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Solutions Sheet 2, Continuity.

Questions 7-12

7) Recall that

ex − e−x ex + e−x ex − e−x


sinh x = , cosh x = and tanh x = x .
2 2 e + e−x
We know that ex is continuous on R as is thus e−x , either by the quotient
rule since e−x = 1/ex and ex 6= 0 or by the composition rule x 7→ −x 7→ e−x .
Thus sinh x and cosh x are continuous on R by the Sum Rule. For tanh x we
use the Quotient Rule observing that ex + e−x is never zero.

8) Composite Rule for functions. If limx→a g (x) exists and f is con-


tinuous at this value, then
 
lim f (g (x)) = f lim g (x) .
x→a x→a

i) Let
sin x
g (x) = and f (x) = exp (x) = ex .
x
Then limx→0 g (x) exists, with value 1. Further f (x) = ex is continuous on
all of R, in particular it is continuous at 1. Thus we can apply the Composite
Rule for functions to say
 
sin x  
lim exp = lim f (g (x)) = f lim g (x)
x→0 x x→0 x→0
 
sin x
= exp lim = exp (1)
x→0 x

= e.

ii) Let
x+2
g (x) = and f (x) = |x| .
x2 + 1
We have seen in previous questions that both g and f are continuous on all
of R. Hence by the Composite Rule for continuous functions we deduce that

x+2
f (g (x)) = 2

x + 1
is continuous on R.

1
9) Intermediate Value Theorem Suppose that f is a function continuous
on a closed interval [a, b] and that f (a) 6= f (b). For all γ between f (a) and
f (b) there exist c : a < c < b for which f (c) = γ.

For example: choose f : [0, 1] → [0, 1],


2x


 0 ≤ x ≤ 12
 3
x 7−→ 1 + 2x 1

 2
< x ≤ 1.
3

The image of this function is [0, 1/3] ∪ (2/3, 1]. Choose γ = 1/2. There is
no c for which f (c) = 1/2.

10) i) Let f (x) = xex . Then f (0) = 0 and f (1) = e > 1. So by the
Intermediate Theorem there exists c ∈ (0, 1) such that cec = 1. Since c > 0
we can divide by c to get
1
ec = .
c
x
(Note if you were to let f (x) = e − 1/x, we could not look at f (0)!)

ii) Let f (x) = ex − 4x2 on the intervals [−1, 0] , [0, 1] and [1, 8]. Then

f (−1) = e−1 − 4 × (−1)2 < 0


f (0) = e0 − 4 × 02 = 1 > 0,
f (1) = e1 − 4 < 0,
f (8) = e8 − 4 × 82 > 28 − 28 = 0.

Because the signs are alternating we find a zero in each of the three intervals.
iii) Let

2 cos2 x + 3 cos x + 1 − 2x2 + 3x + 1


 
f (x) =
= 2 cos2 x − x2 + 3 (cos x − x) .


It suffices to find a solution to f (x) = 0. Looking at the values of the function


at the end points of the interval,
π  π2 π
f (0) = 5 > 0 and f =− − 3 < 0.
2 2 2

2
So by the Intermediate Value Theorem there exists c ∈ (0, π/2) for which
f (c) = 0.
iv) Let
f (x) = x cos x + sin x − π sin x cos x.
Then f (0) = 0 while f (π/2) = π/2 > 0. This gives a solution f (x) = 0 of
x = 0. But for such x the term sin x is zero so we cannot divide through by
sin x to get a solution of the original problem.
Instead, let us look at an x near 0 for which sin x and
√ cos x are known,
for example π/4. We know that sin π/4 = cos π/4 = 1/ 2. Thus
π 1 1 π
f (π/4) = √ + √ − < 0.
4 2 2 2
Hence, by the Intermediate Value Theorem these exists c ∈ (π/4, π/2) for
which f (c) = 0 For such c the terms sin c and cos c are non-zero and we can
divide by them to see that c satisfies
c 1
+ = π.
sin c cos c

11) i) Let h (x) = f (x) − g (x), a continuous function on [a, b] by the sum
rule for continuous functions. Then h (a) = f (a) − g (a) ≥ 0.
If h (a) = 0 then f (a) = g (a) and we are finished. So assume h (a) > 0.
Also h (b) = f (b) − g (b) ≤ 0. Again if h (b) = 0 then f (b) = g (b) and
we are finished. So assume h (b) < 0.
Apply the intermediate Value Theorem to h on [a, b] with γ = 0 to find
c ∈ (a, b) for which h (c) = 0, i.e. f (c) = g (c) .

12) i) For an example of a function on a closed interval that is not bounded,

 1 0<x≤1

f (x) = x
0 x = 0.

ii) For an example of a continuous function on (−1, 1) with range (−∞, ∞)


take
1 1 2x
x 7−→ − = .
1−x 1+x 1 − x2

3
To see that this has image (−∞, ∞) you have to be able to solve
2x
=y
1 − x2

for any y ∈ (−∞, ∞). But rearranging, solving the quadratic and taking the
correct root(!) gives the solution
p
1 + y2 − 1
x= .
y

iii) For an example of a function on [0, 1] that does not attain its bounds,
(
x if x ∈ (0, 1)
h (x) = .
1/2 if x = 1 or x = 0.

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