Mendoza, Gabriel Pascual

BSBA MA3

Cell Division Worksheet

Background information
1. What type of cells have chromosomes? Typical prokaryotic cells contain a single
circular chromosome. Eukaryotic cells, with their much larger genomes, have multiple,
linear chromosomes.

2. How many chromosomes are in all human cells (except eggs and sperm)? 23 pairs of
chromosomes, which results in 46 chromosomes. 22 of the pairs are autosomes, while 1 pair
in the sex chromosomes (which XX results in a female and XY results in a male).

3. True/False – Humans have more chromosomes than any other plant or animals? False

4. What is chromatin? Chromatin is a mass of genetic material composed of DNA

and proteins that condense to form chromosomes during eukaryotic cell division. Chromatin
is located in the nucleus of our cells.

5. Distinguish among a chromosome, a DNA molecule, nucleus, and a gene. The DNA
molecules are very long and in order to fit inside the nucleus of a cell. A chromosome is
a structure that is made of a chemical known as deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA as well as
protein. Chromosomes contain many genes. A gene is a molecular unit of heredity.

6. What is a karyotype? A complete set of chromosomes from a cell that has been photographed
during cell division and arranged in a standard sequence.

7. What are diploid cells? How many chromosomes do diploid human cells have ? A diploid
cell is a cell that contains two sets of chromosomes, which is double the haploid chromosome
number. Human diploid cells have 46 chromosomes (the somatic number, 2n) and human
haploid gametes (egg and sperm) have 23 chromosomes (n).

8. What are haploid cells? How many chromosomes do haploid humans cells have? A haploid
cell is a cell that contains half the amount of chromosomes present in a diploid cell. Haploid:
2n = 46 chromosomes

9. What are homologous chromosomes? Homologous chromosomes are chromosome pairs (one
from each parent) that are similar in length, gene position, and centromere location. The
position of the genes on each homologous chromosome is the same, however the genes may
contain different alleles.

10. What are sister chromatids? A sister chromatid refers to the identical copies (chromatids)
formed by the replication of a chromosome, with both copies joined together by a common
 centromere. In other words, a sister chromatid may also be said to be 'one-half' of the
duplicated chromosome.

Interphase: preparation for mitosis

1. Which stages of the cell cycle constitute interphase?
G1 phase. During G1 phase, also called the first gap phase, the cell grows physically larger,
copies organelles, and makes the molecular building blocks it will need in later steps.
S phase. In S phase, the cell synthesizes a complete copy of the DNA in its nucleus. It also
duplicates a microtubule-organizing structure called the centrosome. The centrosomes help
separate DNA during M phase.
G2 Phase. During the second gap phase, or G 2 phase, the cell grows more, makes proteins and
organelles, and begins to reorganize its contents in preparation for mitosis. G 2 phase ends when
mitosis begins.

Mitosis
1. True/False – In humans, cells spend more time in mitosis than any other phase of the cell
cycle. False
2. Describe the major events in each phase of mitosis.

During prophase, the nuclear membrane disappears and a framework of microtubules is

formed. The microtubules form spindle fibers that originate at the poles. Some spindle fibers
span the entire cell and others attach to the chromosomes. The spindle fibers function to move
the chromosomes.

During metaphase, each chromosome is positioned along the central axis of the cell called the
metaphase plate. The centromeres are situated directly along the metaphase plate with the each
chromatid positioned on opposite sides of the metaphase plate. The cell begins to elongate.

During anaphase, each centromere splits into two, causing sister chromatids to separate. Once
separated, each chromatid is considered a chromosome and the once-joined sisters are pulled to
opposite poles of the cell by the microtubules. Also during anaphase, the entire cell begins to
elongate and, therefore, further separates the sister chromosomes.

During telophase, a daughter nuclei begins to form at each pole, enveloping the gathered
chromosomes. Finally during cytokinesis, the cytoplasm divides resulting in two genetically
identical daughter cells.

3. The spindle is composed of tubulin, motors, and other molecules.

4. Sister chromatids are joined by the common centromere.
5. What happens to sister chromatids during anaphase? Each sister chromatid of a chromosome
has spindle fibers attached to it. These spindle fibers begin to shorten and pull the sister
chromatids apart at the centromere. This process of is called disjunction. Now each chromatid
is called a daughter chromosome or just a chromosome.
Control of the cell cycle
1. Describe 3 checkpoints in the cell cycle which control cell division.

The G1 checkpoint is the main decision point for a cell – that is, the primary point at which it
must choose whether or not to divide. Once the cell passes the G 1 checkpoint and enters S
phase, it becomes irreversibly committed to division. That is, barring unexpected problems,
such as DNA damage or replication errors, a cell that passes the G 1 checkpoint will continue
the rest of the way through the cell cycle and produce two daughter cells.
To make sure that cell division goes smoothly (produces healthy daughter cells with complete,
undamaged DNA), the cell has an additional checkpoint before M phase, called
the G2 checkpoint.

The M checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint: here, the cell examines whether
all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules. Because the
separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step, the cycle will not
proceed until all the chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two spindle fibers from
opposite poles of the cell.

2. Cancer is a disease that occurs when cells divide uncontrollably.

Sexual reproduction requires meiosis

1. What is the difference between gametes and somatic cells?

A somatic cell is any cell in the body of multicellular organisms, other than sex cells. They are
diploid cells which contain two sets of chromosomes. From which one set is derived from the
father and one from the mother. If we consider homologous chromosome pair, one
chromosome of the pair is paternal and one is maternal. For example in humans, there are 46
chromosomes in each somatic cell in 23 pairs. Each pair of chromosomes contains one
chromosome from the mother and one from the father. Stem cells produced as a result of
mitosis give rise to somatic cells. Somatic cells make all the internal and external structures of
the body.
 Gametes are the cells which take part in reproduction. They are only produced in reproductive
organs in males and females. There are two types of gametes. In males, they are called sperms
and in females, they are called eggs. They are haploid cells containing only one pair of
chromosomes. When the eggs are fertilized by sperms, they make a diploid zygote which
contains the complete information required to produce a complete offspring.

2. Two gametes fuse to form a single diploid cell called a Zygote

3. The process of gametes fusing to form a new cell is called Fertilization.

Meiosis
1. What is synapsis? Synapsis is an event that occurs during meiosis in which homologous
chromosomes pair with their counterparts and remain bound due to the exchange of genetic
information.

2. Describe crossing over. Crossing over occurs in meiosis I. During crossing over, segments are
exchanged between non sister chromatids. In what stage of meiosis does crossing over occur?

3. Cohesins hold homologous chromosomes together in metaphase I.

4. What is produced during meiosis? four cells containing half the original amount of genetic
information. These cells are our sex cells – sperm in males, eggs in females

Summing up: meiosis vs. mitosis

1. Why is sex an evolutionary advantage for a population? Because it is the way human and
animals reproduce beneficial for the population

2. (circle one) The daughter cells and parent cells contain the same/different genetic information.
Mitosis creates two identical daughter cells that each contain the same number of
chromosomes as their parent cell. In contrast, meiosis gives rise to four unique daughter cells,
each of which has half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

3. Distinguish between sexual and asexual reproduction.

Asexual reproduction is reproduction without sex. In this form of reproduction, a single

organism or cell makes a copy of itself. The genes of the original and its copy will be the same,
except for rare mutations. They are clones. The main process of asexual reproduction is
mitosis. This type of reproduction is common among some single-cell organisms, for example,
amoeba. Many plants also reproduce asexually.

Sexual reproduction is a way of reproduction of some animals and plants. Some protists and
fungi also reproduce this way. Organisms that reproduce sexually have two different sexes:
male and female.

4. What types of eukaryotic cells undergo mitosis? All types of eukaryotic cells undergo
mitosis except mature gametes. Those only undergo meiosis.
5. What are similarities and differences between mitosis and binary fission?

Mitosis

Mitosis consists of multiple phases: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and

telophase. In prophase, the multiple chromosomes are replicated and condensed, while fibers
form the mitotic spindle. With the help of microtubles, the chromosomes align on the mitotic
spindle and the pairs are separated. In telophase, the separated chromosomes move to opposite
sides of the cell and the cell spits in two.
Binary Fission

The process of binary fission is less complex than mitosis. First, the prokaryotic DNA replicates.
The duplicated strand then moves to another location within the cell, stretching it out. The plasma
membrane then begins to pinch inward until the cell is completely split into two identical cells.

6. What are the major events occurring in each of the following phases of mitosis?
a. Prophase Chromosomes condense, homologous chromosomes synapse, crossing over takes
place, nuclear envelope breaks down, and mitotic spindle forms.
b. Metaphase Homologous pairs of chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate
c. Anaphase The two chromosomes (each with two chromatids) of each homologous pair
separate and move towards opposite poles
d. Telophase Chromosomes arrive at the spindle polls
7. What is the purpose of meiosis? The purpose of meiosis is to reduce the normal diploid cells
(2 copies of each chromosome / cell) to haploid cells, called gametes (1 copy of each
chromosome per cell). In humans, these special haploid cells resulting from meiosis are eggs
(female) or sperm (male).

8. What types of cells undergo meiosis? In humans, where are these cells located? Germ cell:
is any biological cell that gives rise to the gametes of an organism that reproduces sexually.
Germ cells are also diploid, but they are found only in the gonads. Gonads are the ovaries in
females and testes in males. In these organs, females make gametes called eggs, and males
make gametes called sperm.

9. How many cell divisions occur during meiosis? What are these divisions called?
Two successive nuclear divisions occur, Meiosis I (Reduction) and Meiosis II (Division).

a. How do the products of meiosis differ from each other and the parent cell?

10. A normally diploid cell containing 8 chromosomes undergoes meiosis. How many
chromosomes would the daughter cells have? 8 chromosomes

11. Define each of the following terms.

a. homologous chromosomes are chromosomes that contain similar information (one comes
from mom, one comes from dad)
b. tetrad it means there are 4 chromosomes
c. crossing over is the exchange of sections of chromosomes during prophase 1, it leads to
genetic variation
d. sister chromatids It refers to the identical copies (chromatids) formed by the replication of a
chromosome, with both copies joined together by a common centromere. In other words,
a sister chromatid may also be said to be 'one-half' of the duplicated chromosome.
e. gamete a mature haploid male or female germ cell that is able to unite with another of the
opposite sex in sexual reproduction to form a zygote.
f. zygote is a diploid cell resulting from the fusion of two haploid gametes; a fertilized ovum.

12. List four ways in which meiosis differs from mitosis?

Meiosis - produces 4 cells

Mitosis - cells are diploid in nature

Meiosis - cells are haploid in nature

Mitosis- occurs in body cells

Meiosis - occurs in sex cells

Mitosis - No recombination or reshuffling of genes takes place

meiosis - recombination , random assortment and crossing over takes
place.

13. Distinguish between oogenesis and spermatogenesis.

Spermatogenesis
The male testes have tiny tubules containing diploid cells called spermatogonium that mature to
become sperm. The basic function of spermatogenesis is to turn each one of the diploid
spermatogonium into four haploid sperm cells. This quadrupling is accomplished through the
meiotic cell division detailed in the last section. During interphase before meiosis I, the
spermatogonium’s 46 single chromosomes are replicated to form 46 pairs of sister chromatids,
which then exchange genetic material through synapsis before the first meiotic division. In
meiosis II, the two daughter cells go through a second division to yield four cells containing a
unique set of 23 single chromosomes that ultimately mature into four sperm cells. Starting at
puberty, a male will produce literally millions of sperm every single day for the rest of his life.
Oogenesis
Just like spermatogenesis, oogenesis involves the formation of haploid cells from an original
diploid cell, called a primary oocyte, through meiosis. The female ovaries contain the primary
oocytes. There are two major differences between the male and female production of gametes.
First of all, oogenesis only leads to the production of one final ovum, or egg cell, from each
primary oocyte (in contrast to the four sperm that are generated from every spermatogonium). Of
the four daughter cells that are produced when the primary oocyte divides meiotically, three come
out much smaller than the fourth. These smaller cells, called polar bodies, eventually disintegrate,
leaving only the larger ovum as the final product of oogenesis. The production of one egg cell via
oogenesis normally occurs only once a month, from puberty to menopause.