Rebirth in Buddhism refers to its teaching that the actions of a person lead to a new existence after

death, in endless cycles called saṃsāra.[1][2] This cycle is considered to be dukkha, unsatisfactory and
painful. The cycle stops only if liberation is achieved by insight and the extinguishing of
desire.[3][4] Rebirth is one of the foundational doctrines of Buddhism, along
with Karma, nirvana and moksha.[1][3][5]

The rebirth doctrine in Buddhism, sometimes referred to as reincarnation or metempsychosis, asserts

that rebirth does not necessarily take place as another human being, but as an existence in one of the
six Gati (realms) called Bhavachakra.[4] The six realms of rebirth include Deva (heavenly), Asura
(demigod), Manusya (human), Tiryak (animals), Preta (ghosts), and Naraka (resident of hell).[4][6][note
1]
This rebirth, state Buddhism traditions, is determined by karma, with good realms favored
by Kushala(good karma), while a rebirth in evil realms is a consequence of Akushala (bad
karma).[4] While Nirvana is the ultimate goal of Buddhist teaching, much of traditional Buddhist practice
has been centered on gaining merit and merit transfer, whereby one gains rebirth in the good realms
and avoids rebirth in the evil realms.[4][8][9][note 2]

The rebirth doctrine has been a subject of scholarly studies within Buddhism since ancient times,
particularly in reconciling the rebirth doctrine with its Anatman (no self, no soul) doctrine.[4][3][10] The
Buddhist traditions have disagreed on what it is in a person that is reborn, as well as how quickly the
rebirth occurs after each death.[4][9] Some Buddhist traditions assert that "no self" doctrine means that
there is no perduring self, but there is avacya (inexpressible) self which migrates from one life to
another.[4] The majority of Buddhist traditions, in contrast, assert that Vijnana (a person's consciousness)
though evolving, exists as a continuum and is the mechanistic basis of what undergoes rebirth,
rebecoming and redeath.[4][11][12] Some traditions assert that the rebirth occurs immediately, while
others such as the Tibetan Buddhism posits an interim state wherein as many of 49 days pass between
death and rebirth and this belief drives the local funerary rituals.[4][13]

Contents

[hide]

 1Buddhist terminology and doctrine

 2Historical context

 3Ideas of rebirth

o 3.1Mechanism

o 3.2Rebirth realms

 4Comparison with Rebirth doctrines in Hinduism and Jainism

 5See also

 6Notes

 7References

o 7.1Bibliography
 o 7.2Web bibliography

 8Commentaries

 9External links

Buddhist terminology and doctrine[edit]

There is no word corresponding exactly to the English terms "rebirth", "metempsychosis",

"transmigration" or "reincarnation" in the traditional Buddhist languages of Pāli and Sanskrit. Rebirth is
referred to by various terms, representing an essential step in the endless cycle of samsara, terms such
as "re-becoming" or "becoming again"(Sanskrit: punarbhava, Pali: punabbhava), re-born (punarjanman),
re-death (punarmrityu), or sometimes just "becoming" (Pali/Sanskrit: bhava), while the state one is born
into, the individual process of being born or coming into the world in any way, is referred to simply as
"birth" (Pali/Sanskrit: jāti).[4][14] The entire universal process of beings being reborn again and again is
called "wandering about" (Pali/Sanskrit: saṃsāra).

Some English-speaking Buddhists prefer the term "rebirth" or "re-becoming" (Sanskrit: punarbhava;
Pali: punabbhava) to "reincarnation" as they take the latter to imply an entity (soul) that is
reborn.[3] Buddhism denies there is any such soul or self in a living being, but does assert that there is a
cycle of transmigration consisting of rebirth and redeath as the fundamental nature of existence.[3][4][15]

Historical context[edit]

Before the time of the Buddha, many ideas on the nature of existence, birth and death were in vogue.
The ancient Indian Vedic and Sramana schools affirmed the idea of soul, karma and cycle of rebirth. The
competing Indian materialist schools denied the idea of soul, karma and rebirth, asserting instead that
there is just one life, there is no rebirth, and death marks complete annihilation.[16] From these diverse
views, Buddha accepted the premises and concepts related to rebirth,[17] but introduced
innovations.[1] According to various Buddhist scriptures, Buddha believed in other worlds,

Since there actually is another world (any world other than the present human one, i.e. different rebirth
realms), one who holds the view 'there is no other world' has wrong view...

— Buddha, Majjhima Nikaya i.402, Apannaka Sutta, Translated by Peter Harvey[1]

Buddha also asserted that there is karma, which influences the future suffering through the cycle of
rebirth, but added that there is a way to end the cycle of karmic rebirths through nirvana.[1][9] The
Buddha introduced the concept that there is no soul (self) tying the cycle of rebirths, in contrast to
themes asserted by various Hindu and Jaina traditions, and this central concept in Buddhism is
called anattā; Buddha also affirmed the idea that all compounded things are subject to dissolution at
death or anicca.[18] The Buddha's detailed conception of the connections between action (karma),
rebirth and causality is set out in the twelve links of dependent origination.[10]

Ideas of rebirth[edit]

There are many references to rebirth in the early Buddhist scriptures. These are some of the more
important; Mahakammavibhanga Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya 136); Upali Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya 56);
Kukkuravatika Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya 57); Moliyasivaka Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya 36.21); Sankha Sutta
(Samyutta Nikaya 42.8).
The Buddha and Rebirths
The texts report that on the night of his enlightenment the Buddha gained the ability to recall his
previous lives. It is said that he remembered not just one or two, but a vast number, together with the
details of what his name, caste, profession, and so forth had been in each life. Elsewhere, the Buddha
states that he could remember back 'as far as ninety one eons' (Majjhima Nikaya i.483), one eon being
roughly equal to the lifespan of a solar system.

— Damien Keown, Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction[19][note 3]

Rebirth is discussed in Buddhist scriptures with various terms, such as Āgati-gati, Punarbhava and
others. The term Āgati literally means 'coming back, return', while Gati means 'going away'
and Punarbhava means 're-becoming'.[23][24] Āgati-gati in the sense of rebirth and re-death appears in
many places in early Buddhist texts, such as in Samyutta Nikaya III.53, Jataka II.172, Digha Nikaya I. 162,
Anguttara III.54-74 and Petavatthu II.9.[23] Punarbhava in the sense of rebirth, similarly appears in many
places, such as in Digha II.15, Samyutta I.133 and 4.201, Itivuttaka 62, Sutta-nipata 162, 273, 502, 514
and 733.[23] Numerous other terms for rebirths are found in the Buddhist scriptures , such
as Punagamana, Punavasa, Punanivattati, Abhinibbatti, and words with roots of *jati, *rupa.[23]

Mechanism[edit]

While all Buddhist traditions accept some notion of rebirth, they differ in their theories about rebirth
mechanism and precisely how events unfold after the moment of death. The early Buddhist texts
suggest that Buddha faced a difficulty in explaining what is reborn and how rebirth occurs, after he
innovated the concept that there is "no self" (Anatta).[25]The texts also suggest that the Anicca theory
led to difficulties in explaining that there is a permanent consciousness that moves from life to
life.[25] Later Buddhist scholars such as Buddhaghosa suggested that the lack of a self or soul does not
mean lack of continuity; and the rebirth across different realms of birth – such as heavenly, human,
animal, hellish and others – occurs in the same way that a flame is transferred from one candle to
another.[26][27]

The Sautrantika sub-school of the Saravastivada Buddhist tradition, that emerged in 2nd century BCE,
and influenced the 4th-century CE Yogacara school of Buddhism, introduced the idea of "transmigrating
substratum of consciousness".[28] It stated that each personal act "perfumes" the individual and leads to
the planting of a "seed" that would later germinate as a good or bad karmic result.

The Pudgalavada school of early Buddhism accepted the core premise of Buddhism that there is
no attā (ātman, soul, self), but asserted that there is a "personal entity" (pudgala, puggala) that retains
karma balance sheet and is mechanistically involved in rebirth; this personal entity, stated Pudgalavada
Buddhists, is neither different nor identical to the five aggregates (skandhas).[29] This concept of personal
entity to explain rebirth by Pudgalavada Buddhists was polemically attacked by Theravada Buddhists in
early 1st millennium CE.[29] The personal entity concept was rejected by the mid-1st millennium CE Pali
scholar Buddhaghosa, who attempted to explain rebirth mechanism with "rebirth-linking consciousness"
(patisandhi).[30][29]

The Four planes of liberation

(according to the Sutta Piṭaka[31])
 stage's abandoned rebirth(s)
"fruit"[32] fetters until suffering's end

up to seven rebirths in
stream-enterer
1. identity view (Anatman) human or heavenly realms
2. doubt in Buddha
3. ascetic or ritual rules lower once more as
once-returner[33]
fetters a human

once more in
4. sensual desire
non-returner a heavenly realm
5. ill will
(Pure Abodes)

6. material-rebirth desire
7. immaterial-rebirth desire
higher
arahant 8. conceit no rebirth
fetters
9. restlessness
10. ignorance

Source: Ñāṇamoli & Bodhi (2001), Middle-Length Discourses, pp. 41-43.

Some schools conclude that karma continued to exist and adhere to the person until it had worked out
its consequences.[citation needed] Theravada Buddhists assert that rebirth is immediate while
the Tibetan schools hold to the notion of a bardo (intermediate state) that can last up to forty-nine
days.[34][35][36]

The bardo rebirth concept of Tibetan Buddhism, along with Yidam, developed independently in Tibet,
and involves forty two peaceful deities, and fifty eight wrathful deities.[37] These ideas led to mechanistic
maps on karma and what form of rebirth one takes after death, discussed in texts such as The Tibetan
Book of the Dead.[38][39]

Another mechanistic rebirth theory that emerged in Buddhism posits that a being is reborn through
"evolving consciousness" (Pali: samvattanika viññana, M.1.256)[40][41] or "stream of consciousness"
(Pali: viññana sotam, D.3.105) that reincarnates.[42] Death dissolves all prior aggregates (Pali: khandhas,
Sanskrit: skandhas), and this consciousness stream combined with karma of a being contributes to a
new aggregation, which is rebirth. Nirvana is the state that marks the end of this consciousness
continuum and the associated karmic cycle of suffering through rebirths and redeaths.[43]

Rebirth realms[edit]

In traditional Buddhist cosmology the rebirth, also called reincarnation or metempsychosis, can be in
any of six realms. These are called the Gati in cycles of re-becoming, Bhavachakra.[4] The six realms of
rebirth include three good realms – Deva (heavenly, god), Asura (demigod), Manusya (human); and
three evil realms – Tiryak (animals), Preta (ghosts), and Naraka (hellish).[4] The realm of rebirth is
conditioned by the karma (deeds, intent) of current and previous lives;[44] good karmas will yield a
happier rebirth into good realm, bad karmas is believed to produce rebirth which is more unhappy and
evil .[4]

The release from this endless cycle of rebirths, rebecoming and redeaths is called nirvana (nibbana) in
Buddhism, and achievement of nirvana is the ultimate goal of Buddhist teaching.[note 4][note 5] However,
much of traditional Buddhist practice has been centered on gaining merit and merit transfer, whereby
an individual gains rebirth for oneself or one's family members in the good realms, and avoids rebirth in
the evil realms.[4][8][9]

Comparison with Rebirth doctrines in Hinduism and Jainism[edit]

The rebirth theories in different traditions within Hinduism rely on their foundational assumption that
soul exists (Atman, attā), in contrast to Buddhist assumption that there is no soul.[56][15][57] Hindu
traditions consider soul to be the unchanging eternal essence of a living being, and in many of its theistic
and non-theistic traditions the soul asserted to be identical with Brahman, the ultimate
reality.[58][59][60] Thus while both Buddhism and Hinduism accept the karma and rebirth doctrine, and
both focus on ethics in this life as well as liberation from rebirth and suffering as the ultimate spiritual
pursuit, they have a very different view on whether a self or soul exists, which impacts the details of
their respective rebirth theories.[61][62][63]

Rebirth and karma doctrine in Jainism differ from those in Buddhism, even though both are non-
theistic Sramana traditions.[64][65] Jainism, in contrast to Buddhism, accepts the foundational assumption
that soul exists (Jiva) and is involved in the rebirth mechanism.[66] Further, Jainism considers that the
rebirth has a start, that rebirth and redeath cycle is a part of a progression of a soul, karmic dust
particles emanate from ethical or unethical intent and actions, these karmic particles stick to the soul
which determines the next birth. Jainism, further asserts that some souls can never achieve liberation,
that ethical living such as Ahimsa (non-violence) and asceticism are means to liberation for those who
can attain liberation, and that liberated souls reach the eternal siddha (enlightened state) that ends
their rebirth cycles.[64][67][68] Jainism, like Buddhism, also believes in realms of birth[note 6] and is
symbolized by its emblematic Swastika sign,[70] with ethical and moral theories of its lay practices
focussing on obtaining good rebirth.[71]

See also[edit]

 Avatar

 Death in Jainism

 Four Noble Truths

 Reincarnation

 Six realms

Notes[edit]

1. Jump up^ This is discussed in many Suttas of different Nikayas. See, for example,
Devaduta Sutta in Majjhima Nikaya (iii.178).[7]

2. Jump up^ This merit gaining may be on the behalf of one's family members.[4][8][9]
3. Jump up^ It is unclear when Majjhima Nikaya was written down. For the historicity of
rebirth, samsara in early texts, see Carol Anderson;[20]
Ronald Davidson: "While most scholars agree that there was a rough body of sacred
literature (disputed)(sic) that a relatively early community (disputed)(sic) maintained
and transmitted, we have little confidence that much, if any, of surviving Buddhist
scripture is actually the word of the historic Buddha."[21]
Richard Gombrich: "I have the greatest difficulty in accepting that the main edifice is not
the work of a single genius. By "the main edifice" I mean the collections of the main
body of sermons, the four Nikāyas, and of the main body of monastic rules."[22]

4. Jump up^ On samsara, rebirth and redeath:

* Paul Williams: "All rebirth is due to karma and is impermanent. Short of attaining
enlightenment, in each rebirth one is born and dies, to be reborn elsewhere in
accordance with the completely impersonal causal nature of one's own karma. The
endless cycle of birth, rebirth, and redeath, is samsara."[11]
* Buswell and Lopez on "rebirth": "An English term that does not have an exact
correlate in Buddhist languages, rendered instead by a range of technical terms, such as
the Sanskrit PUNARJANMAN (lit. "birth again") and PUNABHAVAN (lit. "re-becoming"),
and, less commonly, the related PUNARMRTYU (lit. "redeath")."[17]
See also Perry Schmidt-Leukel (2006) pages 32-34,[45] John J. Makransky (1997) p.27.[46]

5. Jump up^ Graham Harvey: "Siddhartha Gautama found an end to rebirth in this world of
suffering. His teachings, known as the dharma in Buddhism, can be summarized in the
Four Noble truths."[47]Geoffrey Samuel (2008): "The Four Noble Truths [...] describe the
knowledge needed to set out on the path to liberation from rebirth."[48] See
also [49][50][11][51][47][52][web 1][web 2]

The Theravada tradition holds that insight into these four truths is liberating in
itself.[53] This is reflected in the Pali canon.[54] According to Donald Lopez, "The Buddha
stated in his first sermon that when he gained absolute and intuitive knowledge of the
four truths, he achieved complete enlightenment and freedom from future rebirth."[web
1]

The Maha-parinibbana Sutta also refers to this liberation.[web 3] Carol Anderson: "The
second passage where the four truths appear in the Vinaya-pitaka is also found in
the Mahaparinibbana-sutta (D II 90-91). Here, the Buddha explains that it is by not
understanding the four truths that rebirth continues."[55]

On the meaning of moksha as liberation from rebirth, see Patrick Olivelle in the
Encyclopædia Britannica.[web 4]

6. Jump up^ Jainism posits that there are four realms, in contrast to six of Buddhism; the
Jaina realms are heavenly deities, human, non-human living beings (animal, plants), and
hellish beings. Within the human realms, Jainism asserts that rebirth lineage and gender
depends on karma in the past lives.[69][70]
References[edit]

1. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Peter Harvey (2012). An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings,

History and Practices. Cambridge University Press. pp. 32–33, 38–39, 46–49. ISBN 978-0-
521-85942-4.

2. Jump up^ Trainor 2004, p. 58, Quote: "Buddhism shares with Hinduism the doctrine of
Samsara, whereby all beings pass through an unceasing cycle of birth, death and rebirth
until they find a means of liberation from the cycle. However, Buddhism differs from
Hinduism in rejecting the assertion that every human being possesses a changeless soul
which constitutes his or her ultimate identity, and which transmigrates from one
incarnation to the next..

3. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Norman C. McClelland (2010). Encyclopedia of Reincarnation and

Karma. McFarland. pp. 226–228. ISBN 978-0-7864-5675-8.

4. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Robert E. Buswell Jr.; Donald S. Lopez Jr. (2013). The
Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press. pp. 708–709. ISBN 978-1-
4008-4805-8.

5. Jump up^ Edward Craig (1998). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge.

p. 402. ISBN 978-0-415-18715-2.

6. Jump up^ Obeyesekere, Gananath (2005). Karma and Rebirth: A Cross Cultural
Study. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 127. ISBN 978-8120826090.

7. Jump up^ Nanamoli Bhikkhu; Bhikkhu Bodhi (2005). The Middle Length Discourses of the
Buddha: A Translation of the Majjhima Nikaya. Simon Schuster. pp. 1029–
1038. ISBN 978-0-86171-982-2.

8. ^ Jump up to:a b c William H. Swatos; Peter Kivisto (1998). Encyclopedia of Religion and
Society. Rowman Altamira. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-7619-8956-1.

9. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Ronald Wesley Neufeldt (1986). Karma and Rebirth: Post Classical
Developments. State University of New York Press. pp. 123–131. ISBN 978-0-87395-990-
2.

10. ^ Jump up to:a b Wendy Doniger (1999). Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World

Religions. Merriam-Webster. p. 148. ISBN 978-0-87779-044-0.

11. ^ Jump up to:a b c Williams 2002, pp. 74-75.

12. Jump up^ "Post-Classical Developments in the Concepts of Karma and Rebirth in
Theravada Buddhism." by Bruce Matthews. in Karma and Rebirth: Post-Classical
Developments State Univ of New York Press: 1986 ISBN 0-87395-990-6 pg 125;
Collins, Steven. Selfless persons: imagery and thought in Theravāda BuddhismCambridge
University Press, 1990. ISBN 0-521-39726-X pg 215[1]

13. Jump up^ Buswell & Lopez 2003, pp. 49-50.

14. Jump up^ Harvey 2013, pp. 71-73.

15. ^ Jump up to:a b [a] Anatta, Encyclopædia Britannica (2013), Quote: "Anatta in
Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent, underlying soul. The
concept of anatta, or anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman (“the
self”).";
[b] Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David
Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791422175, page 64; "Central to
Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the
opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is
the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging
essence.";
[c] Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction, p. 2, at Google Books to Brihad
Aranyaka Upanishad, pages 2-4;
[d] Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist ‘No-Self’ Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing
Nirvana?, Philosophy Now;
[e] David Loy (1982), Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta: Are Nirvana and
Moksha the Same?, International Philosophical Quarterly, Volume 23, Issue 1, pages 65-
74;
[f] KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, ISBN 978-8120806191,
pages 246-249, from note 385 onwards;

16. Jump up^ Kalupahana 1992, pp. 38-43, 138-140.

17. ^ Jump up to:a b Buswell & Lopez 2003, p. 708.

18. Jump up^ Arvind Sharma's review of Hajime Nakamura's A History of Early Vedanta
Philosophy, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 37, No. 3 (Jul., 1987), page 330.

19. Jump up^ Keown 2000, p. 32.

20. Jump up^ Anderson 1999, pp. 1-48.

21. Jump up^ Davidson 2003, p. 147.

22. Jump up^ Gombrich 1997.

23. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Thomas William Rhys Davids; William Stede (1921). Pali-English
Dictionary. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 94–95, 281–282, 294–295, 467, 499. ISBN 978-81-
208-1144-7.

24. Jump up^ Peter Harvey (2013). The Selfless Mind: Personality, Consciousness and
Nirvana in Early Buddhism. Routledge. pp. 95–97. ISBN 978-1-136-78329-6.

25. ^ Jump up to:a b David J. Kalupahana (1975). Causality: The Central Philosophy of
Buddhism. University Press of Hawaii. pp. 115–119. ISBN 978-0-8248-0298-1.

26. Jump up^ David J. Kalupahana (1975). Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism.
University Press of Hawaii. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-8248-0298-1.

27. Jump up^ William H. Swatos; Peter Kivisto (1998). Encyclopedia of Religion and Society.
Rowman Altamira. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-7619-8956-1.
 28. Jump up^ Sautrāntika, Encyclopædia Britannica

29. ^ Jump up to:a b c James McDermott (1980). Wendy Doniger, ed. Karma and Rebirth in
Classical Indian Traditions. University of California Press. pp. 168–170. ISBN 978-0-520-
03923-0.

30. Jump up^ Bruce Mathews (1986). Ronald Wesley Neufeldt, ed. Karma and Rebirth: Post
Classical Developments. State University of New York Press. pp. 123–126. ISBN 978-0-
87395-990-2.

31. Jump up^ See, for instance, the "Snake-Simile Discourse" (MN 22), where the Buddha
states:

"Monks, this Teaching so well proclaimed by me, is plain, open, explicit, free of patchwork. In this
Teaching that is so well proclaimed by me and is plain, open, explicit and free of patchwork; for those
who are arahants, free of taints, who have accomplished and completed their task, have laid down the
burden, achieved their aim, severed the fetters binding to existence, who are liberated by full
knowledge, there is no (future) round of existence that can be ascribed to them. – Majjhima Nikaya
i.130 ¶ 42, Translated by Nyanaponika Thera (Nyanaponika, 2006)

32. Jump up^ The "fruit" (Pali: phala) is the culmination of the "path" (magga). Thus, for
example, the "stream-enterer" is the fruit for one on the "stream-entry" path; more
specifically, the stream-enterer has abandoned the first three fetters, while one on the
path of stream-entry strives to abandon these fetters.

33. Jump up^ Both the stream-enterer and the once-returner abandon the first three
fetters. What distinguishes these stages is that the once-returner additionally
attenuates lust, hate and delusion, and will necessarily be reborn only once more.

34. Jump up^ Buswell & Lopez 2003, pp. 49-50, 708-709.

35. Jump up^ Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Vol. 1, p. 377

36. Jump up^ The Connected Discourses of the Buddha. A Translation of the Samyutta
Nikaya, Bhikkhu Bodhi, Translator. Wisdom Publications. Sutta 44.9

37. Jump up^ Karma-gliṅ-pa; Chogyam Trungpa; Francesca Fremantle (2000). The Tibetan
Book of the Dead: The Great Liberation Through Hearing in the Bardo. Shambhala
Publications. pp. xi, xvii–xxiii. ISBN 978-1-57062-747-7.

38. Jump up^ Karma-gliṅ-pa; Chogyam Trungpa; Francesca Fremantle (2000). The Tibetan
Book of the Dead: The Great Liberation Through Hearing in the Bardo. Shambhala
Publications. pp. 4–23. ISBN 978-1-57062-747-7.

39. Jump up^ Kevin Trainor (2004). Buddhism: The Illustrated Guide. Oxford University Press.
pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-0-19-517398-7.

40. Jump up^ "Post-Classical Developments in the Concepts of Karma and Rebirth in
Theravada Buddhism." by Bruce Matthews. in Karma and Rebirth: Post-Classical
Developments State Univ of New York Press: 1986 ISBN 0-87395-990-6 pg 125 [2]
41. Jump up^ Collins, Steven. Selfless persons: imagery and thought in Theravāda
BuddhismCambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 0-521-39726-X pg 215[3]

42. Jump up^ "Post-Classical Developments in the Concepts of Karma and Rebirth in
Theravada Buddhism. by Bruce Matthews. in Karma and Rebirth: Post-Classical
Developments State Univ of New York Press: 1986 ISBN 0-87395-990-6 pg 125 [4]

43. Jump up^ Peter Harvey (2012). An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and
Practices. Cambridge University Press. pp. 71–75. ISBN 978-0-521-85942-4.

44. Jump up^ Obeyesekere, Gananath (2005). Karma and Rebirth: A Cross Cultural
Study. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 127. ISBN 978-8120826090.

45. Jump up^ Schmidt-Leukel 2006, p. 32-34.

46. Jump up^ Makransky 1997, p. 27.

47. ^ Jump up to:a b Harvey 2016.

48. Jump up^ Samuel 2008, p. 136.

49. Jump up^ Spiro 1982, p. 42.

50. Jump up^ Makransky 1997, p. 27-28.

51. Jump up^ Lopez 2009, p. 147.

52. Jump up^ Kingsland 2016, p. 286.

53. Jump up^ Carter 1987, p. 3179.

54. Jump up^ Anderson 2013.

55. Jump up^ Anderson 2013, p. 162 with note 38, for context see pages 1-3.

56. Jump up^ [a] Christmas Humphreys (2012). Exploring Buddhism. Routledge. pp. 42–
43. ISBN 978-1-136-22877-3.
[b] Brian Morris (2006). Religion and Anthropology: A Critical Introduction. Cambridge
University Press. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-521-85241-8., Quote: "(...) anatta is the doctrine of
non-self, and is an exteme empiricist doctrine that holds that the notion of an
unchanging permanent self is a fiction and has no reality. According to Buddhist
doctrine, the individual person consists of five skandhas or heaps - the body, feelings,
perceptions, impulses and consciousness. The belief in a self or soul, over these five
skandhas, is illusory and the cause of suffering."
[c] Richard Gombrich (2006). Theravada Buddhism. Routledge. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-134-
90352-8., Quote: "(...) Buddha's teaching that beings have no soul, no abiding essence.
This 'no-soul doctrine' (anatta-vada) he expounded in his second sermon."

57. Jump up^ John C. Plott et al (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume
1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120801585, page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools
 reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and
ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".

58. Jump up^ Bruce M. Sullivan (1997). Historical Dictionary of Hinduism. Scarecrow.
pp. 235–236 (See: Upanishads). ISBN 978-0-8108-3327-2.

59. Jump up^ Klaus K. Klostermaier (2007). A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition. State
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60. Jump up^ Kalupahana 1992, pp. 38-39.

61. Jump up^ G Obeyesekere (1980). Wendy Doniger, ed. Karma and Rebirth in Classical
Indian Traditions. University of California Press. pp. 137–141. ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0.

62. Jump up^ Libby Ahluwalia (2008). Understanding Philosophy of Religion. Folens.
pp. 243–249. ISBN 978-1-85008-274-3.

63. Jump up^ Harold Coward; Julius Lipner; Katherine K. Young (1989). Hindu Ethics. State
University of New York Press. pp. 85–94. ISBN 978-0-88706-764-8.

64. ^ Jump up to:a b Naomi Appleton (2014). Narrating Karma and Rebirth: Buddhist and
Jain Multi-Life Stories. Cambridge University Press. pp. 76–89. ISBN 978-1-139-91640-0.

65. Jump up^ Kristi L. Wiley (2004). Historical Dictionary of Jainism. Scarecrow.
p. 91. ISBN 978-0-8108-5051-4.

66. Jump up^ Kristi L. Wiley (2004). Historical Dictionary of Jainism. Scarecrow. pp. 10–12,
111–112, 119. ISBN 978-0-8108-5051-4.

67. Jump up^ Gananath Obeyesekere (2006). Karma and Rebirth: A Cross Cultural Study.
Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 107–108. ISBN 978-81-208-2609-0.

68. Jump up^ Kristi L. Wiley (2004). Historical Dictionary of Jainism. Scarecrow. pp. 118–
119. ISBN 978-0-8108-5051-4.

69. Jump up^ Naomi Appleton (2014). Narrating Karma and Rebirth: Buddhist and Jain
Multi-Life Stories. Cambridge University Press. pp. 20–59. ISBN 978-1-107-03393-1.

70. ^ Jump up to:a b John E. Cort (2001). Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in
India. Oxford University Press. pp. 16–21. ISBN 978-0-19-803037-9.

71. Jump up^ Kristi L. Wiley (2004). Historical Dictionary of Jainism. Scarecrow. pp. 10–12,
21, 23–24, 74, 208. ISBN 978-0-8108-5051-4.

Bibliography[edit]

 Anderson, Carol (1999). Pain and Its Ending: The Four Noble Truths in the Theravada Buddhist
Canon. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-81332-0.

 Ñāṇamoli, Bhikkhu (trans.) and Bodhi, Bhikkhu (ed.) (2001). The Middle-Length Discourses of the
Buddha: A Translation of the Majjhima Nikāya. Boston: Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-072-
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 Anderson, Carol (2013), Pain and Its Ending: The Four Noble Truths in the Theravada Buddhist
Canon, Routledge

 Buswell, Robert E. Jr.; Lopez, Donald Jr. (2003), The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism, Princeton
University Press

 Carter, John Ross (1987), "Four Noble Truths", in Jones, Lindsay, MacMillan Encyclopedia of
Religions, MacMillan

 Davidson, Ronald M. (2003), Indian Esoteric Buddhism, Columbia University Press, ISBN 0-231-
12618-2

 Gombrich, Richard F (1997). How Buddhism Began: The Conditioned Genesis of the Early
Teachings. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-19639-5.

 Harvey, Graham (2016), Religions in Focus: New Approaches to Tradition and Contemporary
Practices, Routledge

 Harvey, Peter (2013), An Introduction to Buddhism, 2nd Edition, Cambridge University

Press, ISBN 978-0521676748

 Kalupahana, David J. (1992), A history of Buddhist philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass

Publishers Private Limited

 Keown, Damien (2000), Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction (Kindle ed.), Oxford University Press

 Kingsland, James (2016), Siddhartha's Brain: Unlocking the Ancient Science of Enlightenment,
HarperCollins

 Lopez, Donald, jr. (2009), Buddhism and Science: A Guide for the Perplexed, University of Chicago
Press

 Makransky, John J. (1997), Buddhahood Embodied: Sources of Controversy in India and Tibet,
SUNY

 Samuel, Geoffrey (2008), The Origins of Yoga and Tantra: Indic Religions to the Thirteenth
Century, Cambridge University Press

 Schmidt-Leukel, Perry (2006), Understanding Buddhism, Dunedin Academic Press, ISBN 978-1-
903765-18-0

 Snelling, John (1987), The Buddhist handbook. A Complete Guide to Buddhist Teaching and
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 Williams, Paul (2002), Buddhist Thought (Kindle ed.), Taylor & Francis
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1. ^ Jump up to:a b Donald Lopez, Four Noble Truths, Encyclopædia Britannica.

2. Jump up^ Thanissaro Bhikkhu, The Truth of Rebirth And Why it Matters for Buddhist
Practice

3. Jump up^ Maha-parinibbana Sutta: Last Days of the Buddha, translated by Sister Vajira
& Francis Story

4. Jump up^ Patrick Olivelle (2012), Encyclopædia Britannica, Moksha (Indian religions)

Commentaries[edit]

 Steven Collins, Selfless Persons: Imagery and Thought in Theravada Buddhism, Cambridge,
1982. ISBN 0-521-39726-X

 Peter Harvey, The Selfless Mind: Personality, Consciousness and Nirvana in Early Buddhism,
Curzon, 1995. ISBN 0-7007-0338-1

 Geshe Kelsang Gyatso, Living Meaningfully, Dying Joyfully: The Profound Practice of
Transference of Consciousness, Tharpa, 1999. ISBN 81-7822-058-X

 Glenn H. Mullin, Death and Dying: The Tibetan Tradition, Arkana, 1986. ISBN 0-14-019013-9.

 Mullin, Glenn, H. (1998). Living in the Face of Death: The Tibetan Tradition. 2008 reprint: Snow
Lion Publications, Ithica, New York. ISBN 978-1-55939-310-2.

 Vicki MacKenzie, Reborn in the West, HarperCollins, 1997. ISBN 0-7225-3443-4

 Tom Shroder, Old Souls: Scientific Search for Proof of Past Lives, Simon and Schuster,
2001. ISBN 0-684-85193-8

 Francis Story, Rebirth as Doctrine and Experience: Essays and Case Studies, Buddhist Publication
Society, 1975. ISBN 955-24-0176-3

 Robert A.F. Thurman (trans.), The Tibetan Book of the Dead: Liberation Through Understanding
in the Between, HarperCollins, 1998. ISBN 1-85538-412-4

 Martin Willson, Rebirth and the Western Buddhist, Wisdom Publications, 1987. ISBN 0-86171-
215-3

 Nagapriya, Exploring Karma and Rebirth, Windhorse Publications, Birmingham 2004. ISBN 1-
899579-61-3