª FM c rthe2
¸¹ shown in Figure
consider a single well system witht w production rate schedule
7KH RLO ÁRZUDWH LV T¨1 from t = 0 to t = t1, and q2 thereafter. · To perform the
k
superposition  p  m ©the
p t  1 calculation log single 2well 3.2275
may be .86859 S ¸as two wells located
 0visualised
at the same point,i with¨ p t one
ª© p FM c
producing
t
rw k
at rate q , from· t = 0¸¹ to t and the second
S  1well
(imaginary) .1513 © m at rate
producing
1 i
log (qFM - q  31 .2275
2), starting ¸at t and continuing for a
2 c r1
time period (t - t ). ªThe net superposed t rate
1
w
after time1
¹ t1 would be q + (q -
1 2
q1) = q2 as desired. ¨ pAs t 1 p i
in the previous ·
k example delta-p’s are added for these
S  1The.1513 © oflogthe equation 3.2275 ¸
conditions. upª m q s BM
general form for N rates, with changes at tj
 Two-Rate FM
2
c t rw
, j = 1, 2 r. .N,
rwis:
, Flow Schedule¹
ur 2 Pkhrw
up q s BM Production well
r  rw ,  rate q 1
uqpr qP
2 t )BwM
s (khr

}
r  rw , 1 
ur 2 Pkhrw
q q2 - q1
up q ( t )BM
r  rw , q  s
qB urM2 2 Pkhr
$p i , j  i j p D ( t D , rwDj )
2 Pkh
0
q BM T1
$p i , j  i j p D (tt D , rDj )
M
$p3  2 Pkh(q1B1p D ( t D , rD1 )  q 2 B2 p D ( t D , rD 2 ))
2 Pkh
M Injection well
$p3  (q1Bn1p D ( t D , rD1 )  q 2 B2 p Drate
( t D , rqD 2 ))
- q1
2 PkhM 2
Figure 26 $p( t, r )  ¤ q jBjpD (t D , rDj )
2 Pkh j 1 of Rates
7ZR)ORZ5DWH6FKHGXOH Superposition
M n
$p( t, r )  ¤ q jBjpD (t D , rDj )
2 Pnkh j 1
M
$p  ¤ {(q jBj q j 1 Bj 1 )(pwD (t tFig
2 Pkh j 1
j 1 ) D  S)}
2.4.2 (117)
M dimensionless
n
$pj)D is the ¤
where (t-t {(q jB j q jtime
1 B j 1 )( p wD ( t t j 1 ) D  S)}
calculated at time (t-tj). For the rate
2 Pkh 26,
schedule of Figure j 1 N=2, only two terms of the summation are needed and
BM
equation$(117)
p  becomes:{q1 ( p wD ( t D )  S)  (q 2 q1 )( p wD ( t D t1D )  S)}
2 Pkh
BM
$p  {q1 ( p wD ( t D )  S)  (q 2 q1 )( p wD ( t D t1D )  S)} (118)
2 Pkh

Figure 27 illustrates the calculation i.e. superposition. The lower dashed curve
LQFOXGLQJWKHÀUVWSRUWLRQRIWKHVROLGFXUYHLVWKHSUHVVXUHFKDQJHFDXVHGE\UDWH
q1, alone. The topmost curve is the pressure change caused by the rate q2 - q1, after t1;
that 6p is negative because (q2 - q1) < 0. The sum of the dashed curve and topmost
curve is the pressure response for the two-rate schedule.

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 53

 Principle of Superposition

Injection Well
at Rate q2 - q1

pi - pw

Total Response

Extrapolated
Pressure

Well at
Rate q1

0 T1 Figure 27
t 3ULQFLSOHRI6XSHUSRVLWLRQ

2.5 PRESSURE BUILD-UP TESTING Figure 2.4.3

2.5.1 Introduction
The most widely used form of transient well testing technique is pressure build-up
DQDO\VLV7KLVW\SHRIWHVWLQJZDVÀUVWLQWURGXFHGE\JURXQGZDWHUK\GURORJLVWVEXW
it has been extensively used in the petroleum industry. Pressure build-up testing
entails shutting in a producing well and recording the closed-in bottom-hole pressure
as a function of time. The most common and simplest analysis techniques require
that the well produce at a constant rate, either from start-up or long enough to
HVWDEOLVKDVWDELOLVHGSUHVVXUHGLVWULEXWLRQEHIRUHVKXWLQ,ISRVVLEOHWKHÁRZLQJ
bottom-hole pressure prior to shut-in should also be recorded; indeed it is essential
if an estimate of skin is required.

)LJXUHVFKHPDWLFDOO\VKRZVÁRZUDWHDQGERWWRPKROHSUHVVXUHEHKDYLRXUIRUDQ
ideal pressure build-up test. Here tp is the production time and 6t is the running
shut-in time. The pressure is measured immediately before shut-in and is recorded as
a function of time during the shut-in period. The resulting pressure build-up curve is
analysed for reservoir properties and well-bore condition.

54
 Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
FLOWING
q

RATE
SHUT-IN

tp

^
^
$t

pws
BHP

pwf ( $t=0) tp
$t
slope, m = -
q sB M p*
4Pk h
p ws

Deviation from Straight

Line caused by
Afterflow and Skin

ln t p + $t 0
Figure 28 $t

Figure 2.5.1
As in all transient well tests, knowledge of surface and subsurface mechanical
conditions is important in build-up test data interpretation. Therefore it is
recommended that tubing and casing sizes, choke size, well depth, packer locations
etc be determined before data interpretation starts. Short-time pressure observations
are usually necessary for complete delineation of well-bore storage effects. Data
PD\EHQHHGHGDWLQWHUYDOVDVVKRUWDVVHFRQGVIRUWKHÀUVWIHZPLQXWHVRIVRPH
build-up tests. As the test progresses, the data collection interval can be extended.
Stabilising the well at a constant rate before testing is an important part of a pressure
build-up test. If stabilisation is overlooked or is impossible, conventional analysis
techniques may provide erroneous information about the formation. Thus it is
important to determine the degree and adequacy of the stabilisation; one way is to
check the length of the pre-shut-in constant rate period against the time required
WR UHDFK VHPLVWHDG\ VWDWH ÁRZ LH TDe = 0.3 for a central well. For wells with
VLJQLÀFDQWO\YDU\LQJUDWHVEHIRUHVKXWLQEXLOGXSWHVWDQDO\VLVLVVWLOOSRVVLEOHXVLQJ
the variable-rate methods discussed later.

If the well produces at a constant rate, q, for a time, tp , and pressures are
subsequently recorded for closed-in times, 6t, then the bottom-hole pressure
at any time after the well has been shut-in can be obtained from a superposed
solution based on:

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 55

 q acting for time (tp + 6t) + (o - q) acting for time 6t

The build-up test rate schedule is the simplest form of two-rate test (q2 = 0) and
the two-rate superposition formula:
BM
$p = BM
$p  2 Pkh{q1; p1 wd (wD
[ ; =
q p  t D  S  q 2 q1 p wD  t D t1D  S
t D )  S=  (q 2 q1 ); p wD ( t D t1D )  S=} (119)
; =]
2 Pkh
will predict the pressure behaviour during the second zero rate period; on
will predict the pressure behaviour during the second zero rate period; on putting:
putting: q BM
$p  s {p wD ( t pD  $t D ) p wD ( $t D )}
2B Pkh M
q$p q2sB ;PM q{q 1;qp wd( t Dq) ; St=  (qt2 q1$ );tp wD; ( tt D tt1D )  S$=t}
$p  kh {2 q1; p1wd ( t D )s S=D (q 2pD q1 ); pDwD ( t DD t1D1D)  S=}D
2 Pkh
this becomes: q BM
p ws ( $
this tq) B
becomes:  Mp i s {p wD ( t pD  $t D ) p wD ( $t D )}
$p  q sBM {p wD2 (Ptkh pD  $t D ) p wD ( $t D )}
$p  2 P s kh
{p wD ( t pD  $t D ) p wD ( $t D )}
2 Pkh
i.e $p wD =
p (t D ) 
q s B1M
2 P kh
2
[  (lnpqtwD
s M
DB

pD  $t D p wD  $t D
t0.80908) ]
p ws ( $t )  p i q BM {p wD ( t pD  $t D ) p wD ( $t D )} (120)
p ws ( $t )  p i 2 P s kh
{p wD ( t pD  $t D ) p wD ( $t D )}
2 Pkh
where pwD is the applicable q s BMdimensionless 1 pressure function; note that the shut-in
pressure,ppws ( $, t
is ) 
not p1i
affected by – the ( ln (
skin t 
factor ln $
intan - ln$build-up
D ) ideal tD ) test. Equation (99)
) M
B
ws pD
provides$ pthe
p (t DB
theoretical {
M 2 1 wd D
1 (
q ln;2 tp
basisP kh
 ( for 2
0.80908)
t ) 
the S =  (
analysis q q
of ) ; p
pressure ( t t
build-up)  =}
Stests.
; S==   ((qq 2 qq1));;pp wD ((tt D tt1D ))  SS==}}
wD D
(t D2B )PkhM {{(qqln tppDwd((0.80908)
2 1 wD D 1D
$ 1; S
p$wD pp  tt D )) 
22 P Pkh kh2 1 wd D 2 1 wD D 1D

q s BM t p  $t
3UHVVXUH%XLOG8S7HVW$QDO\VLVGXULQJWKH,QÀQLWH$FWLQJ3HULRG
There arep ( $tq)s B
several ways
M p i for M ln1
q Banalysing the results of -aln build-up
$ p ($q
p ws
ws
t) B  Mp{i p wD2q(PsB tkhM – 1 $ (ln pwDln($$ttDD))}
t$D(t)t pD $t D ) test the most popular
being the$ p ws $2t )P
Horner
pp ( q s
s B M
method 2
khp{i p wD ( t pD  P kh
pD
s which
– $2 is
(ln
$ based ppwD
t D())t pD ln(($$
on the
$tttDD))} - ln$t D ) that the reservoir is
supposition
)}
$ Pkh { p 2 (
P tkh  2 t
22 P kh
LQÀQLWHLQH[WHQWDQGDQHJOLJLEOHDPRXQWRIÁXLGLVUHPRYHGIURPWKHV\VWHPGXULQJ
wD pD D wD D

p  $t
the production periodt prior to closure. In practice this case corresponds to an initial
ws (
pFRQGXFWHG m ln p  $t
BM p *tUHVHUYRLU
q sYLUJLQ
ws $t )  p i $qt BM { $t $t D ) p wD ( $t D )}
ZHOO WHVWp LQ D lnp wD (t pD  'XULQJ DQ LQÀQLWHDFWLQJ SHULRG ERWK
P M t
pp ws (( $ 2q
t )  p i s {lnp wD (tt pD sB kh p $ t  $ $(120)
tt DD )) ppwD $tt D )}
dimensionless pressure terms in equation are replaced )} by the logarithmic
wD (($
ws $t )  p i 2 Pkh {p wD ( $ tpD D
approximation to the exponential 2 Pkh integral, i.e.
q B M
m p wD = )  1ts(plnt $t 0.80908)
(t
ws  Dm ln1 4tPkh  D$t p *
pp ws
wD (t Dm)) 
(t ln21 ((pln ln$tttD  0.80908)
0.80908)
p*
22 $t
wD D D

and equation (120) becomes:

k ws =
p (=$t )  pqiss
qB BMMq s BM – 1 (ln( t  ln$t ) - ln$t )
m 4qPs mh BkhM2qqPsB BkhM 21 pD D D
m $tt )) 
pp ws ((=$  pp4i P s M – 1 (ln( t  ln $ t ) - ln $ t (121)
D)
4i P kh22P kh – 22 (ln( t pD  ln$t D ) - ln$t D )
pD D
ws Pkh
or t p  t$pt  $t
q BM70 qB .6Mq s BM
( $t )  pqisB
pk ws = M s ln t p ln
q P B M $t$t
ln p  $t$t
4 Ps mh 2q BkhM
kh t
kpp ws =
(($$tt ))   pp i s ln s
ws 4 Pi mh22P Pkhkh $$tt
t p 162 70$.t6.equation p tp $ t$
*MMlnlog
6
qqspB sB
twhich t
p ws ( $tm ) lnpbuild-up
This is the Horner predicts a linear relationship between
p ws it $  $
s BM the ratio
70
p ; t$.tt6kh
$ qthat t t
p $t is independent of the units of the time
pws and ln((t
pp ws $tm
(p + m ) ln lnp i
6t)/6t) t p note kh
 pp ** ln $ t
TXDQWLWLHV ws
ws 7KLV HTXDWLRQ $tt DOVR kh LQGLFDWHV $t WKDW IRU DQ LQÀQLWHDFWLQJ V\VWHP WKH
$
bottom-hole shut-in qpressure will eventually build up to the initial reservoir pressure,
s BM 162 . 6 q B M t  $t
m
pi . Equation =
p ws ( $(121)
t )  describes
p4qi P apstraight
s
log line p of the form:
B
qDi ,ss BkhM
M162.kh 6qis BM s p ( r , $
t t 
)
p $t t $
mp ws ( 
=$ tp )
m = 4 Pkh kh q BM $t
sD sD ( r
p $ t D )  log
4 Pkh s
56
q BM 2 Pkh
k = s
4 Pmh p p ( r , $t )
 2 Pkh

q BM 1

2
p ws (1$t )  p i s – (ln( t pD  ln$t D ) - ln$t D )
p wD (t D )  (lnt D  0.80908)
2 Pkh 2
Pressure Transient 2 Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
q BM t  $t
p ws ( $t ) q spBiM 1s ln p
p ws ( $t )  p i – 2 P(kh
ln( t pD $lnt $t D ) - ln$t D )
2 Pkh 2

t p  $t
p ws  m qlns BM
t p  $pt*
p ws ( $t )  p i ln
$t (122)
2 Pkh $t

q BM
with slope m =t p  $t s (123)
p ws  m ln 4 Pkh
p*
$t
and intercept, p* = pi (124)
q s BM
=q BM p*, corresponds to ln((tp + 6t)/6t) equal to zero or
In this case thek intercept,
m = s 4 Pmh
4 Pkhimplies 6t >> tp - a shut-in time very long compared
(tp + 6t)/6t = 1 which
to the production time. From such a plot the reservoir average permeability
can be obtained as: 70.6q BM t p  $t
t )M p i
p (q$B s
ln
k = ws s kh $t
q BM 4 Pmh
k = - s (125)
4Pmh
162.6q BM t p t  $t
p ws ( $t ) 70p.6i q s BM t sp  $log
SURYLGHGDOOWKHTXDQWLWLHVRQWKHULJKWKDQGVLGHRIDUHNQRZQ,QRLOÀHOG
p ws ( $(121)
units equation t )  pbecomes:
i ln
kh $t
kh $t
70.6q BM t  $t
p ws ( $t )  p i 162.6qs BMlnp p t pp($r,t$t ) (126)
p ws ( $t )p p kh s logi $t s
sD i p sD ( rD , $t D ) 
kh q s$BtM
or t2 Pkh$t
162.6q s BM
p ws ( $t )  p i log p
p ps ( r, $t )$t
kh (127)
psD  psD ( rD , $t D )  i 1 ¥ 1 ´
p wsD  p D ( t pD  $qt DB) M 0.80908)  Ei¦ µ
The most important feature of thes semilog plot is 2that§the 4 $treservoir
D¶
kh product
can be determined from the slope 2 P kh
p i p s ( r , $t )
of the build-up. This is a much better value
than canpsDbe obtained
psD ( rD , $by 
t D )trying to average core measured permeabilities over
q s BM
the entire producing interval. 1 ¥ 1 ´
p wsD  p D ( t pD  $t D )  02.80908
Pkh )  Ei¦ µ
2 § 4 $t D ¶
7KHGHWHUPLQDWLRQRIWKHSHUPHDELOLW\LVWKHPRVWVLJQLÀFDQWUHVXOWWREHREWDLQHG
from an initial test on a reservoir simply because,  $t these circumstances, the
1 t p under
p wsD  p D ( t pD  $ t D
initial pressure could be obtained from a spot ) p D ( $ t D ) _ ln
2 measurement
$t prior to opening the
ZHOOLQWKHÀUVWSODFH2QFHWKHZHOOKDVEHHQSURGXFLQJIRUDVLJQLÀFDQWSHULRGRI
time this statement is no longer true because the well will now have produced an
1 1 ¥ 1 ´
DPRXQWRIÁXLGZKLFKPD\QRWEHLQVLJQLÀFDQWLQFRPSDULVRQWRWKHLQLWLDORLOLQ
p wsD  (ln
place. Therefore it t pD no$tlonger
(can D )  0.be80908 )  %that
assumed i¦ µ
2 2 § 4the
$t D pressure
¶ will build up
WR LWV LQLWLDO YDOXH HYHQ70 .6q s BM
IRU DQ t
LQÀQLWH  $ t
FORVHGLQ WLPH EXW UDWKHU WR VRPH ORZHU
p ws ( $ t )  p i
value p which will be representative ln p
of$the
kh t average pressure within the drainage
volume of the well. q BM This corresponds to pressure build-up in a bounded reservoir
which will kh  !
be s
considered later.
4 Pm 162.6q s BM t  $t
p ws ( $t )  p i log p
kh process of$pressure
It is instructive to examine the t build-up within the reservoir
LWVHOI DV ZHOO DV DW WKH ZHOOERUH 'HÀQLQJ WKH GLPHQVLRQOHVV UHVHUYRLU SUHVVXUH
after shut-in 70.6q s BM
kh as:
kh 
m p i p s ( r , $t )
psD  psD ( rD , $t D ) 
q s BM (128)
162.6q s BM
kh  2 Pkh
m
1 tp
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University  $t 57
p wsD  p D ( t pD  $t D ) p D ( $t D ) _ ln
q BM ¥ kt p 2 $t ´
p ( $t  0 )  p s ln  0.80908  2S
the superposition theorem states that:

psD = pD(rD, tpD + 6tD) - pD(rD, 6tD) (129)

However at locations far removed from the well-bore the logarithmic approximation
is not valid and the dimensionless pressure functions on the right-hand side of (129)
PXVWEHUHSUHVHQWHGE\WKHSURSHUH[SRQHQWLDOLQWHJUDOVROXWLRQIRUDQLQÀQLWHDFWLQJ
V\VWHP  7KH GLPHQVLRQOHVV VKXWLQ SUHVVXUH GLVWULEXWLRQ IRU DQ LQÀQLWH UHVHUYRLU
which has produced for a dimensionless production time of tpD = 104 is shown in
Figure 29; this diagram was drawn in accordance with equation (129) using Ei
functions for the pD terms. When the well is shut-in the inner boundary condition
EHFRPHVRQHRIQRÁRZLH]HURSUHVVXUHJUDGLHQWDWWKHZHOOERUH7KLVLVFOHDUO\
VHHQLQ)LJXUHIURPWKHSUHVVXUHSURÀOHVDWYDULRXVYDOXHVRIWKHGLPHQVLRQOHVV
shut-in time, tD all these have zero slope at rD = 1. This is in marked contrast to
WKHSUHVVXUHSURÀOHVGXULQJÁRZLQJSHULRGVZKLFKKDYHYHU\VWHHSVORSHV)OXLG
FRQWLQXHV ÁRZLQJ WRZDUG WKH ZHOO DIWHU VKXWLQ EXW VLQFH LW FDQQRW HPHUJH IURP
WKHUHVHUYRLUWKLVÁXLGDFFXPXODWHVZKLFKLWFDQRQO\GRE\FRPSUHVVLQJDQGWKH
reservoir pressure rises. This process continues until the pressure is everywhere
HTXDOLVHG+RZHYHULWLVDSSDUHQWIURP)LJXUHWKDWWKHÀQDOVWDJHVRISUHVVXUH
UHFRYHU\DUHVORZEHFDXVHUHVHUYRLUSUHVVXUHJUDGLHQWVDUHVPDOODQGÁXLGÁRZLV
GLIÀFXOW7KHEHKDYLRXURIWKHFORVHGLQZHOOERUHGLPHQVLRQOHVVSUHVVXUHLVVKRZQ
in more detail in Figures 30 and 31.

1 rD 200
0 4
$ t D = 10
3
2 s 10 4

200
t p D = 10

ps D 50
q
10
t pD
0
$ tD Figure 29
Pressure Build-Up in a Reservoir 3UHVVXUHELXOGXSLQD
5 UHVHUYRLU
Figure 2.5.2

58
 Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
Pressure Build-Up at Wellbore
0

psD

4
0 tpD  $tpD 7
ln
$tpD

$tpD  104
ps D $
BM tt p 
70..66qq s B $tt
p ( $t )  p 70 s M ln p
p ws ( $t )  p i
ws i
kh ln $t
kh $t

BM
162..66qq s B $
tt p  $tt
p ( $t )  p 162 s M log p
Figure 30 p ws ( $t5)  p i
ws i
kh log $t
3UHVVXUHELXOGXSDW 10
3 kh 5 x 10
3 $t 10 x 10
3

:HOOERUH $tpD
Figure 30 demonstrates theoretically pps (( rr,, $
pp ii $the
tt )) linearity
Figure of the Horner plot for dimensionless
2.5.3
p 
sD  p ( r , $t )  s
psD psD D ,D$t D ) 
shut-in sD ( r6t
times, D , greater than 10. However for values of 6tD less 10 it is no longer
D
BM
q sB
s M
valid to use the logarithmicq approximation to the exponential integral solution.
Thus for very early shut-in times: 2 P kh
2 Pkh
t  $t
p  p ( t  $t ) p ( $t ) _ 11 ln t pp  $t
p wsD  p D ( t pD  $t D ) p D ( $t D ) _ 2 ln $t
wsD D pD D D D
2 $t
In fact:
¥ 1 ´´
p  11 (ln( t pD  $t D )  0.80908)  11 %i¥¦ 1
p wsD  2 (ln( t pD  $t D )  0.80908)  2 %i¦§ 4 $t µµ¶
wsD
2 2 § 4 $t DD ¶
Dimensionless Build-up Semilog (Horner) Plot
(130)
qq sB
BMM $tpD
kh 2! s

kh  ! 4 Pm
4 Pm $t D < 10
Ei Function not
70.6q BM Represented by
pkh
kh  70.6q ss BM
D  Log Approximation
m
m

162.6q BM
kh  162.6q ss BM
kh  m 4
t pD =m10
Figure 31 6
5 13
 p$tpD
q BM ¥¥ tpD kt
kt ´
p wf ( $t  0)  p i q ss BM ln
'LPHQVLRQOHVVEXLOGXS
ln $t ppD2  0.80908  2S´
VHPLORJ+RUQHUSORW p wf ( $t  0)  p i 4 Pkh ¦§ ln FMc t rw2  0.80908  2Sµµ¶
¦
4 Pkh § FMc t rw ¶
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University
Fig 2.5.4 59
¥ kt ´
p wf ( $t  0)  p *  m¥¦ ln kt pp 2
 0.80908  2S´µ
Figure 31 shows the behaviour of pwsD at very early shut-in times evaluation using
(130) and it can be seen that the exact solution deviates from the extrapolation
of the linear portion; clearly such an extrapolation is not valid. In theory then
one would expect early build-up points to lie above the straight line. In practice
they often fall below the line and the reason for this is again the effect of
well-bore storage and skin.
Effect of Afterflow on a Horner Plot

Data Affected
by Wellbore p*
Storage
pw s
Correct Semilog
Straight Line
slope m

Figure 32
tpD  $tpD 0 (IIHFWRIDIWHUÁRZRQD
log
$tpD +RUQHUSORW

2.5.3 After Production Fig 2.5.5

The preceding theory of pressure build-up analysis is based on the supposition that
WKHRLOÁRZUDWHDWWKHZHOOIDFHFDQEHLQVWDQWDQHRXVO\UHGXFHGIURPWKHFRQVWDQW
rate, q, to zero. Often the well is shut-in at the surface and pressure increases in
WKHZHOOERUHDIWHUVKXWLQUHTXLUHWKHLQÁX[RIVXIÀFLHQWÁXLGIURPWKHIRUPDWLRQ
to compress the contents of the whole well-bore. Note however that, in drill stem
tests or offshore exploration well tests on semi-submersible rigs or drill ships, the
closing-in valve is at bottom-hole. The duration and magnitude of this effect, called
DIWHUÁRZLQSUHVVXUHEXLOGXSWHVWLQJGHSHQGVRQWKHÁRZUDWHEHIRUHVKXWLQWKH
FDSDFLW\ RI WKH ZHOOERUH DQG WKH ÁXLG FRPSUHVVLELOLW\  7KH HIIHFW LV PLQLPLVHG
when the well production rate is high and hence in highly productive wells
DIWHUÁRZ LV QRW D VHULRXV SUREOHP  ,Q JHQHUDO LW LV DGYLVDEOH DOZD\V WR DYRLG
analysis of pressure build-up data for times when bottom-hole pressures are
affected by after production.

7KXVHYHQWKRXJKWKHZHOOLVVKXWLQGXULQJSUHVVXUHEXLOGXSWHVWLQJWKHDIWHUÁRZ
FDXVHGE\ZHOOERUHVWRUDJHKDVDVLJQLÀFDQWLQÁXHQFHRQSUHVVXUHEXLOGXSGDWD
Figure 32 shows that the pressure points fall below the semilog straight line while
well-bore storage is important. Two effects cause this less than ideal rate of
pressure build-up. Firstly pressure build-up in the formation itself is less rapid
because of the continuing production from the well-face. Secondly the skin
pressure drop, which should disappear instantaneously at the moment of closure,
GHFOLQHVLQUHVSRQVHWRWKHDIWHUÁRZ

60
 Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
Log - Log Diagnostic Plot for Afterflow
1000

$p
(psi) Data of Correct
Semilog Slope
Unit
Slope
Figure 33
1
/RJ/RJGLDJQRVWLFSORWIRU 0.001 100
$IWHUÁRZ t (hr)
The duration of these effects may be estimated by making the log-log data plot
described in Chapter 3 on well-bore storage. For pressure build-up Figtesting,
2.5.6 plot log
[pws - pwf(6t = 0)] versus log 6t. When well-bore storage dominates that plot will
have a unit slope straight line; as the semilog straight line is approached the log-log
plot bends over to a gently curving line with a low slope as shown in Figure 33.
,QDOOSUHVVXUHEXLOGXSDQDO\VHVZKHUHDIWHUÁRZPD\EHRILPSRUWDQFHWKHORJORJ
data plot should be made before the straight line is chosen on the semilog data
plot, since it is often possible to draw a semi-log straight line through well-bore
storage dominated data. This phenomenon occurs because well-head shut-in does
QRWFRUUHVSRQGWRVDQGIDFHVKXWLQ$VWKHVDQGIDFHÁRZGRHVGURSRIIWR]HURWKH
pressure increases rapidly to approach the theoretically predicted level. The semilog
data plot is steep and nearly linear during this period, and may be analysed incorrectly
seriously underestimating the formation permeability.

2.5.4 Determination of Reservoir Parameters

7KHEDVLFPHWKRGDQDO\VLQJSUHVVXUHEXLOGXSGDWDLQDQLQÀQLWHDFWLQJUHVHUYRLULV
the Horner plot of pws versus ln((tp + 6t)/6t). It is important to remember that in
WKLVFRQWH[W´LQÀQLWHDFWLQJµUHIHUVWRERWKWKHSURGXFWLRQSHULRGEHIRUHVKXWLQDQG
to the ensuing closed-in period; thus it is a dual condition requiring that neither
the pressure disturbance from the initial production nor that from the rate change
at shut-in reaches the external boundary. It is recommended that the data points
be plotted on ordinary graph paper as a plot of pws versus ln( (tp + 6t)/6t) with
bottom-hole shut-in pressure as ordinate and the natural log term as abscissa. The
GDWDSRLQWVLQÁXHQFHGE\ZHOOERUHVWRUDJHDUHHOLPLQDWHGIURPFRQVLGHUDWLRQDQG
DVWUDLJKWOLQHLVÀWWHGWRWKRVHUHPDLQLQJE\DOLQHDUOHDVWVTXDUHVUHJUHVVLRQ7KLV
process yields the slope, m , and the intercept, p*, of equation (122).

Although it is not valid to extrapolate the straight line portion of the plot to very long
shut-in times since the term pD(6tD) in the superposition is then no longer represented
E\ WKH ORJDULWKPLF DSSUR[LPDWLRQ QHYHUWKHOHVV LQ DQ HVVHQWLDOO\ LQÀQLWHDFWLQJ
UHVHUYRLULHRQHZLWKDVKRUWLQLWLDOÁRZSHULRGWp , it is often assumed that the
extrapolated pressure (intercept), p*, is synonymous with the initial pressure, pi , and
the mean drainage area pressure,}S7KLVLVSHUPLVVLEOHSURYLGHGWKHDPRXQWRIÁXLG
ZLWKGUDZQIURPWKHUHVHUYRLUGXULQJWKHÁRZSHULRGLVYHU\VPDOOFRPSDUHGWRWKHRLO
in place, i.e. negligible depletion has occurred. In this situation then

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 61

 .6q BM tt pp  $tt
ppp ws ($$tt )) 
 ppii

162
162 BM
162..66qqsss BM log tp  $ $t
ws ( log
ws ( $t )  p i kh
kh log $
$t
kh $tt

ppi pps ((rr,, $ tt))

i pss (trp, $
pppsD 
 ppsD ((rrD ,, $ $ tt70
D) ).6
 q pB i M $
 t$) t
sD ( psD(prDDi , $t DD ) 
ws $t )sD
qqlnsBBM
s
M
kh q ss BM $t
sD

22P kh
2P Pkh kh
70.6q s BM t p  $t
p ws ( $t )  p i 162.6q s BMln t p 1$t t p  $t
ppws =( $ p t =)pp*(pt  $t kh) p (log
i p D ( t ipD  $t D ) pD ( $t D ) _ 1 ln p
$t $)t_ 1 ln tt p  $ $tt (131)
 }p
p wsD
wsD 
 p D ( t pD  $t D kh ) p D ( $t D ) _ $ t
2 ln $ t
wsD D pD D D D 22 $
$t t
and the average drainage70 area
. 6 q B M
pressure
162.6qs s BMln p t p  $t t 
can $ bet determined simply by extrapolating
the linearp ( $t ) ofpthe build-up.
ws ( $t )1 p ii
pportion
ws
kh log $t 1 ¥ 1 ´
p wsD  1 1 ( ln ( t  $ kh
tp )
 p0 r, $t )$)t  11 %i¦¥¥
s.(80908 11t µ¶´´
ppsD  
 p 2 (
( ln
r
ln (
,
( $
t
t
pD
t 
) $

$ t
t
D i
)
) 
 0
0 .
. 80908
80908 )
) 
 2 %
% ii§¦ 4 $ µµ usual way from the
22 ¦§§ 44 $
wsD pD D
s M D¶
The permeability-thickness sD D D product, kh , is calculated intDthe
wsD 22 pD D q B
$ t D¶
70.6q s BM t p  $162
PHDVXUHGVORSHPRIWKHÀWWHGVWUDLJKWOLQHXVLQJWKHIRUPXOD t .6q BM t p  $t
p ws ( $t )  p i p ws ( $t )ln p i s 2 P kh
log )
pkh  p q ( rBM $
, $ t t ) khp i ps ( r, $t$ t
khsD  ! sDq s DM D
q sB BM q s BM 1 t  $t
kh
kh p wsD ! !
 p4D P
4sPm
( tm  $t D ) p2DP(kh $t D ) _ ln p
(132)
162.6q s BM 4 P m t
pD
 $ t 2 $t
p ws ( $t )  RULIÀHOGXQLWVDUHEHLQJXVHG
pi log p p i p s ( r , $t )
pkhsD  p sD ( rD , $t D ) 
$t
70.6q s BM q BM 1 t  $t
p wsD  p170
kh
70D( ..66t pD qq s B B M M $t D ) p Ds( $t D ) _ ln1 p ¥ 1 ´
kh
kh p wsD   (lnm m( tspD  $t D ) 20P.kh 80908)2 %i$¦t µ
p i p2s ( r,m$t ) (natural log) 2 § 4 $t D ¶ (133)
psD  psD ( rD , $t D ) 
pp wsD  q162
162
p1s B Mt.6q sB$Mt ) p ( $t ) _ 1 ln1t p ¥ $ t
1 ´
kh  D(( ln . 6( q
t B M
 $D t ) D0.80908 )  % i
s BM ¦ µ
pD D
162 . 6
m q 2 $ t
kh 
kh  22Pqkh BM s
wsD pD D
s (log base 10) 2 § 4 $t D ¶ (134)
kh  ! m
m
4 Pm
1q( $B 1 qtspBM $¥ t kt p 1 ¥ 1 ´ ´
p wsD  p DAgain
( t pD  $ifpt Dwf ) ( $net pt D ln)t D(M
(s0pay, t)pD _phi , ln$ isqt DB )  ¦ 0ln. 80908 )   0%.80908
ipermeability,  µ2Sµ´ k , of the area
the
2
known
$Mt ¥
¥
the kt average ¦
P M FM kt ¶2S¶´µ
wsD 2
kh  !
$t  2 ) pp i q
4 sB kh § c pr 2
 0.80908 § 4 $ t
investigated pp wf ((can
wf $t 70 be
40P
0calculated.
.6)m qs B i 4 Pkh ¦
M
s
¦ ln
ln p
t w
2  0.80908 D  2Sµ¶
kh  4 Pkh §§ FM FMcc tt rrww 2
¶
m
BM )  1 %¥ i¥ kt 1 ´
1 The superposition process showed that the ideal pressure behaviour (no well bore
) t 0q.s080908
p wsD  (VWRUDJHDIWHUVKXWLQLVQRWLQÁXHQFHGE\WKHVNLQHIIHFW6+HQFHEXLOGXSGDWD
ln( t pD p$t D( $ ´
2 DORQH FDQQRW khwf  ! 70.6) qs B p M*  2m¦¥ ln¦§ 4 $ktt µ¶2  0.80908  2Sµ´
p

kh
pp wf (( $
EH
tt 162  4
XVHGP
00)).m m6 M
q sppB**GHWHUPLQH
WR m §¥ ln FM ktcDtpprw  0.80908
IRUPDWLRQ GDPDJH 2S¶´ WKH ÁRZLQJ SUHVVXUH
 RQO\
khwf  $    m ¦
¦§ FMc t rw22  0.80908  2Sµµ¶
SULRUWRVKXWLQLVDIIHFWHGE\WKHVNLQ)RUDQLQÀQLWHDFWLQJUHVHUYRLUWKHÁRZLQJ ln
m § FMc r ¶
pressure just prior to shut-in is given by:t w
q BM
kh  ! s 1 ¥ 70 p wf.6( $ q tBM0) p * ln kt p 0.80908´
4 Pm S kh ¦¥ 162.6qs s BM µ
11 §¥ pp wf ((m $ tt  m0 0 ))q ppM** ¥ FM ktcp tpprw 0.80908¶´´ ´
ktkt 2
2 $
m  s B
S p 
Swf 2 ¦¦§ ( $ t  wf0 )  p ln ln 
¦ ln FMc r2 22 0.80908µµ¶ 2Sµ0 . 80908 
2§ mi
m 4 Pkh § FM FMcct rttwrww ¶ ¶ (135)
70.6q BM
kh  DQGs DJDLQ kh  1 ¥ 162 p wf (.6$qt sBM 0) q s B pM *¥ ktktpp ´ ´
m S p  ( IRU $ t
¦ DQ 0 )  p
LQÀQLWHDFWLQJ
m ¦ lnln
V\VWHP 
WKH 07. . 43173
80908
LQLWLDO 
µ´ 2Sµ SUHVVXUH SL 
UHVHUYRLU
can be replaced
wf
2 11 §¥¥ pp wf by (( $ $ thett  i
00)) 4 P¥p
mextrapolated
 kh*
p * § ktFM FM kt 2 2
cct rtppwrw p*; hence
kt
pressure, ¶´´ equation
¶ (135) may
S
S p wf
(2$t¦¦§  wf0)  pm*  m¦ ln ln
p
ln FM  0.80908  7.43173
2 c r 22  7.43173µ
 2Sµµ
be written: 2§ m § FMc t FM rw c tt rww ¶¶¶
162.6q s BM q B M ¥ kt ´
kh 
m p wf( $ t 70  .06)qs BpMi s ¥ ¦ ln kt p
p
 0.80908 ´2Sµ
m p wf ( $t 70  .06kh )  pM* 4mP¦kh ln § FMct rw0.80908  2Sµ ¶ 2

m  1 ¥70 p .6(qq$sstB BM 0) §p * FMc t rw2kt p ´¶

(136)
m
S  ¦ kh  wf
ln 0.80908µ
2 § ¥ khkt m FMc´t rw2 ¶
q s BM ¨ p ( $ t  ¥0 ) p kt* kt ´ the·build-up Horner
p wf ( $t  0where
)  p i S p4wfP(1kh ln
t¥ ¦§phas been
p

tcwfpr*20replaced 0 . 80908 by the 2
2kt S µ 010.80908slope
measured p
 3´.µof
1$.1513 ) m p
0)(©$
wf FM ¦p ln
* 
log ¶ 2 2S
2275¸
S ¦ ª¨¨ p t w
( $ t m§0) FM
 p ln
c
* r p
FM0kt
c.80908
rw µ¶ ¹··
 1112..1513¥§ p equation p wf ( $t)  p0)for * pthe * FMt

w 2 kt t
p
 33´¶..2275
plot, m . S S 
Solving 1513 wf ( ©©$twfm0(136) kt
skin cpt rfactor,
log
log w
10 
Sp ,22 results in: ¸¸
2275
S ¦ ªª m ln FMc r 2 FM
m FM7cc.43173
tr µ ¹¹
10
t rw
w
2
¥ ¥162 § kt.6p q s BM m ´ kt t w ¶
p wf ( $t  0)  p *  1 p wf ( $2t  00.)80908 p *  2Sµ p ´
mm
S ¦§1ln ¦¥162
FMp wfc.(kh $
r t  0 ) p * ln ¶ kt p 2 0.80908µ´ (137)
S  2 §¦162.6 t q
6 w B
q sB mM M ln FMc t rw2  7.43173¶µ
m
m  2 §70.6kh q s Bm s M FMc t rw ¶
m kh
where the slope, m ,kh t p  $t
is an intrinsically negative
´ kt quantity. ´
1 ¥ p wf ( $t  0p) ws p1*¥p p* (m$kt t log  0 ) p *
S ¦  ¦70 wf ln
.6qFM Mr 2t p $0t$.80908
p
t lnµ¶
sB
p
mS  7.43173µ
2§ m pp ws 2 §p *  m logcm t wt p  $t FM c r 2
¶
 p *  kh¨ m p log ( $ t 
$ t 0 ) p * t w kt p ·
62 Sws 1.1513© wf $t log 10  3 .2275¸
ª¨ p ( $t m  0)  p1hr FM
t ct r1w
2
k¹ ·
S  1.1513 © wf  log p log  3.2275¸
 q B.6Mq s BM
162
kh
kh 
 ! 162 s .6q BM 1 t  $t
p wsD  pkh (
D pD

t  $
4 Pt Dm m) s p D ( $t D ) _ ln p
m q BM ¥ 2 kt p$t ´

2
p wf ( $t  0)  p i s ¦ ln  0.80908  2Sµ
q4sPBkh M ¥§ FMkt
2
Pressure Transient Analysis c t rwDrawdown And
In ´¶ Buildup
p (
1pkhwf  $ t 70
 0. 6
) q B
p M q B M ¦¥ ln 1kt p
¥ 
0
1 . 80908
´  2 Sµ´
p wsD  (wfln(($t tpD0$
s
)m t D p) i 04.80908
i
Pkh §¦)lnFM%
s
c tir¦w2  0.80908
p 2
µ  2S¶µ
2 4 Pkh § FM 2 c t r§w4 $t D ¶ ¶
¥ kt p ´
p wf ( $t  0)  p *  m¦ ln  0.80908  2Sµ
162.6q s BM ¥§ FMktcpt rw
2

kh  ´¶
pqwfB( $Mt  0)  p *  m¦¥ ln kt p 2  0.80908  2Sµ´
kh  ! p wf s ( $t  0) m  p *  m§¦ ln FMc t rw2  0.80908  2S¶µ
4 Pm § FMc t rw ¶
1 ¥ p wf ( $t  0) p *
7KHHTXLYDOHQWIRUPXODHIRUWKHVNLQIDFWRUZKHQXVLQJÀHOGXQLWVDUH kt p ´
S ¦ ln 0.80908µ
2 ¥§ m q s BM ¥ FM ktcp t rw2 ¶ ´
p wf (1$logt 0)( $t pi 0 ) p * ¦ ln kt p 2  0.80908 ´ 2Sµ
pbasis
S .61q ¦¥BpMwf ( $t  0)4 Ppkh* § lnFMkt
(a) natural wf
0.80908 ´
70
kh  S  2 s§¦ m ln FMcct rtpwrw22 0.80908µ¶µ ¶
m2§ m FMc t rw ¶
1 ¥ p wf ( $t  0) p * kt p ´
S ¦ ln  7.43173µ (138)
2 ¥§ m ¥ kt pFMc t rw2 ¶ ´
p (1$t  M0)(($
p wf t p*0) m pln * kt 0.80908  2S´
kh  S
162
Swf.61q¦¥s B p wf $t  0) ¦§p * FM lnc t rw2ktpp 2  7.43173µ´µ¶
m 2 §¦ m ln FMc t rw2  7.43173¶µ
where 2§ m FMc t rw ¶
70.6q s BM
m
1 ¥ p wf.6kh (q$tBM 0¥) pkt * kt p ´
S
m  ¦70 70 . 6 qqssB BM M p ln 0.80908 ´ µ
p wf ( $t m0) 2 §p i s m ¦ ln FM c t rw  2Sµ ¶
0.80908 2
and (b) log basekh kh4 Pkh § FMc t rw2
10 ¶
¨ p wf ( $t  0) p * kt p ·
S  1.1513© log10  3.2275¸
m FMktc t rw 2
1 ¥ p wf (¨ª$ptwf( $0t) kt  0p)* p * kt p ´ ·¹
S  1.1513 ¦ ¨
© p wf ( $t  p0) pln* log102  7kt´.43173
¥ p 2  3µ.2275¸·
p
p wf ( $t S 0)12.1513
§p * ª©m¦ ln m m 2  0.80908 FM c t rw10 FM
log 2Scµ t rw2  3¶.2275¹¸
§ FM mc r FM ¶c t rw
162.ª6q s BM t w ¹ (139)
where m 
kh
162
70.6.6qqs B BMM
m  162
1 ¥ pmwf( $ t  0kh . 6 qsps B*M
)kh kt p ´
S ¦ kh ln 0.80908µ
2§ m t $ FM t c t rw2
¶
p ws  p *  m log p
$t
¨ paper  0$)t a plimited
t p with kt p of cycles is· being employed
wf ( $tt 
When semilog graph number
S 1 p * ©mplog
.1513
p wsinconvenient p  $t
*
log  3.2275¸ of the Horner
1 ¥ ppwfws( $tp*0)ªm log
p* $
it may be to extrapolate the straight
mtt kt p FM´c t rw2line portion
10
S  VXIÀFLHQWO\ $ ¹
SORW
2
¦
§ m
IDU¨ WR ( $ tln FM
p wfREWDLQ 0S  p2 1hr 7.43173
) cGLUHFWO\
r t pµ¶  1 LW LV DOZD\V
 +RZHYHU k SRVVLEOH · WR
determine S the 1.1513
pressure © on the straight t w line  log 1 hour after log
shut-in; 2this  3is.2275 ¸
denoted
¨©
ª m t pp FMc tt rww · ¸¹
pws(6t = 1) or more 162.6qp B(M$t1hr 0)  p1hr
simply p . tp  1 k
m1 .1513 ©¨ pswf
S ( $ t  0 )  p  log t  1 log k  3 . 2275 ¸ ·
70S .6q1.B 1513
M kh ©
wf
©ªp , is given m
1hr
 log p
t log FM c r 2  3.2275
¸¹¸
m shut-in
The s
pressure, ©ª ws m by: tpp FMctt rww2 ¸¹
kh
t  $t
p ws  p *  m log p (140)
¨ p wf ( $t  0) p$*t kt p ·
S  1.1513 log10  3.2275¸
and hence: ©ª m FMc t rw2 ¹
¨ p wf ( $t  0)  p1hr t 1 ·
pSws(6t1.1513= 1) = © p1hr = p* + m log log (tp + p1) log k  3.2275 (141)¸
162.6q s BM ©ª m tp FMc t rw2 ¸¹
m
i.e. kh
p* = p1hr ( m log (tp + 1)
t p  $t (142)
p ws  p *  m log
$t
Substituting this expression for p* into equation (139) gives:

¨ p ( $t  0)  p1hr t 1 k ·
S  1.1513 © wf  log p log  3.2275¸ (143)
©ª m tp FMc t rw
2
¸¹

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 63

in which the term log ((tp + 1)/tp) is frequently quite negligible. This formula
IRU WKH VNLQ IDFWRU RIWHQ DSSHDUV LQ WKH OLWHUDWXUH DQG WKH SURFHGXUH IRU ÀQGLQJ
p1hr is shown in Figure 34.
Determination of p on the Horner Plot
1 hr

$t = 1 hr
p*
p 1 hr
x x MTR
x x
pw s x x Straight
x Line
x slope m
x
x
pwf - p1hr t +1
x S = 11513
. + log p - log k 2 + 3.2275
m tp F M ct rw
Figure 34
tpD  $tpD 0 'HWHUPLQDWLRQRISKURQWKH
log
$tpD +RUQHU3ORW

2.5.5 Peaceman Probe Radius Fig 2.5.7

In Figure 29 the pressure redistribution in the reservoir during a buildup process
has been generated using the exponential integral solution and superposition; this
GLDJUDP FOHDUO\ LOOXVWUDWHV KRZ WKH EXLOGXS LV D UHOD[DWLRQ RI WKH SUHVVXUH SURÀOH
existing at the moment of shut-in back to equilibrium i.e. uniform pressure. The
buildup test measures the wellbore pressure,pws,as a function of shut-in time, 6t
, and it is of interest to show how the buildup record can be used to infer the
spatial pressure distribution present in the reservoir at the moment of shut-in.
Thus a transformation which takes pws (6t) and generates pr(tp,r), as shown in
Figure 36, is required.
Test Precautions

Determine p wf ( $ t=0) and t( $ t=0)

very accurately

End of
Drawdown
$ pBU  pws pwf ($ t  0)
$ t  t t($t  0)
+

pw f( $t=0)
t($t=0)
Buildup Figure 35a
$t 7HVWSUHFDXWLRQV

The basis of the method can be examined for the case of a homogeneous
V\VWHP ZKHUH WKH ÁRZLQJ SUHVVXUH
Stabilise flow-rateDWbefore
UDGLXV Ushutin
d
, is predicted by the exponential
integral expression:
Shutin
q
Flow- Q
Rate tp = Afterflow
64 q
Q = cumulative
 $ pBU  pws pwf ($ t  0)
$ t  t t($t  0)

Pressure Transient
pw f( $t=0) Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup 2

+
t($t=0)
Buildup
$t

Stabilise flow-rate before shutin

Shutin
q
Flow- Q
Rate tp = Afterflow
q
Q = cumulative
volume
Figure 35b
7HVWSUHFDXWLRQV $t
Fig 2.5.8
rw r

$t5
pr(tp,rp5)
$t4 Peaceman Probe
pr(tp,rp4)
Radius Concept

$t3 pr(tp,rp3)
pw = pr r=rw
pr
$t2 pr(tp,rp2) q

$t1 pr(tp,rp1) tp
0
$t

Reservoir pressure distribution

at moment of shut-in, pr(tp)

Pressure Build-Up in a Reservoir

Figure 36

1 ¥ rD2 ´

p wf , D rD , t pD = Ei
2 ¦§ 4 t pD µ¶
(144)

The shut-in pressure at time is given by:

1 t p  $t
p ws, D  $t D = ln (145)
2 $t
If the exponential integral can be replaced by the log approximation viz.:

1 4 t pD

p wf , D rD , t pD = ln
2 G r 2D (146)

then equating the pressures in (146) and (145) gives the correspondence result:

4 t pD t p  $t 4k $t e
y i.e. rD y (147)
G r 2D $t GFMc t

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 65

7KLVFDOFXODWLRQZDVÀUVWSHUIRUPHGE\3HDFHPDQ(9) who termed the equation for
given above the probe radius formula.

7KHDELOLW\WRJHQHUDWHWKHSUHVVXUHGLVWULEXWLRQDWÀ[HGWLPHWp , allows the average

pressure in the near wellbore region to be computed. For example suppose a
simulator block contains a well and it is desired to relate the simulator block
pressure to buildup surveys. ˜ If the simulator block has an area, Ã, then the
A
equivalent radius, ˜r LVGHÀQHGDV
=
P
A˜
˜r = (148)
P˜
A
˜r

˜r =
P
The average pressure
° 2Pp r dr
r
in this region can be obtained by integration of the
p˜ = rw
˜r
A˜
UHFRQVWLWXWHGSUHVVXUHSURÀOHLH
° 2Pp r dr
˜r r

p˜ =
° 2PA˜p r dr
rw
r

p˜ = rw
˜
A

WELL TEST TUTORIAL 1

1.1 CHAPTER 2 - PRESSURE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS IN DRAWDOWN AND

BUILDUP
The data given in the attached table refers to a constant rate drawdown test on an
oil well. Determine the formation permeability and skin using manual semilog
analysis.

Reservoir Data:
Pi = 6500 psia
B = 1.3
qs = 9500 STB/D
rw = 0.3 ft
h = 130 ft
f = 0.23
ct = 3.0 x 10-5 psi-1
 +o = 0.7 cp

(Answer: k = 45 md S = 7)
What is the depth of investigation of this test?

1.2 CHAPTER 2 - PRESSURE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS IN DRAWDOWN AND

BUILDUP
The buildup data for a shut-in following the drawdown of question 1 is given in
the second table. Determine the permeability and skin from the Horner plot of this
data.

66
Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
Table Q1

Time (hr) Pressure

(psia) 12 3632.09
0.001 6474.615 12.001 3657.475
0.00121 6469.267 12.00121 3662.808
0.00147 6462.811 12.00147 3669.252
0.00178 6455.023 12.00178 3677.059
0.00215 6445.636 12.00215 3686.425
0.00261 6434.33 12.00261 3697.727
0.00316 6420.732 12.00316 3711.327
0.00383 6404.396 12.00383 3727.661
0.00463 6384.805 12.00463 3747.229
0.00561 6361.356 12.00561 3770.674
0.0068 6333.355 12.0068 3798.671
0.00824 6300.012 12.00824 3831.988
0.00998 6260.443 12.00998 3871.545
0.01208 6213.672 12.01208 3918.309
0.01464 6158.653 12.01464 3973.295
0.01773 6094.301 12.01773 4037.615
0.02148 6019.542 12.02148 4112.332
0.02602 5933.39 12.02602 4198.452
0.03151 5835.053 12.03151 4296.74
0.03817 5724.068 12.03817 4407.653
0.04624 5600.46 12.04624 4531.189
0.056 5464.921 12.056 4666.642
0.06784 5318.976 12.06784 4812.477
0.08217 5165.098 12.08217 4966.216
0.09953 5006.737 12.09953 5124.425
0.12056 4848.188 12.12056 5282.784
0.14604 4694.28 12.14604 5436.461
0.17689 4549.877 12.17689 5580.593
0.21427 4419.246 12.21427 5710.893
0.25954 4305.43 12.25954 5824.313
0.31438 4209.796 12.31438 5919.469
0.38081 4131.902 12.38081 5996.79
0.46127 4069.758 12.46127 6058.245
0.55873 4020.4 12.55873 6106.775
0.67679 3980.582 12.67679 6145.599
0.81979 3947.365 12.81979 6177.626
0.993 3918.447 12.993 6205.12
1.20281 3892.231 13.20281 6229.636
1.45696 3867.712 13.45696 6252.133
1.7648 3844.296 13.7648 6273.153
2.13769 3821.635 14.13769 6292.981
2.58936 3799.521 14.58936 6311.765
3.13647 3777.822 15.13647 6329.569
3.79918 3756.443 15.79918 6346.414
4.60192 3735.32 16.60192 6362.297
5.57426 3714.4 17.57426 6377.203
6.75205 3693.646 18.75205 6391.108
8.17871 3673.024 20.17871 6403.994
9.90679 3652.512 21.9068 6415.843
12 3632.09 24 6426.651

Drawdown Buildup

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 67

WELL TEST TUTORIAL 2

2.1 CHAPTER 2 - PRESSURE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS IN DRAWDOWN AND

BUILDUP
A pressure buildup test was carried out on a well using a downhole valve so that
wellbore storage effects were negligible. The semilog (Horner) buildup plot for this
test is shown in the diagram. Make an interpretation of this test on the basis that
both the early and middle time data are valid. There are no late time effects due to
boundaries such as faults or gas caps. The logs show a deep depth of invasion of
PXGÀOWUDWH

Test and Reservoir Data:

Porosity, q = 0.22
Oil viscosity, + = 0.85 cp
Total compressibility, ct = 11 x 10-6 psi-1
Formation thickness, h = 165 ft
Flowing time, tp = 36 hr
Oil formation volume factor, Bo = 1.27
2LOÁRZUDWH   Ts = 6130 STB/D
Wellbore radius, rw = 0.33 ft
Flowing pressure, pwf(6t = 0) = 4758 psia

)RU+RUQHUSORWDQDO\VLVXVLQJÀHOGXQLWVDQGQDWXUDOORJV

70.6 x qs Bo M 70.6 x qs Bo M
Slope, m = m  i.e. k 
kh mh
1 ¥ Pwf ( $t  0) p * kt p ´
Skin factor, S  ¦ ln  7.43173µ
2§ m FMc2 rw
2
¶

2.2 CHAPTER 2 - PRESSURE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS IN DRAWDOWN AND

BUILDUP
7KHFRQVWDQWVDQGIDFHUDWHVROXWLRQRIDQLQÀQLWHFRQGXFWLYLW\IUDFWXUHSODQHVRXUFH
LVJLYHQDWHDUO\WLPHE\OLQHDUÁRZWKHRU\YL]

Pt
PD  Dxf t Dxf  0.016

6KRZKRZDWZRUDWHZHOOWHVWLQDIUDFWXUHGZHOOFDQEHDQDO\VHGZKHQOLQHDUÁRZ
is occurring. Under what conditions could this theory be used to analyse a buildup
ZLWKDIWHUÁRZ

Pi Pwf kt
PD  t Dxf  x f  fracture half length
qM FMct x 2f
2Pkh

68
Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
2.3 CHAPTER 2 - PRESSURE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS IN DRAWDOWN AND
BUILDUP
A buildup test was carried out on a well which had produced a cumulative oil production
RI00EEO7KHVWDELOLVHGRLOÁRZUDWHSULRUWRVKXWLQZDV67%2'
The well is located in a multiwell reservoir with a drainage area estimated to be 194
DFUHV7\SLFDOSHUPHDELOLWLHVLQWKHÀHOGDUHPG'HWHUPLQHWKHUHVHUYRLU
permeability and skin factor from the buildup response given below.

Reservoir Data:
 +o = 0.8 cp
Bo = 1.25
ct = 12.75 x 10-6 psi-1
 q = 0.26
h = 137 ft
rw = 0.25 ft

1 acre = 43560 ft2 (tDA )sss = 0.1 . . . time for drainage area to reach SSS

kt
SSS - semi-steady-state (t DA )sss 
FMct A

Time (min) Pressure (psi) Time (min) Pressure

0 2270 60 2464
1 2331 90 2469
2 2374 120 2476
3 2397 180 2481
4 2408 240 2484
5 2417 300 2488
6 2420 360 2489
7 2424 420 2491
8 2428 480 2491
9 2431 540 2495
10 2433 600 2496
15 2440 660 2497
30 2452 720 2497
45 2458

2.4 CHAPTER 2 - PRESSURE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS IN DRAWDOWN AND

BUILDUP
The buildup test given below indicates that a fault or faults may have affected the
late time data. Assess whether or not this behaviour is due to a single fault. If so
determine the distance to the fault.

Reservoir parameters:
qo = 4500 STB/D +o = 0.75 cp Bo = 1.4
ct = 13.0 x 10-6 psi-1 q = 0.22 h = 125 ft
rw = 0.35 ft pwf (6t=0) = 3701 psi tp = 60 hr

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 69

 Shutin Time Pressure, pws Shutin Time Pressure, pws
(hr) (psi) (hr) (psi)

0.017 3733 2.0 3785

0.033 3747 3.0 3789
0.050 3753 4.0 3792
0.067 3754 5.0 3796
0.083 3757 6.0 3799
0.167 3764 7.0 3801
0.250 3766 8.0 3804
0.333 3769 9.0 3805
0.500 3773 10.0 3807
1.000 3779 11.0 3809
1.500 3783 12.0 3810

Homer plot

5200

5100
pws
(psia)

5000

4900

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
t + t
ln p
t

3.1 CHAPTER 2 - PRESSURE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS IN DRAWDOWN AND

BUILDUP
/LQHDUÁRZWRDQLQÀQLWHFRQGXFWLYLW\IUDFWXUHGZHOOLVGHVFULEHGE\WKHFRQVWDQW
rate pD function:

( Pi Pwf )2Pkh Pkt

PD   Pt Dxt 
qM FMt cx 2f

Supposing this equation can be used where the drawdown, (pi - pwf ), is constant, i.e.
VSHFLÀHGFRQVWDQWERWWRPKROHÁRZLQJSUHVVXUHSwf, - the Fetkovich approximation,
derive an expression for the declining rate as a function of time. A hydraulically
fractured gas well as the following properties:

70
Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
k = 0.05 md + = 0.02 cp xf = 400 ft
ct = 1.0 x 10-4 psi-1 q = 0.06 h = 80 ft
pi = 5000 psi pwf = 1500 psi Bg = 0.00365 ft3/scf

3UHSDUH D JUDSK RI SURGXFWLRQ UDWH YHUVXV WLPH XS WR WKH HQG RI WKH OLQHDU ÁRZ
period.

3.4 CHAPTER 2 - PRESSURE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS IN DRAWDOWN AND

BUILDUP
$WZRUDWHWHVWKDVDÁRZVFKHGXOHRIWKHIRUPVKRZQLQWKHGLDJUDP'HULYHDWLPH
IXQFWLRQZKLFKZLOODOORZWKHSUHVVXUHGDWDLQWKHVHFRQGÁRZSHULRGWREHDQDO\VHG
What conditions would be required to allow this to be a practical proposition?

3.6 CHAPTER 1 AND 2 - RADIAL FLOW/PRESSURE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS

IN DRAWDOWN AND BUILDUP
$ZHOOLVÁRZHGDWFRQVWDQWUDWHRI67%'IRUKUDQGWKHQVKXWLQIRUD
buildup the analysis of which gave a permeability, k, of 210 md and a skin factor, S,
RI7KHODVWÁRZLQJERWWRPKROHSUHVVXUHSZIWSZDVSVLD$VVXPLQJ
LQÀQLWHDFWLQJUDGLDOÁRZSUHSDUHDJUDSKRIWKHSUHVVXUHSURÀOHLQWKHUHVHUYRLUDW
the moment of shut-in.

A square simulator block of dimension 500 ft has this well at its centre. Estimate the
average pressure in the block at the moment of shut-in.

Reservoir Data:
q = 0.18 + = 1.4 cp ct = 3.0 x 10-5 psi-1
h = 60 ft rw = 0.35 ft Bo = 1.25

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 71

WELL TEST TUTORIAL 1 - SOLUTION

1.1 CHAPTER 2 - PRESSURE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS IN DRAWDOWN AND

BUILDUP

Drawdown Period
Cartesian Plot
7000

6500

6000

5500
pwf (psia)

5000

4500

4000

3500

3000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time, t (r)

Semilog Graph:
Semilog Plot
7000

6500

6000

5500
pwf (psia)

5000

4500 Intercept = 3898.73 psia

4000

3500 slope = -107.3 psi/ln cycle

3000
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
ln 1

70.6 x qs Bo M 70.6 x qs Bo M
Slope, m of semilog graph: m  i.e. k 
kh mh
From the plot m = - 107.3 psi/(ln cycle) Hence k = 44 md

Intercept of Semilog Straight Line on Graph, pwf(t=1)

1 ¨ pt  1 Pi k ·
S © ln  7.43173¸
2ª m FMct rw
2
¹

From the plot pt=1 = 3898.7 psia

72
Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2

1 ¥ 3898.7 6500
Hence S    ´ = 6.6
2 § 107.3 ¶

0.00105 xkt p
The depth of investigation is given by ri   340 ft
FMc t

1.2 CHAPTER 2 - PRESSURE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS IN DRAWDOWN AND

BUILDUP

Solution to Buildup:
Horner Plot
7000

6500 slope = -108.64 psi/(ln cycle)

6000

5500
Intercept, p* = 6502 psia
pws (psia)

5000

4500

4000

3500

3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ln ((tp + $t)/$t)

Horner plot slope = - 108.64 psi/(ln cycle) ‘ k = 43 md

1 ¥ pwf ( $t  0) p * kt p ´
S ¦ ln  7.43173µ
2§ m FMct rw 2
¶

p* = 6502 psia pwf(6t=0) = 3632.09 psia m = -108.64 psi/(ln cycle)

i.e. S = 0.5(26.42 - 20.89 + 7.43) = 6.5

- essentially the same result as drawdown analysis

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 73

WELL TEST TUTORIAL 2 - SOLUTION

2.1 CHAPTER 2 - PRESSURE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS IN DRAWDOWN AND

BUILDUP
The line designated 1 on the Horner plot is the middle time region (MTR) of ideal
slope where:

m = - 7.28 psi/ln cycle

Hence the formation permeability is given by:

70.6 xqs Bo M
k =  389 md
mh

The skin factor is given by the equation:

1 ¥ pwf ( $t  0) p * kt p ´
S ¦ ln  7.43173µ
2§ m FMct rw 2
¶

For the MTR i.e. line 1:

1
S = 41.21 24.86  7.43  11.9
2

The early time region straight line, designated 2, represents the pressure disturbance
propagating in the damaged region; here:

m = - 29.8 psi/ln cycle

and the damaged region permeability, ka, is given by:

70.6 xqs Bo M
Ka   112 md
mh

The skin for this ETR line is:

1
Sa = 19.02 23.61  7.43  1.42
2

i.e. essentially zero

The Hawkins equation for skin is:

¥k ´ r
S  ¦ 1µ ln a
§ ka ¶ rw

A value of ra = 40.5 ft in this equation gives S = 11.9

74
Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
7KLVVHHPVDELWH[FHVVLYHIRUPXGÀOWUDWHLQYDVLRQ

Homer Plot
Line 2
5200
slope 2 = 5235 - 4937 = -29.8 psi/ln cycle
0 -10 pws
(psia)

5100
Line 1

5000

4900
slope 1 = 5058 - 5001 = -7.28 psi/ln cycle
-7.83

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
t + $t
ln p
$t

2.2 CHAPTER 2 - PRESSURE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS IN DRAWDOWN AND

BUILDUP
A two-rate test has a rate schedule of the form:

Rate Schedule

q2
Flow-
rate q

q1

0 T

The principle of superposition takes the form:

M
pi pwf  $p  q1 pD (t )  (q2 q1 ) pD (T t )
2Pkh

Substitution of the fundamental CRD model (pD function) i.e.:

pD  Pt Dxf

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 75

 gives: pi pwf  $p 
M
2Pkh

q1 Pt Dxf  (q2 q1 ) P (T t ) Dxf
M Pk
pi pwf  $p 
2Pkh 2 q
1 t  (q2 q1 ) (T t )
FMct x
f
i.e.
 M
pi pwf  $p 
2 hx f PFct k

q1 t  (q2 q1 ) (T t )
or


The quantity q1 t  ( q2 q1 ) (T t ) LVNQRZQDVDOLQHDUÁRZVXSHUSRVLWLRQWLPH
function and a specialist plot of pwf(t) versus this quantity will have a slope:

 M
mlf 
2 hx f PFct k

If the permeability, k, is known say from a prefracture test then the (effective) area
of the fracture wing, hxf, may be determined.

For buildup i.e. q2 = 0 and q1 = q the superposition equation simply becomes:

q M
pi pwf  $p 
2 hx f PFct k
 t (T t )

Here the buildup superposition time function is referred to as a tandem square root.
For this to be valid the maximum value of t must be such that the condition tDxf<0.016
LVVDWLVÀHG

2.3 CHAPTER 2 - PRESSURE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS IN DRAWDOWN AND

BUILDUP
)RUDZHOOZKLFKKDVÁRZHGIRUDORQJWLPHWKHDFWXDOSURGXFLQJWLPHLVUHSODFHG
by the time for the drainage area to reach semi-steady-state - this is known as the
Kazemi method. In the present case:

A  194 x 43560  8450640 ft 2

Thus
0.0002637 ktsss
0.1 
FMct A

Taking k as 250 md and solving for tsss gives: tsss = 34 hr

The actual (constant rate equivalent) producing time is:

76
Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2

1.035 x10 6 x 24
tp   4283 hr However tsss is used since it is shorter.
5800

ln((tsss + Pressure ln((tsss + Pressure

$t)/$t) (psi) $t)/$t) (psi)

0 2270 3.5553 2464

7.6212 2331 3.1641 2469
6.9285 2374 2.8904 2476
6.5236 2397 2.5123 2481
6.2364 2408 2.2513 2484
6.0137 2417 2.0541 2488
5.8319 2420 1.8971 2489
5.6782 2424 1.7677 2491
5.5452 2428 1.6582 2491
5.4279 2431 1.5640 2495
5.3230 2433 1.4816 2496
4.9200 2440 1.4088 2497
4.2341 2452 1.3437 2497
3.8359 2458

The slope of the semilog straight line is m = -13.95 psi/ln cycle giving the permeability
as:

70.6qs Bo M
k =   md
mh

The skin factor is given by:

1 ¥ pwf ( $t  0) p * ktp ´
S ¦ ln  7.43173µ where
where pwf( $t=2270
pwf(6t=0) = 0) =psi2270 psi
2§ m FMct rw
2
¶

Substituting the numbers gives S = 0.3

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 77

2.4 CHAPTER 2 - PRESSURE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS IN DRAWDOWN AND
BUILDUP

ln((tp + $t)/$t) Pressure, pws ln((tp + $t)/$t) Pressure, pws

(psi) (psi)

8.1692 3733 3.4340 3785

7.5061 3747 3.0445 3789
7.0909 3753 2.7726 3792
6.7985 3754 2.5649 3796
6.5846 3757 2.3979 3799
5.8869 3764 2.2588 3801
5.4848 3766 2.1401 3804
5.1995 3769 2.0369 3805
4.7958 3773 1.9459 3807
4.1108 3779 1.8648 3809
3.7135 3783 1.7918 3810

Horner Plot
3820
3810 slope = -19.07 psi/ln cycle
3800 Intercept of first line, p* = 3814.6 psi
3790
3780 slope = -8.76 psi/ln cycle
pws (psi)

3770
Second (LTR) Line
3760
3750
3740
First (MTR) Line
3730
Intercept of second line, p** = 3844.3 psi
3720
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
ln ((tp + $t)/$t)

7KH+RUQHUSORWLVVKRZQDERYHZLWKWZRVWUDLJKWOLQHVÀWWHG7KHÀUVWOLQHLVWKH
MTR and is of slope -8.76 psi/ln cycle i.e.

70.6 xqs Bo M
k =  305 md
mh

The skin factor follows as: S = -2.28; based on pwf = 3701 psi and p* = 3814.6psi

7KHLQWHUVHFWLRQRIWKHÀUVWDQGVHFRQGOLQHVRFFXUVDWWKH+RUQHUWLPHIXQFWLRQ 
2.8

i.e. 6tx = 3.885 hr

)RUEXLOGXSWKHWLPHRILQWHUVHFWLRQRIWKHÀUVWDQGVHFRQGOLQHVLVJLYHQE\

0.0002637xk$t ex $t x t p
L where $tex 
1.781xFMc t t p o  o $t x

78
Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
In the present case 6tex = 3.649 r and L = 277 ft - this is the distance to the fault

1RWHWKDWWKHVORSHUDWLRLVFORVHHQRXJKWRWRFRQÀUPDVLQJOHVHDOLQJIDXOW

WELL TEST TUTORIAL 3

3.1 CHAPTER 2 - PRESSURE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS IN DRAWDOWN AND

BUILDUP
Rearranging the CRD model in the form:

PFct k 1
q  2 hx f ( pi pwf )
Mt t

,Q63(RLOÀHOGXQLWVWKLVEHFRPHV

q¥
1 ´ 2 hx PFct k 1 ( p p ) bbl / d
§ 887.2 x 0.0002637 ¶ f
M t
i wf

or

Q
5.614 ¥ 1 ´ 2 hx PFct k 1 ( p p )
Bg § 887.2 x 0.0002637 ¶
f i wf
M t

where Bg  0.00365 ft 3 / scf

Substituting the parameter values this becomes:

1
Q  13000 x MMscf / d
t
0.0002637 xkt
 0.016 0.0002637 xkt
FMct x 2f
(QGRIOLQHDUÁRZW = 0.016 i.e.  0.016
FMct x 2f
Dxf

0.016 xFMct x 2f
< telf   23.3 hr 0.016 xFMct x 2f
0.0002637 xk < telf   23.3 hr
0.0002637 xk

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 79

 Transient Production in Linear Flow
14

12
Q (MMMscf/d)

10

8
6

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (hr)

7KHÁRZUDWHVJLYHQE\WKLVFDOFXODWLRQDUHYHU\KLJKLQGHHGDQGZLOOQRWEHUHDOLVHG
in practice since the fractured well will take considerable time to clean-up. The linear
ÁRZSHULRGRQO\ODVWVRQHGD\DWWKLVSHUPHDELOLW\OHYHORIPG

3.4 CHAPTER 2 - PRESSURE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS IN DRAWDOWN AND

BUILDUP
The principle of superposition takes the form:

M
$p  pi pwf 
2Pkh
q1  pD (tD )  S (q1 q2 ) pD (t T1 ) D  S
which may be written:

q2 M ¥ q1 ¥q ´ ´
$p  pi pwf  ¦ pD (t D ) ¦ 1 1µ pD (t T1 ) D  Sµ
2Pkh § q2 § q2 ¶ ¶

1 4t D
 $VVXPLQJWKHUDGLDOÁRZPRGHO pD  ln this becomes:
2 G

¥ ´
qM ¦ 4k µ
$p  pi pwf  2 ¦ STF  ln  2 Sµ
4Pkh ¦ 2
GFMct r µ
§ w ¶

q1 ¥q ´
where: STF  ln t ¦ 1 1µ ln $t and $t = t - T1
q2 § q2 ¶

+HUH67)LVDORJDULWKPLFVXSHUSRVLWLRQWLPHIRUDWZRUDWHWHVWLQWKHVHFRQGÁRZ
period i.e. t > T1.

80
Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
3.6 CHAPTER 1 AND 2 - RADIAL FLOW/PRESSURE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
IN DRAWDOWN AND BUILDUP
The dimensionless pressure change, 6p = pi - pw , is given by:

$po2Pkh 1 ¥ r2 ´ 0.0002637 xkt

pD   Ei¦ D µ where t D 
887.2 xqs Bo M 2 § 4t D ¶ FMct rw2

,QWKHSUREOHPWKHSUHVVXUHSURÀOHDWDWLPHW KULVVRXJKW

0.0002637 xkt
Hence t D   2.87 x10 5
FMct rw
2

$po2Pkh
Also pD   0.034 $p
887.2 xqs Bo M

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2
r rD rD pD $p pr
(ft) 4tD (psia) (psia)

500 1429 1.777 0.03340 0.982 3936.9

400 1143 1.1377 0.08749 2.573 3935.3
300 857 0.640 0.20983 6.171 3931.7
200 571 0.2844 0.47274 13.904 3924.0
100 285 0.07111 1.06809 31.414 3906.5
50 143 0.01777 1.73517 51.034 3886.9
10 28.6 0.0007111 3.3361 98.120 3839.8
5 14.3 0.0001777 4.0290 118.5 3819.4
0.35 1.0 8.7108x10-7 6.68816 196.71 3741.2

The skin pressure drop is given by:

887.2 xqs Bo M  141.2 psia

$ps 
2Pkh

6LQFHWKHÁRZLQJERWWRPKROHSUHVVXUHLVSVLDWKHLQLWLDOUHVHUYRLUSUHVVXUHLV

pi = 3600 + 141.2 + 196 .71 = 3937.9 psia

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 81

 Pressure Plot
3950

3900
Average pressure
Pressure, p (psia)

(Estimated) 3930 psia

3850

3800

3750

3700
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Radius (ft)

82
Pressure Transient Analysis In Drawdown And Buildup
2
0XVNDW 0µ8VH RI 'DWD RQ WKH %XLOG8S RI %RWWRP+ROH 3UHVVXUHVµ 7UDQV
AIME(1937), 123, 44-48

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WKH5DWHDQG'XUDWLRQRI'LVFKDUJHRID:HOO8VLQJ*URXQG:DWHU6WRUDJHµ7UDQV
AGU (1935), 519-524

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AIME (1950), 189, 91-104

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The Hague (1951), Sec II, 503-523

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Press, Oxford (2nd Edition)

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JPT (June 1976), 183-194

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 83

 
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Sample Examination Questions and Solutions

The following questions are typical of those in the examination. Each question will be worth
25%.

You will be required to answer 4 questions (similar to those contained in this document) from a
total of 7 in the examination. The duration of the examination is 3 hrs and 15 mins.
QUESTION 1.

Figure 1 shows a channel reservoir in which a hydraulic fracture of infinite conductivity is set across
the channel; this is known as a plane source in transient well testing. The constant rate analytical
solution of the fracture face pressure is given in textbooks on heat conduction and takes the form:

!D " #t Dxf

where:

!D "
%! $ ! &2#kh
i ff

q'

kt
t Dxf "
('ct x 2f

W
xf "
2

Supposing the formation permeability, k is known, devise a method of determining the fracture half-
length, xf, from a constant rate drawdown test in which the fracture is flowed (via a well with a
downhole pressure transducer measuring pff) at a total rate, q.
[25]

QUESTION 2.

(a) Derive the basis for the p/z plot of gas reservoir engineering and show how it can be used to
determine gas-in-place.
[10]

(b) What modifications need to be made to cover the effects of rock compressibility and connate
water expansion?
[10]

(c) Gas reservoirs with significant water influx are difficult to engineer. Discuss the management of
gas fields with active water drive and indicate likely production problems in such fields.
[5]
QUESTION 3.

The design of a well test principally involves the duration of the flowing and shut-in periods.

(a) Discuss the factors which influence well test design and the data required to allow a test to be
properly designed.
[13]

(b) Indicate how a software package can be used in the design process.
[6]

(c) In addition to duration of flow periods the desired flow-rate is another component of the design.
How can an estimate of design rate be made indicating the considerations pertinent to the
choice?
[6]

QUESTION 4.

Figure 2 shows the log-log derivative response from an extended drawdown (reservoir limit) well test.

(a) What information does this derivative response convey to an interpreter?

[15]

(b) What specialist plots would be required to estimate the parameters of the system?
[10]

QUESTION 5.

An established authority on well testing has tentatively written down, in approximate order of
importance, the following list of limitations of well test interpretation:

(i) solutions exhibit lack of uniqueness

(ii) determination of the skin factor does not give an estimate of the depth of damage
(iii) in a layered reservoir only an estimate of the arithmetic average permeability is obtained
(iv) uncertainty in flow-rate measurement is often ignored
(v) pressure measurement cannot distinguish between aquifer or hydrocarbon support

(a) Indicate how these limitations can be overcome.

[10]

(b) Give your comments on the importance, or otherwise, of the elements of the list.
[10]

(c) What additions would you make to the list?

[5]
 Areal view of channel reservoir

xf
W

L1

Spanning vertical
N = 2xf = channel width
hydraulic fracture
h = formation height
(plane source)

Cross-sectional view at well

Well

xf
Plane source

Figure 1
 Log-log derivative diagnostic plot

Unit
slope
(US)

Log10(p')

Half slope
Derivative (HS)
plateau
(DP)

Log10(t)

p = Logarithmic derivative

Figure 2
 Model Solutions to Examination

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Date:
Reservoir Engineering - Well Test Analysis
Subject:

INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES

No. Mk.

1. Complete the sections above but do not seal until the examination is finished.

2. Insert in box on right the numbers of the questions attempted.

3. Start each question on a new page.

4. Rough working should be confined to left hand pages.

5. This book must be handed in entire with the top corner sealed.

6. Additional books must bear the name of the candidate, be sealed and be affixed to
the first book by means of a tag provided

PLEASE READ EXAMINATION REGULATIONS ON BACK COVER

1
2
 Model Solutions to Examination

ANSWER 1

The general solution is:

PD ! " t Dxf

Convert dimensionless variables to actual real variables:

( Pi # Pff )2 "kh kt
PD ! t Dxf !
q$ %$ C t x f 2

2 "kh "kt
( Pi # Pff ) !
q$ %$ C t x f 2

Now rearrange for Pff:

q$ "kt
( Pi # Pff ) !
2 "kh %$ C t x f 2

& q$ "kt )
( Pi # Pff ) ! (
' 2 "kh %$ C t x f 2 +*

This can be easily rearranged to the following:

2
q$ & "k )
Pff ! Pi # ( + t
2 "kh ' %$ C t x f 2 *

Which is the equation of a straight line:

3
 y = mx + c

q$ & "k )
m = - ( +
2 "kh ' %$ C t x f 2 *

Thus, if a plot of Pff, measured by the downhole pressure transducer,

against t , the square root of the flowing time, is made, the gradient

m, can be evaluated.

q$ & "k )
Pff ! P1 # ( + t
2 "kh ' %$ C t x f 2 *

Pff - measured by pressure transducer

t - recorded over flow period

Pi - (not important) but measured by RFT or early DST

Plot Pff v t

Evaluate gradient through data, m

q$ & "k )
m ! ( +
2 "kh ' %$ C t x f 2 *

4
 Model Solutions to Examination

q - held constant through test and recorded at surface

$ - known from PVT test data

h - known from geological modelling

, - known from petrophysics/core tests etc

C t - known from rock mechanical testing of cores

k - known - as given in question

# q$ & "k )
! xf ! ( +
m 2 "kh ' %u C t *

The analysis of the plot of Pff v t should be carefully carried out, i.e.

select appropriate data that is not affected by early time effects e.g.

wellbore storage, or late time effects e.g. influenced by boundaries to

flow.

5
 ANSWER 2

a) Gas material balance is given by:

Mg = Mgi - Mgp (1)

i.e. current mass of gas = initial mass - produced mass

in reservoir of gas in reservoir of gas

From equation of state:

(PV = ZnRT)

MW.P
Mg = Vg-g -g !
ZRT

Mass = volume x density MW = molecular weight of gas

Define G = Volume of gas at standard conditions

G.-sc G.MW.Psc ZRT

! Vg ! !
-g Z sc RTsc MW.P

at standard conditions ZSC = 1

G.Psc TZ
! Vg !
Tsc P

6
 Model Solutions to Examination

This equation can be written, taking account of gas material balance

equation (1) as:

(G i # G p )Psc Tz
Vg !
Tsc P

Also, by the same argument:

G i Psc T
Vgi ! Zi T = constant reservoir pressure
Tsc Pi

For volumetric depletion

Vg ! Vgi

(G i # G p )Psc Tz G i Psc Tzi

! !
Tsc P Tsc Pi

Z Z
! (G i # G p ) ! Gi i
P Pi

P (G i # G p ) Pi
! !
Z Gi Zi

P Pi P
! ! # i Gp
Z Zi GiZi

Thus, plotting - against Gp

7
 where P = measured reservoir pressure

Z = compressibility of gas at P

Gp = cumulative gas produced at standard conditions

yields a straight line:

Pi
Zi

P
Z

The data points can be plotted, as above, and the line

extrapolated to = 0.

At this point, Gp = Gi i.e. the initial gas-in-place.

(b) In most situations the plot will not be valid since

depletion will not be entirely volumetric. The expansion of rock

and connate water will lead to errors in the process, sometimes

of 100%.

8
 Model Solutions to Examination

This is most apparent in abnormally pressured reservoirs where

over-pressure results in gas compressibility and rock and water

compressibility being of similar magnitude. Under such

circumstances, these effects cannot be ignored.

The modification is as follows:

Vg = Vgi - .Vg

.Vg = Vpi (SwcCw+Cf) .P

here Vpi is the initial pore volume

.P is the pressure depletion

Swc is the connate water solution

Cw is the water compressibility

Cf is the formation compressibility

Vgi = Vpi (1-Swc )

9
 Vgi
! Vg ! Vgi # (SwcC w / C f ) .P
(1 # Swc )

2 .P !
! Vg ! Vgi 41 # (SwcC w / C f )#
3 01 # Swc 1 "

(G i # G p )Psc Tz
From before, Vg !
Tsc P

G i Psc Tzi
Vg !
Tsc Pi

Z Z 2 .P !
!5 (G i # G p ) ! G i i 41 # (SwcC w / C f )#
P Pi 3 1 # Swc "

P2 .P ! (G # G p ) Pi
!5 41# (SwcC w / C f )# ! i
Z 3 1 # Swc " Gi Zi

P2 .P ! P P
!5 41# (SwcC w / C f )# ! i # i G p
Z 3 (1 # Swc ) " Zi GiZi

This will give a straight line only when Cf is constant. This is rarely

the case, since Cf is a pressure dependent quantity. Selection of Cf is

therefore a difficult and important decision if this modified plot is to

be of benefit.

10
 Model Solutions to Examination

(c) The problems with water influx are significant. Not only does

influx affect the material balance

Vg = Vgi - We,

but there are additional effects of gas trapping in the invaded region

of the reservoir/aquifer system.

The management of such fields demands that both reservoir and

aquifer behaviour are understood. The nature of gas sales is to

arrange long term contracts with specified Daily Contracted

Quantities of gas, which are, additionally, subject to swing factors i.e.

the delivery must be able to meet demand above the DCQ, or below,

depending on seasoned variation. In designing such contracts, it is,

therefore, crucially important to fully understand reservoir and

aquifer characteristics, as failure to meet contracts can prove a costly

business.

The DCQ is based on the peak production rate of the reservoir, again

accounting for saving factor. The Annual Contract Quantity = 365

DCQ i.e. saving is balanced. The reservoir model must be able to

predict future performance. In this situation of Water influx, the

material balance equation can be conveniently coupled to an analysis

method which has well testing theory as its routes. The reservoir

becomes “the well”, while the aquifer becomes “the reservoir”.

11
 Variable rate solution of this familiar problem is required to model the

aquifer performance.

Fetkovich showed that results derived by a quasi-semi-steady state

solution to the problem generated acceptable results, saving on

computation time.

With the material balance and Fetkovich model, the production of the

system can be predicted. The aquifer inner boundary pressure is the

gas reservoir average pressure, so required depletion rates can be

modelled.

The timing of decline will be when:

# #
P ! Pg swing i.e. the gas reservoir average pressure is equal to that

required to meet the maximum gas output. Both this and the peak

production rate must be well designed to honour the gas contract.

Production problems include the trapping of gas in the region of water

influx. As water invades the reservoir it displaces gas to a residual

concentration Sgr which becomes lost in terms of production.

The water influx will then be impeded due to relative permeability

effects and pressure maintenance may be affected.

12
 Model Solutions to Examination

A major benefit in the management of such fields is to have good

aquifer description which may be achieved by better data gathering

from the aquifer i.e. core sampling. Many characteristic will be

different between reservoir and aquifer not least of which is

permeability, which will be greater in the aquifer due to increased

periods of diagenesis.

With good aquifer data, simulation becomes more valuable, helping the

management process.

ANSWER 3

a) Several factors influence well test design.

Assuming wellbore storage, an estimate of CD, which can be deter

mined from very early time data (for constant compressibility (in

single phase) and skin (an estimate can be determined from an

earlier well test or from corey time data using type curve matching)

can give an indication of the time needed to reach the semi-log

straight line. So, to be able to set good estimates of k and S, the

straight line on the semi-log plot must be reached (out of wellbore

storage affected region) and at least 1 log cycle of data should be

measured in this region (MTR).

13
 In a bounded reservoir, if the geometry of the drainage region (and

- average drainage area) is the objective of the test, then time to

reach the boundaries has to be allocated to the test (reservoir limit

test). In this case, m* is calculated from slope in SSS depletion. In

q
Cartesian plot m* ! # and can be determined. CA Dietz
,cthA
shape factor necessary for the MBH correction. If CA is already

known, the well test only needs to reach the SSS zone. The radius at
4kt
investigation ri ! 46t ! ,$c gives an indication of the distance that
t

the pressure disturbance traveled, so if the distance to boundaries

(faults, etc) is known (from geophysics, etc), an estimation of time

taken to reach boundaries can also be performed.

For this, relevant data is compressibility of oil, total compressibility

(great uncertainty), estimates of k and S, oil viscosity, porosity,

thickness of formation, and flow rates.

b) A software package can import data in real time and perform an

early time analysis to determine the existence of wellbore storage,

and from type curve matching or derivative (log-log) analysis set CD,

and type curve matching an estimate of K and S can be made and CD

stated before, this can give management an indication of time

necessary to reach MTR region. Analysis of log - log (p’ vs t) plot can

give a real time indication of when the MTR region is reached

(derivative plateau) and depending on objective of test, the real time

14
 Model Solutions to Examination

analysis can continue for the design of the testing in the LTR as

stated before, with some knowledge of the distance to the boundaries.

If this distance is not known, then testing should be extended to

“feel” them : normally performed after well is drilled.

c) Flow rate is dependent on type of fluid and associated conditions,

such as:

- In oil wells, qo is normally limited by test separator capacity

- In gas wells (exploration), gas rate can be limited by the capacity of

the flaring system

- In High Pressure, high temperature wells, rate can be limited by

the maximum allowable temperature at the wellhead (rating of

elastomers seals).

Production software performing a nodal analysis taking in consideration

all this (separator, chokes, tubing lift performance and reservoir in

flow - needs k and S estimates) can give a good indication of the well-

test flow rate or ranges at allowable rates.

15
 ANSWER 4

a) This is a very useful plot. Allows the identification of 3 flow

regimes (this diagnostic role is a very important application of the

derivative response) and also allows a precise identification of the

boundaries (in time) of those regimes (another important role of the

log-log derivative diagnostic plot).

MTR) In this case, the existence of the derivative plateau

indicates the existence of a middle time region (MTR) in radial flow.

ETR) After a transition period that may be shorter or longer

(depends on geometry of system and well location within it). A period

of half slope is reached, indicating the existence of linear flow.

Following this period, another transition is reached, when the far

boundaries of the system start to affect the pressure response.

When the period of unit slope is reached, the pressure response is

dominated by the bounded reservoir model, being semi-steady-state

depletion beyond that. This transition period is also affected by the

distance to the reservoir boundaries, and if they are reached or not at

the same time. A possible geological interpretation could be a bounded

fluvial channel

16
 Model Solutions to Examination

Unit slope period other

boundaries are reached
(SSS depletion)

Radial flow perid Linear flow perid

For the correct unique interpretation, input needs to be received from

other disciplines such as geology, geophysics, Petrophysics, etc 7

multidisciplinary task!

b) Not counting a possible wellbore storage dominated period that

would be analysed in the log-log plot, the following specialist plots are

necessary.

Semilog-plot 7 to perform the analysis of the MTR region (derivative

plateau), giving the best estimates of k and S. Flow in the MTR region

(radial) is a straight line in a semilog plot.

I assume the flow periods were already defined in the log-log

derivative plot.

Linear flow plot ( ) 7 after the MTR period analysis, the relevant

parameters are stored (k,S) and the linear flow plot can give estimates

of the geometry of the system, L1, L2 and W

17
 L1

L2

Cartesian flow plot _ in SSS regime, pwf vs t is a straight line at slope

q
#
,ct hA and assuming that ct is known, an estimate of the connected
pore volume can be achieved. This allows the estimation of reserves.

Also the extrapolation of the pressure to t=0 yields a relation with the

Dietz shape factor of the drainage area.

ANSWER 5

i) The lack of uniqueness can be overcome by the input of geologists,

geophysicists, petrophysicists, etc, giving information about the

depositional environment, likely geological structure, faulting, layering

(cores, WFTs) etc.

ii) In some situations, these can be overcome using the Hawkins

equation. AC>8 the resistivity or equivalent logs can help.

iii) Analysis of cores (permeameter) or WFT measurements can allow

the estimation of vertical profiles for the permeability and identify

layering, etc.

18
 Model Solutions to Examination

iv) This can be overcome using an approximation such as:

q qs
Q
tp =
qs
Q

tp t

Where Q is cumulative production, qs is surface rate and Tp is a

production time accounting for variation in the rate during the test.

The limitation is that before shut in a stabilised rate qs should exist.

This can overcome some variability in the rate (uncertainty). The

continuous development of more precise flowmeters (multiphase) can

also help in reducing uncertainty.

v) A material balance using the pressure decline and estimated

reserves from geology can help in identifying if there is some

pressure support from an aquifer.

b)

i) Lack of uniqueness is an important issue but assuming that there is

some previous geological or geophysical study, the effects of it can be

reduced. In new exploration areas this problem can be more serious,

where data input from other disciplines is still reduced (lack of

information).

19
 ii) This is also important because when designing a stimulation

treatment to reduce or overcome the damaged region (acidising,

fracturing), the knowledge of the depth of damage would help in

optimising this.

iii) As long as WFT data (MDT) and/or cores are available, this should

be a minor problem.

iv) This is very important as the transient well test analysis normally

assumes constant and known rate. If this is not the case, then the

analysis is incorrect. Maybe that’s why such a large effort is being put

on the development of accurate and reliable multiphase flowmeters.

v) This can be very important because in the exploration & appraisal

stage of a field, especially offshore, the knowledge of whether there

is aquifer support or not would be extremely valuable in optimising the

development cost. (Accounting for water injection support or not and

all the related facilities).

c) The fact that when there are no measurements of initial Pi by WFt

or MDT, some error can be introduced if the pressure transducer is

not at perforation depth. Pi = Ptranducer + -h and this -h may notbe well

known if there is some cushion fluid going down through valve.

20
 Model Solutions to Examination

7 The calculation of the wellbore storage coefficient assumes

constant single phase compressibility. This can lead to serious errors

in estimating CD because prior to shut-down most oil wells would be in

Z phase flow.

7 Very important limitation 7 deferred production while test is

being performed (no production at all during buildups) 79maybe the

largest limitation of well testing from the managers point of view!

21
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NOTES FOR CANDIDATES

1. This is a Closed Book Examination.

2. 15 minutes reading time is provided from 09.15 - 09.30.

3. Examination Papers will be marked anonymously. See separate instructions for completion of
Script Book front covers and attachment of loose pages. Do not write your name on any loose
pages which are submitted as part of your answer.

4. There are SIX questions. A maximum of FOUR numbered questions should be attempted.

5. All numbered questions have equal value.

6. This Examination represents 100% of the Class assessment.

8 State clearly any assumptions used and intermediate calculations made in numerical questions.
No marks can be given for an incorrect answer if the method of calculation is not presented.

9. Answers must be written in separate, coloured books as follows:-

Section A Blue Book

Section B Green Book
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S* Derive the equation which yields the skin factor for the buildup period of a well test.

Suppose the skin is changing due to well clean-up in the drawdown period of a transient test and
that the permeability, k, is known from a build-up analysis.

Show how the skin factor can be obtained at each point of the drawdown and a graph of skin
versus flowing time, t, prepared.
[25]

S2 Discuss the factors which influence the design of an exploration well test (DST) and show how
the attainment of the objectives of a DST can be aided by good test design.
[25]

ST Figure 4 illustrates the dynamics of a buildup. The pressure distribution in the reservoir is
calculated by superposition of the exponential integral solution, plotted as a function of radius
(distance from the well) at increasing shut-in times, 6t. At a given shut-in time, 6t, the pressure
at the sandface in buildup corresponds to the pressure in the reservoir at the moment of shut-in,
tp and a distance rp from the wellbore.

Show that the distance, rp is given approximately by:-

4 "6+.
%- "
aq$,+

where
+ - 6+
6+. "
+ - # 6+

k = permeability a = Eulers constant

q = porosity t = producing time
$ = viscosity 6t = shut-in time
ct = compressibility
 rw r

6t5
pr(tp, rp5)
Peaceman probe
6t4 pr(tp, rp4) radius concept

6t3 pr(tp, rp3)

pr
pw =pr r = rw
6t2 pr(tp, rp2)
q

6t1 pr(tp, rp1) tp

0
6t

Reservoir pressure distribution

at moment of shut-in, pr(tp)

Pressure build-up in a reservoir

B5 In the analysis of buildups, following a long period of production in which semi-steady-state has
been attained, the Kazemi method suggests replacing the actual producing time, tp by tsss in the
Horner time function for buildup analysis.

Show by means of diagrams why the Kazemi method is applicable and discuss other methods for
analysing buildups following long periods of production.

tsss = time for drainage area to reach semi-steady-state

[25]

SU The constant rate solution for the bottom-hole pressure of a well in drawdown is the familiar
logarithmic expression:

( -1 < -#! )2/"/ 1 4 +0

" ln
2 a
-0 " #*
'$

where

"+
+0 "
q$,+ %#2
 For production at constant bottom-hole pressure, Fetkovich has shown that the above expression
can be used to predict the rate with less than 5% error if total flowing time is used for t.

Calculate the transient oil production as a function of time for the vertical well with the
properties given below. Carry the calculations up to a period of 6 months.

k = 0.1 md ct = 3.0*10-5 psi-1

h = 300 ft pi = 6000 psia
$ = 0.5cp pwf = 3000 psia
q = 0.2
[25]

4IO)"K)A/Q&$