38

DISCONTINUITY STRESSES IN SPHERICAL PRESSURE

VESSELS WITH CYLINDRICAL SUPPORTS
By H. Fessler*, R. K. Pennyt and D. A. Wright$
The frozen stress photoelastic technique was used to determine the inner-and outer-
meridional, and hoop, stresses in 13 models. Most models were subjected to internal
pressure, but gravity effects were also studied. The extreme values of all discontinuity
stresses are presented.
The theoretical stress distributions in two models were calculated and compared with
the experimental values. Fair agreement was found.

INTRODUCTION Houghton (6) measured the discontinuity strains in a

THE STRESSES near the intersection of spherical pressure perspex model of a pressurized sphere with external
vessels with (concentric) cylindrical supports have become cylinder. Electric resistance strain gauges were attached
of interest to engineers because some nuclear reactor to all surfaces. Good agreement between experimental
containment vessels are constructed in this manner. measurements and calculated values was found because
The diameter/thickness ratio of these steel vessels is the calculation allowed for the thickness variations of the
large (of the order of 200-300). Because it was impractic- model.
able to make very large or very thin photoelasticmodels, the Fessler and Wright are responsible for the experimental
diameter/thickness ratios of the models used in the present work, Penny is responsible for the theoretical section and
investigation were an order of magnitude smaller than the calculated values.
those in representative reactor vessels. Nevertheless it is
claimed that the results are of interest in connection with
this type of engineering structure. The position and rela- Notation
tive magnitude of the peak stresses at fillets is unlikely to d Mean diameter.
be affected by the thickness ratio. The frozen stress photo- F Material fringe value (lb/inz)/(fringes/in.).
elastic technique is very suitable for determination of the N Fringe order per unit thickness.
peak stresses in the fillets. The stresses in two representa- p Pressure.
tive models have also been calculated and compared with r Fillet radius.
the measured values. This shows the effect of the fillets S Ratio of outer diameter to inner diameter of sphere.
on the stress concentration and gives a guide to the posi- t Wall thickness.
tions in actual vessels which should be considered as the 0 Hoop direction.
theoretical (circular line) junction of the different elements. u Direct stress.
Methods of calculation of the discontinuity forces have 4 Meridional direction.
been published for thin shells (I)§ (2). These are based on
Geckeler’s (3) approximation which effectively treats the
intersecting shells as cylinders. Hettnyi’s approximate Superscript
solution (4) has been shown to be more accurate (5) and
is better able to predict the behaviour of the relatively ‘ Indicates nominal ‘Lame’ values.
thick shells considered here; the use of this approximation
is described in the section on theoretical analysis.
Subscripts
The M S . of this paper was received at the Institution on 24th c Cylinder.
September 1962.
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nottingham University. f Fillet.
Associate Member of the Institution. i Inner.
t Pratt and Whitney Aircraft, North Haven, Conn. o Outer.
$ Bible Training Institute, Glasgow. Graduate of the Institution.
s References are given in the Appendix. s Sphere.
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 DISCONTINUITY STRESSES IN SPHERICAL PRESSURE VESSELS WITH CYLINDRICAL SUPPORTS 39

stresses at the inner surface of all spheres. Owing to

variations in optical sensitivity and to friction in the loading
device these stresses varied between 0.91 and 0-97
fringeslin.
THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
The Geckeler (3) theory for spherical shells is based on
the premise that edge bending effects are restricted to a
very narrow region local to the edge of the shell. On this
basis only the highest derivative in the governing equation
is retained and, thereby, this equation is considerably
simplified with the result that closed-form solutions can
be obtained. These solutions become less accurate
however as the shell thickness increases since wider
regions of the shell then become affected. A better approxi-
mation may be obtained from Blumenthal’s work (7),
and from an identical procedure by HetCnyi (4); in this
approximation the two highest derivatives in the govern-
ing equation are retained. I n the present investigation,
where, because of manufacturing difficulties, it has been
necessary to test relatively thick shells, it would appear
prudent to use Blumenthal‘s approximations in preference
to those of Geckeler. For design purposes it should be
noted that for the thin shells used in practice, the two
approximations became equivalent and then, because of
its simplicity, the Geckeler approximation is preferred (5).
For the cylindrical shell elements standard expressions (8)
are applicable.
The process by which stresses at shell junctions are
determined is, by now, well known and only a brief
description of this is thought necessary here. We imagine
the structure to be cut at the junctions into four separate
shells as shown in Fig. 2b. I n their unconstrained states
Model I G I K L the displacements of the shells at their junction will not,
Thickness of grid plate
Effective weight, lb .
.
. I 2t, ’I 3t, I 3t, in general, be equal, and to ensure that the shell edges
*
* I
4.4 17.1
I 15.2
meet when loaded, as they must do if the structure is to
remain intact, self-equilibrating forces must be applied
to each shell edge. It is the magnitude of these forces
To avoid stresses due to the differential expansion of which determines the final stress distribution. They are
the lead weights and the epoxy resin models during the determined from the conditions of equilibrium of the
stress freezing cycle, the weights were supported on junction.
slotted cylinders, as shown in Fig. lb. These cylinders I n Fig. 2b the discontinuity forces (H, M ) are also
were at least 0.4dc long. designated for each of the shells. We first form relations
The load on top of the sphere was applied through a between these forces and the corresponding edge displace-
steel ball, as shown in Fig. le.
ments. These take the form:
The size of the models was determined by convenience

1
of casting and machining as follows: Hr = a,(a-Ar)+b,(fl- 8,)
(t. = 1, 2, 3,4) (1)

Models reference I A to G 1 I to N
Mr = cr(a-A,)+dr(e- 8 7 )
Where a,. . .d, are coefficients dependent on the shell
Sphere diameter d,, in.
Lower cylinder length
Upper cylinder length
.
.
.
1
.1
3%
at least 050d,
O.35dc
geometry, 6, B are the final displacements of the junction
and A,, 0,are the unconstrained displacements of the
sphere and cylinder. Thus with a,, bry c,, d,, and A,, 8,
known for each of the shells, it remains only to use the
Other dimensions are shown in Tables 1 to 3. The cylin- equilibrium conditions :
ders were of sufficient length for the discontinuity stresses
to have decayed in them. .ZH,=.ZM,=O . .
* (2)
The internal pressure was chosen to give the same Lame to determine the magnitudes of the junction displacements.
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40 H. FESSLER, R. K. PENNY AND D. A. WRIGHT

The edge forces then follow from the force-displacement Taking into account the sign convention for displace-
relations of equations (1). ments and forces the functions a,. . .d, are given below:

Expressions for a,. . .d, coeficients

~

I U
b C d

2
-Et,
2ha,Ka sin d
2Ets -Et,
3
dJ3Ka sin a 2Xa3Ka sin a

a Pressure loading, model N. b Core load on upper cylinder model K.

The remainder of the models are shown after the slices required for analysis have been removed.
Fig. 1. Different types of loading
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 DISCONTINUITY STRESSES I N SPHERICAL PRESSURE VESSELS WITH CYLINDRICAL SUPPORTS 41.

where

I
fl = [12(1-~~)]*/(d,t,)*
D, = ~t,3/12(1-~2)
= [+(1-v2>l*(ds/ts>*
2K, = l+(l-2v) cot a/2h (3) . .
2K2 = 1+(1+2v) cot a/2x
3K1 = 1-(1-2~) Cot a/2h
3K2 = 1-(1+2~) Cot ~ / 2 h

Using equations (2) the junction displacements become

6= g2fI-glf2

e2f1 - e l f 2
. . . * (4)
g1e2 -g2e1
e=
e2f1 -elf2

where

c Top load model J.

The remainder of the models are shown after the slices required
for analysis have been removed.
g2 =2(4+4)+
Fig. 1 .-Continued fl

It can be seen from these expressions that when the

Geckeler approximations are used for the spherical
components, i.e. taking 2K1= 2K2= 3K1 = 3K2, some
of the coefficients disappear while the remainder are
considerably simplified.

--

SPHERE
LOWER
--CYLINDER
Ic *
l
a Dimensions. b Edge forces.
Fig. 2. Nomenclature
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42 H. FESSLER, R. K. PENNY AND D. A. WRIGHT

Substitution of equations (4) in (1) gives the redundant EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES

edge forces for each of the shells. The distribution of
stress resultants and couples around the shells then follows
by eliminating the integration constants in HetCnyi’s
equations for the spherical shells and by straight sub-
stitution in standard expressions for the cylindrical
shells. For the spherical shells we have (5):
Zd, (1 -V)d,Z@
--
2 + 2 sin2
. .
In equations (6) suffixes # and 0 refer to meridional and
circumferential planes of the sphere respectively; Kland
K2 are 2K, and zK2 for the upper and and 3K2for
the lower spherical component. The following definitions
hold :
The usual methods of frozen stress photoelastic analysis
were employed. The models were rough-machined from
cylinders or truncated cones of Araldite casting resin B
to within 0-05in. of their finished dimensions. The finish
machining which followed the annealing was difficult.
As may be seen in Fig. 2a, closely specified fillet radii had
to blend into cylindrical and spherical surfaces without
undercutting and without discontinuities in profile. In
some cases this was not achieved and imperfect models
had to be accepted. These imperfections are indicated in
Tables 1 to 3. The lower parts of the spheres of Models B
and G were slightly thinner than the upper parts. The
thickness of the latter is shown in Tables 1 to 3.
The effect of the ‘self weight’ of all models except K
and J was eliminated by immersion in glycerol during
loading. Glycerol was also used as the pressurizing fluid.
Motor-cycle tyre inflating connectors were used as
flexible pressure connections. Epoxy resin spheroids
+ were cemented to the ends of these tubes and inserted
* (6) into the models before joining. These spheroids formed a
self-sealing pressure joint at the inner edge of the hole at
the top of the models. This method was successful
because the joint with the tube was not subjected to any
strains due to the expansion of the models.
The gravity loaded models were supported on levelled

11
epoxy resin plates to avoid restraints due to differential
A =
1
[z
4x
M,+H, sin +o+2 cot eo expansion. The plates were coated with silicone grease to
dsIdo reduce the frictional restraint on the base of the lower
cylinder. This could act as a pressure seal and thus caused
. .
the suction inside the lower cylinder of model J owing to

J
S = e-A* cos A$, N = e - a * sin A$ contraction of the cooling air; the vent in this model had
been accidentally omitted.
I@ = J,*Zsin (b cos + d++[ Ysin2 d(b+ The models were subjected to the usual stress freezing
cycle. After loading the external diameters of cylinders
Z and Y are the radial and tangential surface loadings and spheres were measured so that the shapes could be
+
respectively while is a measure of the angular distance specified in terms of the actual (deformed) dimensions.
around the shell from the shell edge. The suffix (or Meridional and circumferential slices were cut; one set of
prefix) 0 refers to the shell edge (e.g. ,,K, is the edge value these is shown in Fig. 3. Fringe orders and thicknesses of
of 2K1for the upper spherical component). #, = T--cr slices were measured at positions defined relative to the
and a for the upper and lower parts of the sphere respect- deformed shape.
ively. The functions s, N are frequently tabulated (see The true shapes of all meridional slices were traced from
for example (8)) : 10 times magnified projections and the actual fillet radii
For the cylindrical components we have : determined from these drawings.

M , = M,S+ [ M , + $ ] N
CALIBRATION
M , = VM,
When possible the models were directly calibrated. The
N , is determined from static equilibrium optical sensitivity of the gravity-loaded models was
determined by comparing the known mean compressive
stress near the top of the lower cylinder with the corre-
I n equation (8) suffixes x and 0 refer to axial and circum- sponding fringe order per unit thickness.
ferential planes of the cylinder respectively. The pressure-loaded models were calibrated by refer-
Surface stresses for each of the components are then ence to the Lam6 stresses in an undisturbed sphere. The
obtained from : Lam6 surface stresses are

u
, --(2+S31P and =- 3p
(9) - 2(s3- 1)
a I o
2 p 3 - 1) (10)
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 DISCONTINUITY STRESSES I N SPHERICAL PRESSURE VESSELS WITH CYLINDRICAL SUPPORTS 43

the lower cylinder). Positive stress indices thus signify

tensile stresses in all models.
The meridional and hoop stresses on the inner and outer
surfaces were measured at 5" intervals in the spheres and
at 0.1-in. intervals in the cylinders. Near the sphere-
cylinder junctions many more readings were taken. The
presentation of this very large number of readings is not
appropriate in this paper but they are available (9). The
greatest divergencies from the stresses in the undisturbed
spheres and cylinders are summarized in Tables 1 to 3.
These divergencies were always greatest in the meridional
direction.
The position of the stress peak is indicated by the
letter after the magnitude of the stress index, that is c for
cylinder, f for fillet and s for sphere. Machining inac-
curacies are indicated by the same letters, following the
magnitude of the fillet radii, + denoting excess material
and - denoting undercutting. These machining errors
were small and it was deemed unnecessary to present them
in greater detail.
Where no stress index is shown, a gradual transition
of the surface stress occurred.
The fillet radii were expressed as multiples of the thick-
ness of the load-carrying wall, that is r/ts for pressure
loading and r/tc for gravity loading.
PRESSURE-LOADED MODELS
Fig. 3. Slices from model
External cylinders only
where p is the internal pressure and S is the ratio outside These models were subjected to internal pressure only.
diameter/inside diameter after loading. The fringe orders The cylinders of all these models were the same thickness
per unit thickness N on the surfaces are as the spheres (tc = t,). The other dimensions and the
extreme values of the meridional stress indices are shown
in Table 1.
The greatest stress index in these models occurred on
where I; is the material fringe value. the inner surface of the sphere, north of the junction of
Therefore the centre lines. It decreased with decreasing wall thick-
N', = N',S3 . . . * (12) ness. Intersections around 45" appeared to cause lower
where the prime indicates Lam6 value. stresses than intersections at other angles. The stresses on
In the undisturbed sphere N,, = NBi= NG,S3= N8,S3. the outer surface of the sphere and in the lower cylinder
These four quantities were plotted and their mean value, were low.
taken from the regions where they were approximately With internal cylinders
equal, was used as the reference fringe order N',
From equations (10) (11) and (12) Models I and M were intended to be the shape of model
N, but I was spoilt by excess adhesive adhering to fillet io
2(s3- 1) and increasing it effectively to rio/ts= 0.34. The sphere
P = 3s3 N',F
of model M was made thinner than specified owing to a
From models G and J, which were subjected to com- machining error. The results are included because the
bined gravity and pressure loadings, the material fringe effect of small changes may be of interest.
value was determined from tensile strips cut from the The dimensions and the salient stresses for these models
portions of the cylinders which remained after slicing. are shown in Table 2.
Comparison between models E and F shows that
internal skirts produced greater stress concentrations
RESULTS than external ones. The stresses in models M and N were
The results are expressed as stress indices, I. For the similar. The slightly higher stresses in the lower sphere of
pressure-loaded models these are measured stresses/Lam6 model M may be due to the smaller sphere thickness.
stress on the appropriate surface of the sphere. For the The contraction of the excess adhesive in fillet io of
gravity-loaded models the most convenient stress index model I during curing, prestressed that region circum-
was (the measured stress)/(-mean stress near the top of ferentially. This may have been the cause of the reduction
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44 H. FESSLER, R. K. PENNY AND D. A. WRIGHT

Table 1. Models with external cylinders only

Fillet radii

Sprface
. . . . . .
Positionofintersection
MaindimensionsModel
. . . . . . . .
1
$6
roolt.
rotits

Fillet
B.5
467
0.34
0.10
15A.1
48
0-92
0-22c +
C
30.3
46
2.08
0.47
pp-
2.88
0.46
Extreme measured values of stress index
1-30
0.47

Upper sphere ,_
inaide . . . . . . . . - +1*% +0.72( +04m +0-89s
outside . . . . . . . . 00 + 1-37s +1.09S~ +1*02s +1*27f
Lower cylinder
outside .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 00 - - -O*Ozf -0.llc
inside oi' +0.19c +O-llf O*Oof 0.oOc
Lower s here
outs&
inside
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
+
+1.22(
1-73s 1 - 1 -+ 1 - 1
+1-16s 1-07s +lens
-
+1-26s

Table 2. Mohls with hmml cylinders

Model
External s k i r t . . . . . . . without
I G
with
I with
M
with
1

with
Maindimensions. . . . . . 31.0
1
30.8
1-0
31.4
0.52
36.0 30.4
0-59 0.49
Position of intersection . . . .
s o

62 62 51 51 51
Fillet radii. . . . . . . . - 0-58 0-14c- 0*21s+ 0.12
1.18 0.76 0.91 0.73~-
GlC+ 0.58f + 0.21 0.21 0.14
1.01 0-58 0.69 0.91 0.91
Additionalloading . . . . . none core none none none
Surface Extreme measured values of stress index
~

Lower sphere
+- +1.27s
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
inside ii. +l*Osf 1-50f +1.18s +1*30f
outside m +1.13s +0*46f +1*41f +1*13s
Lower cylinder
. . . . . . . . oi - -0.65~ -0.50f
inside
outside
Upper sphere
. . . . . . . . 00 - - - +-0.26c
ow -0.54f
-042f
outside . . . . . . . . +0*61s +144f +1.48f +1.30f +1*80f
inside . . . . . . . +1*71f +1-91f +2*11f +1 -85f +1.31s
Upper cyGder
outside . . . . . . . . -0.19c -0.40c - - -
inside . . . . . . . . $ -034f -0.80f -0.48c -0.61~ -0.57~

of the stress on the inside of the sphere and the increase
on the outside.
Comparison with theoretical values
Model N was chosen for this purpose. The stresses on all
the surfaces were calculated for the nominal shape. These
are shown in Fig. 4a for the sphere and in Fig. 4b for the
cylinders, with the appropriate experimental values.
It was decided to define the 'origins' of the theoretical
stress distributions as the circumferential surfaces which
contain the acute M e t surfaces io and oi and are normal
to the sphere or cylinder considered. These surfaces are
indicated in Fig. 2a, where the section of the ring which
JOURNAL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE
is cut out by these surfaces is cross-hatched. The alterna-
tive definition of the origin of the theoretical stress distri-
butions at the intersection of the middle surfaces of sphere
and cylinder was rejected as unrealistic, especially for the
comparatively thick-walled shells considered here.
Fig. 4a and b shows that there is general agreement
between calculated and experimental values. In some
instances this agreement could be made much closer by
moving the origin of the theoretical curves to the inter-
section of the middle surfaces.
The experimental stress distributions show all the
characteristics predicted by the theoretical calculation.
Except for the meridional stress on the inner surface of
the upper sphere, the theory predicts similar or greater
Vol5 No 1 1963

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 DISCONTINUITY STRESSES IN SPHERICAL PRESSURE VESSELS WITH CYLINDRICAL SUPPORTS 45

discontinuity stresses than those measured. This was based on the top load only. Model J therefore does not
attributed to the fillets which are of course introduced in reproduce conditions found in nuclear reactors but the
design to reduce stress concentrations due to discon- unusual loading was deemed a good test for the theory.
tinuities. Model G is included in this series as a core-loaded
model. The stress indices are based on the mean stress in
GRAVITY-LOADED MODELS the cylinder and therefore differ from those in Table 2
Experimental results where model G is considered as pressure loaded.
Four models come into this category. As the sphere of The shapes of the models are defined in Table 3. The
model L was made too thin, model K had to be made. intersections of cylinders and spheres occurred at 62"s
Model J was intended to simulate the load on the upper on all these models.
portion of the sphere, but the error described in 'Experi- Comparison between the results from the different
mental Techniques' resulted in a suction of 1.58 lb/in2 models is difficult because they were loaded differently.
inside the lower cylinder. This negative pressure was
determined from a numerical integration along a radial
line in the lower cylinder and agreed with the value
calculated from the contraction of the trapped air during
the cooling of the model. As a further check the compres-
sive force on the upper sphere was determined by integra-
tion of the meridional stresses; the resultant force was
equal to the load applied to the top of the model. The axial
compressive stress in the lower cylinder due to this suction
is 2.22 times the axial stress due to the top and self
weights, but the stress indices in Table 3 and Fig. 5 are

UPPER z LOWER
CYLINDER Ln CYLINDER
u)

UPPER LOWER
SPHERE In SPWERE

lO* 20. 30' 40' X)' 60' 70. W* -4.3 4.0 -0.5 0 0 05 1.0 15
POSITION IN SPHERE DISTANCE FROM JUNCTION-in.

a Sphere. b Cylinders.
Inside Outside
Meridional 0 X
HOOP +
Fig. 4. Calculated and experimental stresses in model N
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46 H.FESSLER, R. K.PENNY AND D. A. WRIGHT

Although the relative magnitudes of stresses due to pres- sphere thickness increased the stress indices, i.e. it was
sure and core loading on model G cannot be determined associated with greater compressive and smaller tensile
from the experiments, it is evident that the effect of the stresses. The extreme values of stress indices again refer
pressure predominates. The accidental suction in model J to meridional stresses.
caused a much greater compressive stress in the lower
cylinder than the weights. Comparison with theoretical values
The results from models L and K indicate that the The stresses set up in model J by the three loadings were
disturbance of the stresses due to core loading is smaller calculated and are shown in Fig. 5a and b together with
than that due to pressure loading. The main difference the experimental results. The origins of the calculated
between models L and K is the thickness of the spherical stresses have again been placed at the acute-angled fillets.
parts. It may be seen from Table 3 that the increase in Better coincidence with the experimental values would
have been obtained with the origins at the intersection of
the centre-lines but it would be more difficult to estimate
the chosen positions of the curves if that had been done.
The experimental values show the same features as the
theoretical curves. The measured extreme values are of
the same order of magnitude as the theoretical predictions
or smaller. The measured bending effects in the lower
_t
I I
sphere are appreciably smaller than the calculated values.
This is the greatest discrepancy between calculation and
experiment which occurs in models N and J remote from
the junction.
I 0

t4

+2

K
1
'
\
'
\
\
\
\
I

UPPER LOWER
4Jl
SPHERE SPHERE
Y
I-

\
1

'\ \ +

\
\
\ t
\ I
+ I

10' 20' 30' 40' 50" 60. 70. 80.

POSITION IN SPHERE DISTANCE FROM JUNCTION-in.

a Sphere. b Cylinder.
Inside Outside
Meridional 0 X
Hoop 0 +
Fig. 5. Calculated and experimental stress in model J
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 DISCONTINUITY STRESSES IN SPHERICAL PRESSURE VESSELS WITH CYLINDRICAL SUPPORTS 47

Model K J G
Main dimensions . . . . . . . dcltc 37.6 37.5 13.9
tdtc 2.0 2.0 1 $0

Extent of sphere . . . . . . *I I Truncated at 15”s I complete

Fillet radii. . . . . . . . . 0.37 0.33 0.30 0.58
1.60 194 1* 2 7 ~- 1.08
0.37 0.47 0-36 058f +
1.56 1.74 1-27 0-58
Loading. . . . . . . . . . core core +self tap+self+ core+
suction pressure
I I I

Surface . . . . . . . . *I Fillet Extreme measured values of stress index

Lower sphere I
inside . . . . . . . . . oaf 0.00s
. . . . . . .* I +7-%f +9.20f
outside +0-74f +0.50s - -
Lower cylinder ’
inside.. . . . . . . . . - - -8.60f -3.80~
outside . . . . . . . . . -1*35f -1.37f -0~WC -
Upper sphere
outside . . . . . . . . .
inside . . . . . . . .
upper.cylin&r

I
*
oumde . . . . . . . . . -1-oof -1.43f -0.36f -2.50~
inside . . . . . . . . . * I -065f -1.15f -5-oof
I I I I 1
+ after c, f or s indicates excess material.
- after c, f or s indicates undercutting.

CONCLUSIONS Electric Company, Whetstone, supported the testing of

The theoretical methods described predict the magnitude
of the measured discontinuity stresses with satisfactory
accuracy. Detailed comparison between calculated and
measured values is difficult because the best position of
the origin of the calculated stresses is uncertain. It should
be between the intersection of the centre-lines and the
acute-angled fillets. The greatest calculated stresses occur
between the acute fillets io and oi and the intersection of
the centre-lines of cylinder and sphere.
The fillet radii on the models were effective in limiting
the stress concentrations. The acute fillets radii varied
between 0.1 and 0.6 of the sphere thickness. The variation
of the obtuse fillet radii was between 0.3 and 1.3. Within
these limits, the magnitudes of the radii did not appear to
affect the peak stresses significantly, but it was not pos-
sible to study this effect systematically, owing to the great
difficulty of making models of accurately prescribed shapes.
Internal pressure causes greater disturbances of stress
distributions than weights placed on the upper cylinder.
For pressure loading, the upper cylinders cause greater
discontinuity stresses than the lower cylinders.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
D. A. Wright held a Shell Research Studentship for this
investigation. The atomic Power Division of the English
the larger models.
The contribution of R. K. Penny is published by
permission of the Director, C.E.R.L., Leatherhead.
APPENDIX
REFERENCES
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