Computer History:

Before Personal Computers

 The first computers of any
kind were simple calculators.
Even these evolved from
mechanical devices to
electronic digital devices.
Computer
an electronic device that stores,
retrieves, and
processes data, and can be
programmed with
Instructions
a device made up of a
combination of electronic
and electromechanical components
that performs
high-speed calculations and other
processing
operations on input data
“What exactly is a PC?”
• The real question seems to be, “Who
is in control of the PC standard
today?”
(best broken down into two parts)
 who is in control of PC software?
 who is in control of PC hardware?
Who is in control of PC software?
• Microsoft clearly controls the
operating systems used on PCs,
which have migrated from the
original MS-DOS to Windows
3.1/95/98/Me, Windows NT/2000,
Windows XP, Windows 7 and now
Windows 8.
• Microsoft has effectively used its
control of the PC operating system as
leverage to also control other types
of PC software, such as utilities and
applications.
Who Controls PC Hardware?
• Intel and AMD controls the PC
hardware standard because it
controls the PC motherboard. It not
only makes the vast majority of
motherboards being used in systems
today, but it also supplies the vast
majority of processors and
motherboard chipsets to other
motherboard manufacturers.
1. Hardware
2. Software
3. People
4. Procedures
5. Data / information

COMBINE FIVE ELEMENTS

GENERATION OF COMPUTERS
First Generation (1942 – 1955) – vacuum tube
GENERATION OF COMPUTERS
Second Generation (1955 – 1964) - transistor
GENERATION OF COMPUTERS
Third Generation (1964 – 1975) – IC
GENERATION OF COMPUTERS
Fourth Generation (1975 - upward)
MSI (100 components)
LSI (over 30,000 components)
VLSI (1 Million components on a single chip)
Note:
use VLSI chip for both CPU and memory. CPU consists
of one or more microprocessors. The latest microprocessors
can contain one million transistors.
 Microcomputer
 First microprocessor in 1969.
 Minicomputer
 1963 There are powerful than
microcomputer and support several uses.
 Mainframe Computer
 These Computer are very powerful large
general – purpose compute. (IBM 4381,
ICL39). Word length 48,60 or 64bits
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER
ARCHITECTURE OF COMPUTER SYSTEM
4-1. ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER
SYSTEM
HARDWARE
Refers to the physical parts of a computer
a.Input Devices
Feed data and programs into computer
Needed to enter the program to be executed
and data to be processed
Example:
Keyboard , mouse , scanner , sensor , etc.
4-1. ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER
SYSTEM
b. Output Devices
displays/prints the results of the
computations
Example:
CRT, 7 segment display, printer,
LED
c. Memory Device
stores the programs to be executed
and the data to be processed
4-1. ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER
SYSTEM
d. Processor
Responsible for performing all the
computational operations and
the coordination of the usage of
resources of a computer
May perform general purpose
computations or special purpose
computations
4-2. ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER
SYSTEM
SOFTWARE / PROGRAMS
Refers to the program written to perform specific
tasks
A set of instructions that the computer
can execut
Stored in the computer's memory in the
form of binary numbers
4-2. ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER
SYSTEM
Classification of Software / Programs
1. System Programs
Control the computer
Helps run the computer hardware
and computer system
Includes operating systems, device
drivers, diagnostic tools, utilities,
etc
4-2. ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER
SYSTEM
Types of Programs
2. Application Programs
Perform specific tasks
allows users to accomplish one or
more specific tasks
includes office suites, business and
educational software, and computer
games
4-2-1. PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

LOW – LEVEL
uses mnemonic representation of a
machine instruction
provides little or no abstraction
from a computer's processor (closer
to the hardware)
4-2-1. PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Categories
i. First Generation
refers to machine code
very low level native language of
a computer
mostly incomprehensible to
humans
the only language that the
processor can understand
4-2-1. PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Categories
ii. Second Generation
refers to assembly language
it is not a processor's native
language
a human - writeable form of
a processor's native instruction
set
4-2-1. PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

HIGH - LEVEL
close to plain English thus it is easier
to understand
more user - friendly and platform -
independent
Example:
C, C++, Java, OOP languages
4-2-1. PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

VERY HIGH - LEVEL

primarily used as professional
programmer productivity tool
very limited to a very specific
application
often referred to as Goal - Oriented
Programming Language
4-2-1. PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Types of Programs / Codes

1. Source Code
assembly program or other language

2. Object Code
machine code (binary)
set of processor - readable opcodes
and data
4-2-1. PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

opcode
a binary value that is recognized
by a processor as one of the instructions
in its instruction set
4-2-1a. PROGRAMMING TOOLS

Assembler
translates source code to object code
translates human – readable assembly language
programs into machine - readable code that the
target processor can understand and execute
simpler than compilers
4-2-1a. PROGRAMMING TOOLS

Compiler
translates statements in one language into
another language
translates high-level language programs into the
machine-language instructions that a particular
processor can understand and execute. However,
the object code that results is not yet ready to be
run
4-2-1a. PROGRAMMING TOOLS

Interpreter
executes other programs
requires a longer time to run a program but
takes less time to interpret the program
Linker
run after all of the source les have been
compiled and assembled into object files
takes one or more objects generated by
compilers and assembles them into a single
executable program
4-2-1a. PROGRAMMING TOOLS

Debugger
a computer program used to debug
other programs
can run a program step by step,
stop/break at some kind of event by
means of a breakpoint, and tracking
the values of some variables
some have the ability to modify the
state of the program while it is
running
4-2-1a. PROGRAMMING TOOLS

Simulator
attempts to represent certain features of the
behavior of a physical or abstract system by the
behavior of another system
4-2-1a. PROGRAMMING TOOLS
Emulator
allows computer programs to run on a platform
other than the one for which they were originally
written
attempts to reproduce the behavior
of the device being emulated

Integrated Development Environment

merges the programming tools in a
software bundle
4-3. ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER
SYSTEM
MEMORY
the part of a digital computer that retain
physical state or data for some interval
of time
4-3. ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER
SYSTEM
Categories
a. Primary / Secondary
Primary
contains data that are actively being used
typically high - speed, relatively small, and
volatile
Secondary
also known as peripheral storage
typically slower, has a higher capacity than
primary storage, and usually non - volatile
4-3. ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER
SYSTEM
Categories
b. Volatile / Non - Volatile
Volatile
refers to a computer memory that
must be powered to maintain its data
Example: RAM
Non - Volatile
a form of computer storage which can retain
its state even when not powered
Example: ROM, flash memory, floppy disk
4-3. ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER
SYSTEM
Categories
c. Mutable / Immutable
Mutable
can be overwritten at any time
 usually stores dynamic data
Immutable
cannot be overwritten
4-3-1. MEMORY

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)

also known as read/write memory
locations in the memory can be written
to or read from any order regardless of
the last accessed memory location
mostly volatile
4-3-1. MEMORY

Types of RAM
1. Static RAM
stores data in flip – flops
requires steady flow of electricity to
maintain its contents
2. Dynamic RAM
stores each bit in a capacitor and transistor
has to be refreshed periodically
has longer access times
4-3-1. MEMORY

READ – ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

a non - volatile memory that cannot be
written to
4-3-1. MEMORY

Types of ROM
1. Masked – Programmed ROM (MROM)
ROM that is programmed when
manufactured
simply called ROM
2. Programmable ROM
can be programmed only once via a special
device called PROM programmer/burner
sometimes referred to as write - once
or one - time programmable
4-3-1. MEMORY

Types of ROM
3. Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM)
requires users to erase the contents
before new values can be written
4. Electrically Erasable ROM (EEROM)
can be erased and reprogrammed by
electrical signals
requires erasing the contents of the
memory before reprogramming
4-3-1. MEMORY

Flash Memory
a solid-state, non-volatile, rewritable
memory that functions like RAM and a
hard disk combined (no moving parts,
electronic)
a close relative to the EEPROM
has larger capacity than EEPROM
offers fast read access times and better
shock resistance than hard disk
4-3-1. MEMORY

Forms: (Type of logic gate used in each storage

cell)
1. NOR Flash
 wears out after 10,000 - 100,000
erase/write operations
2. NAND Flash
 wears out after 1,000,000
erase/write operations
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

Clock Frequency
The rate at which the CPU clock runs.
Measured in hertz (usually MHz or GHz,
though some systems do run in the kHz range
to save power)
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

CPU Components
1. Registers
Classes:
a. Data Register
used to store numbers
b. Address Register
Hold memory addresses
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

Classes:
c. General Purpose Register (GPR)
can store both data and addresses
d. Floating Point Register (FPR)
stores floating point numbers
e. Constant Register
holds read-only values
f. Vector Register
holds data for processing done by
SIMD (single instruction, multiple
data) instructions
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

Classes:
g. Special Purpose Registers
stores program state
usually includes program
counter/instruction pointer, stack
pointer and status register/status
word
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

CPU Components
2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
performs all numerical computations
and logical evaluations for the processor
receives data from the memory, performs
the operation, writes the result back to
the memory
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

CPU Components
3. Control Unit
decodes and monitors the execution of
Instructions
directs the sequence of operation
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

Computer Bus
physical link between various
computer components
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

Types of Computer Bus

1. Address Bus

2. Data Bus

3. Control Bus
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

HARVARD ARCHITECTURE

uses a separate program and data

memory and physically separate transmission
paths
instructions and data are transferred
and fetched simultaneously
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

HARVARD ARCHITECTURE

STORED
PROGRAM
I/O ALU

STORED
DATA
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

VON NEUMAN ARCHITECTURE

a simpler architecture with a single

memory for programming and data
program and data memories share the
same address and data buses hence these
are within the same memory map
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

VON NEUMAN ARCHITECTURE

STORED
PROGRAM
and DATA I/O ALU
PROGRAM
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

Instruction Set
the full suite of opcodes recognized by a
particular processor or family
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

Types of Instruction Set

1. Complex Instruction Set Computer
(CISC)
characterized by many instructions
which can be used in a number of
different ways
has a complex hardware
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

Types of Instruction Set

2. Reduced Instruction Set Computer
(RISC)
characterized by simpler designs and
fewer instructions
each instruction can be executed in a
single clock cycle
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

Clock cycle
time it takes the central processing unit
(CPU) to execute the simplest instruction

Instruction Cycle
the time it takes to fetch and execute a
single opcode
Each instruction can be executed in a single
clock cycle