MARGINAL FIELD (EARLY PRODUCTION): OPTIONS FOR OF ‘SHORE LOADING RH. Gy, Sir Vien Prva ane W. Ky, Preise SOFC, he Heute, Te ‘ABSTRACT ‘This paper will describe sone of the virious sche- mes that have been utilized since the early 1970's. and Which are availasle now for direct tancer leading fron. Oftsnore cif Tields to allo# ecoromic sroducttan trom marginal fields anc/or to allow revanuos te bo obtained at an earlier date than vould be possidle using convan- ional development. articular epphasis wilt be directed to che types of Single Point Mooring systans that hive bean accepted by the ci1 industry as viable elenents in the everall Production scheme, NTRODUCTION nile the concept of offshore tanker leading has bean arcune for many years, it was not unt) ste carly 1670's. that the idea of employing a Single Foirt Mooring (SPM) termina’ as an integral part of en ofrshore production facliity achieved wide industry accoptaree, In this application, the SPM provider both a permanent (or semi-permanent)” nooring for the tanker ‘and a'neans for transporting ll from the seafioor t the tanner, The Sem thus el tninates the requirement. for a pipeline from the offshore field to the shore which often significantly reduces the overall cost. and ‘may allow cevelopnent of marginal fields which have insufficient recoverable reserves to Justify 2 pipeline systen. ‘A second econonic consideration in the election to Use offshore loading 1s that it makes it possitie to Ship crude and receive incone as soon a5 of! is avilable for a relatively soall investment anc tn 2 Felatively short tise frane, Thus, production from Unitiar wells tan be generating cash Tlow while the drilling program continues with éelinextion of the reservoir. Even if the ecoronics can support the cost of a pipeline, an offshore loading system ersures Yncome curing the Sonetines lengtny design end construction period ard ig often retairod cubsequant te Diveline completion as a backup systen in the event of Pipeline outage. Selection of an offshore toeding scenario obviosely will often require in-copth analysis of many econonic considerations. However, the fact thet viable m8 concepts for offshore loading ore avai lable is of prime portance and offers 4 much greater Flexibility to the operator in his planning then previously existed. THE SPM CONCEPT There aro sevoral distinct types of SPM's, all of nich share two conton features ‘hey all rovide 1 single point which my rotate 300 degrees in the Porizontal plane, tO which te tanker miors Tze bow (ar stern) via haweors on struc tural. steel frane, 2. They all anploy fluid transfer systens vhich are capable ef 360 deyrees rotatior in tne horizontal Slane ‘The tanker moored only by conection to its bow or stern 15 free to. "weathervane” about the sinsle point ooning end, thus, stay orfentes head-on into the pre- ‘ailing enviroment. This attitude reduces. the Tesgorse of the tanier to the environnewt and, consequertly, reduces tne forces. impased upon” the rooring system. The SPM design mist provide sufficient, Plasticity to niniaize mooring forces’ whi Te controll ing vessel excursions within an acceptable scope. The SPH solves several problens Imerent to other types of offshore moring and leading systems, such a6 nultiple buoy noorings, fixed towers, cblphins or sea fslanes. Li Tt cen readily be transported and placed io deep, Heme oftshors waters 2." Tt can aperate efficiently in hostile environnents Ddécause it I$ not sensitive 10 directional changes of indy waves. ond currents. SU Utcreduces operon denendency en sussore 4. It is generally less expensive wo construct than athor typat of mooring and Tossing Systane. 5. It reduces vessel wumarouré tine, 52 For some. applications, re-use or Salvage value can dé apprecianie. ‘ho SPA provides 1 highly reliable moring (either pernarent o* temporary) with greater flexibility Fegarcing water cooth and environnental conditions and provices a secure facility for safely passing fiulds fron the eeiflaor £0 the moored veseel[APPLICATIONS IN OFFSHORE PRODUCTION OPERATIONS. There are three basic ways in which SPM's are enployed in ett shore production operations: Shuttle Tanker "FiiVing Stations” Permanent: Mcoring Systens for @ Floating Storage tessel Pernanent Mcoring Systens tor a Floating Process/ Storage Vessel Shuttle Tanker *Fi1Ving statior Jn-tnTs-tnstance, The SPH-TS Used 1n connection with & platform or senl-subnereible type fleating pro- Auction facitity (FPF). “A short pipeline typically 1.6 2°52 tn {= 2aties) long Is. installed from the pro- vet on rectTity ta Ute SPM. O11, folToving processing aperstions, it unped through the” pipel ire. and SPH inte tthe moored shuttle tanker. When loaded, the tanker departs the berth end @ second tanker nocrs Depending on market logistics, two or three tankers wil] typt= ently be required, Tha tankers will usually be fedified for bow leading and. for mooring vie sinale hawser.. "SelfeRooring” traction winches nay be employed, especialy tn Sone rough meather Toeat fons, ‘he tine Tort Between tanlert will depora prinarily on sea conditions viich aay be sufficiently rough to prevent the tanier from neering for several hours or Shen days. Delays may also result. tron inability to perform required maintenance set\vittes. This type of system nas the advantages of Tow ini tial cost, ‘Short lead Cine and high systen flecibiTity (Hor Petocation to swsequene Yocettons)-— Ths, shuttle type Son-off" operation nay be undesirable for to principal reasons: Rotential reservoir damage due to frequent shut-ins uring tanker changeoutss Ercessive downtine and, hence, deferred praduct on waiting a weather t moor the shuttle tencer or to Jerforn matfterance Turet fons. These problens maybe partioliy solved by adding a second SPM on essertislTy elininated by adding storage capacity elther as an integral part of the production platform or in the fom of Tloating Storeges Domine e'nere pronounced 1n severe environment. sich as the North Sea where shuttle type operations strive to achteve BOL effictency. Other areas, such es. Southeast fsia and Brazt!, enjoy "*303 operational effictenctes with single GOM'shuttle tarker operations (1) andy hence: are areas where this concept may warrant detatied investigation. 2. Floating storage The apefTeatTor of SOM's for direct tanker Toading ‘from an offshore oi] field dates back to the mid 1960's with Installatiens in West Africa ana the Suit of Mexico. It was in this period that one of the first permanently moored tankers appeared offshore Qatar. Around 1970 an increasing number of pernenently moored Tankers and barges began to appear offshore Iran, Seudi Arabia. and Indoresia. These early installations’atl enployed hawser-moored storage vessels and, in general, shared the sane operational problens. + Necessity for frequent hawser replacement 1 Frequent note replacament 1 Requirement for thrusters or slow astern running te prevent tanter from hitting buoy curing tide henges or slack weathers gain, certain areas of the world are environmen telly sulted to successful havser-noored storage Systems and their low initial cost may warrant utiT zation. + Effictency > actual crude loaded Field production capacity A design solution to the problems expertenced with hhawser-neored storage vesiels. energed in the form of the "Single Buoy Storage (58S) (Fig. 6) which is a CALM buoy with an integral steel yote rigidly linking the storage vessel to the duoy turntable, tus eliminating hhawsers and floating hoses. The first such system was installee in the Guif of Sabes. Tunisia, in. 1974 and operated successfully in this relatively quiet vater area. Since tien, approximately ten S8S-type Tloating systons have been’ installed which closoly approschee ‘the number of nawser-type permenent. mooring systems installe¢ in the sane period. Floating storage will often be consiaerably cheaper than platform storage and has teen proven in many areas of the world, While its viability is still a subject Of debate tn” rough water areas, SHELL-EXXCN'S Fulmar Field in the North sea, whven stiizes an AL-yote systen (Fig. 8), should provide valuable guidelines for future decision raking, Floating Process and stora ‘Tha apptTeitfon oT TTaztine production fact lities fas been around for many years in the oi! industry deginning with barge mounied off and gas separator plants in S. Louistane and Indonesia.” These early Facilities vere enployed in sheltered shallow water and util zed spread-moorings or aultiple buoy berths. ‘The first application of a Single Point tooring for 4 floating process plart came in 1977 and involved & Single seafloor completion waich produced directly to a noored process/storage tanker via'a flexible riser, Tndustey acceptance of floating process for. deep vyator open ocean applications has been rather slow but Is growing rapidly’ because of the attractive econontcs. The definition of floating process in this paper is any operation it waicn otl ang/or gas 1s transterrec trom the well hesd to moored procace veccel via SPM, 1.¢. the SPM serves asa "live" production riser. this type fystem eliminates the racessity for the process. platform, sea-suvmersible, TLP, Jack=up, etc, Developing an offshore of ifleld via Floating pro- cess offers severa] possibilitie: + Elimination of platform, jack-up or Seni-sutmersible;,sea/losr completions are piped directly to parnenent ly noorec vessel either through individual risers or via central seaTloor gitnering manifold, Tf surface completion: are preferred, these may be acconpl ished on a platform of reduced size as al -process equipnent. is located on the moored vessel. The floating production aystes my te readily transported and re-used at another location. + The floating systen, in many instances, nay be leased: Extended production testing for reservoir eva- tion prior to full field developnent. + Early generation of reveue. Floating production ard storage systens in hostile environments have, 0 date, sccommodeted simple one oF two well developaants, but an upcoming installation offshore Tunisia will allow production fron efght wells witch will constoerably extend the potentia? applications. As fielé complexity ircreases, subsea well contro! systers must becone incressingly ‘nore sophisticated. Control power ana communication circuttry must te pasted throvgh the SPM in a reliable manner. The tech nology to alloy monitoring and control of severel indi vidual wells 4s definitely state-of-art tofay. ‘Other possible areas for floating process will be 12 davelopaent of marginal offshore gas fields. Several lars have beer proposed for direct offshore 378production of methancl., LPS and even LNG, 25 well as ‘the marufecture of products suck as urea, BASIC DESIGN REQUIRERENTS AND CENSIDERATIONS There are several general types of questions that must De addressed auring the romulation of a Tield development. plane Most of these, Tike many engiscering problems, have no absolute right ‘or wrong aswers and will in fact be determined by both the projected econo- Imics and the operators prererence. ‘The following are typical major decision areis to be, investigated once offshore, lading has been elected Areas involving quastfons such as satellite vs. cluster wells, wet vs. dry trees and TEL ys, wireline control Bre intentionally omitted fron this discuseton. 1, Storage or No Storage TrretervoTr Charscleristics permit, Intermtttent production, then direct offlording to shuttle tarker(s) Probably represents the quickest way to get on-strein. In this approach, process 1S supported on a fixec platforn, jackup rig, sent-submersible or TLP. A mejor area of study will be directed toward the type and umber of export SPM to be enployed and the nunder (and outfitting) of the shuttle tankers. If fleating storage 1s elected, some key questions will be: 1 foke or Hawser Mooring 2 Type of sm 1 Export Method fa) alongside offloading b) tanden of loading ic). separate export Spm Tanker selection Table 1 11sts some typice) installations wiich vii) provide insight into the variety of sclutios utilized {in vartous geograpnicaT areas, Floating storage ano Field (production) terminale have been combined because they are often similar in application, te, 2 tanker Veading directly from field production (not fron field storege) my retain on the SPN for periods ranging fron Several days up to several morths, essentially "floating storace" even theugh the tanker will even- tually depart ard no alongside or tancem export is required, Floating Process he decfsfor to use floating process will produce « complex Series of options, sone of which are listed below: {i} sefom or cutane sal,bat a If sub-sea vellheads, wil live risers be coutec directly to "dry" manifold on tanker or SPH Structure or via a-central Sub-sea gathering manifold? ) Toke or hawser mooring ) Type of SPH Export methed 6as disposal method Vater disposal method ) fe-inJection requirenents Control systems Safety systems ~ sub-seo Safety systens ~ tanker Tanker selection Frocess/Procuction Fact] ities Purchase or Leese Table 2 11sts sone floating process epplicat tons which have been employed in recent years. The following 's a summary of the types of questions that aust be answered prior to calculation of 380 realistic cost estinates involving the SPA/Tanker/ Process/Export operation for oil f¥eld application. Generat_Infornation > Location ~ this may affect fabrication casts and transportation, installation costs. + Mater’ Depth at’ proposea site Environmental pata at {5 really required is @ complete environnental stegy which shows statistical eccurrence and airection of wind, waves and currents. Initially, maximum wave, wind and current will suffice for estimation purposes. Other potential design factors, such as earthquake, mmug-siide om ice should also be assessed. ‘Tanker Dita Ze of permanently moored vessel 1 Size range of shutt1e vessel(s) Anticipated export method 1.0. alongside, tandom offloading or separate export’ SPM. Product Date TS[ErTmm (total) da‘ly prodection rate 2 Number of wells {Subsea wells or platform well heads { Shut-in pressure Operating pressure Operating tenperature oR Sele eter Feaetice (3) Hes, Plrarfth, Wax Pour polit Artictpated ecovonte life Other pertinent crude charectertstles Pressure Maintenance Gas oF water injection requirenents WeNl_controt Tortrel requirements Manifold Location TFL of Wireline Sortover Soil bata "Tikinately a complete bathymetric survey and sofl report will be required, For initial estimates, 2 gererat description of the seafloor conditions. will tutte SPH cost fs garticularly sensitive to water depth anc environnent .” A major early decision will be selec Hen of the design wave, i.e. vill the vessel remain ‘nocred in the 100 year storm or will it depart. This 1s an especially interesting subject in locations sub- Ject to possible, if infrequent, hurricanes or typhoons. In uch situations systen design (and cost) say vary’ significantly depending on this. decision point, Advances in weather data acquisition, analysis, Forecésting and the rapid dtssenteation of tits intor- netion nade possible by satell ite observation and con- furicatton will allow on-site weather predictions and, therefore, this design decision may be executed with ar greater conriaerce thin nas previousTy Deen possible, TYFES OF SINGLE FOINT nOORINGS While mre than twenty distinct SPM's have boon proposed, industry has accepted but a feK. SPH's for bffshere product ion appl icatiors nay be civiced into to (2) general categories.Howser type stm's Tateniry Hncher Teg Mooring (CALM) Fig. 2 Single Anchor Leg Mooring (SALM) Shallow Hater Fig. 2 ‘Single Anchor Leg Mooring (SALA) Deep Vater Fig. 3 Articulated Leading Tower (ALT) Figs & Rigid Yoke type SPM's N= Yoke Fig. 5 SALM = Yoke Deep Mater Fig. 6 ALT. = Yoke Fig. 7 Single Anchor Leg Storage (SALS) Fig. & SAIN = Very Deep hater Fig. 9 The fol loving discusses each of these designs in greater detail. WAWSER TYPE SAMs CALM: The Gaténary Anchor Leg Mooring obtains its compliance and restoring Force from gravity, i.e. the weight of chains thit anchor the systen to the seafloor ‘and mst be lifted in order for the buoy to be displaced laterally or vertically, CALM'S normally employ four, stx or eight legs, O11 flows into the rotary fluld systen contained within the buoy via submarine hoses which connect at the seafloor with the pfpeline end manifold (PLEM) and to the tanker through floating noses. ‘This design is generally attributed to SHELL (SIFM) and the oldest type of SPM dating back to around 195%, About 220 CALM's have deen installed which represent. etghty percent of ail SPR's, The CALM 15.2 simple, proven syste which offers low first cost, as vell as high mobility, as it can be readily recovered and relocated in a different water depth. The CALM, originally concetved as primarily 2 shallow water systen ~ less than 150 ft (80m) — has in fact been installed in water depths of 400 ft (122 m) and, in some locations (notably offshore Brazil) 1s performing very effectively, The primary design dif Ference between deep and shallow water CALM!s is the underbuoy hese profile, Figure 1 snows a "Chinese Lantern" suitable for relatively shallow water, For deep nater, the nose 1s suspended vertically below the buoy in a d-curve witch terminates in a sub-surface buoy. From this buoy 2 Short length of tose extends vertically to the FLEN. This system 1s comenly called a ‘Steep 5’ A Calm vill. generally require more maintenance than SALN or ALT in exposed locations, espectally regarding foses ane termeable,, It ts also'winerable to damage fron tanker impact 2), SAN: The Single Anchor Leg Nooring for shallow REEF up to 169 TE (B0'm) obtains TEs elasticity fron uayaney (OMT flows from the PLEM into the subsea swivel unit, and then vie the submerged and floating hose systen to the tanker. The PLEM 1s totally isolated fran buoy excursions’ and the hose systom 1s not subjected to con- Himual flexing from buoy aotions. ‘The SALK wis develeped by Exton Research and Engineering 1n the mid 1960"s and the prototype installation was in 1969, Eighteen SALM's have bean installed te dite, The SALN 15 2\sinple, proven and extrenely rugged system which offers lov first cost, low maintenence and Feasonable nobility in water depths fron about 50 ft (15m) to 160 ft (50m). ft will survive in extrenely Severe enviromental cenaitions and/ ig Intrinsteally fron denage by tanke" overrn, orlglnatiy eontetved hs S°prisarily deep vater terminal, the majority of SALM appl ications to ¢ate have been fe water depths around’ 100 ft (30 m). 381 SHUN - Deeprater: In water depths veyonc about 160 fe (S0'm); the submerged hose system fron the seaffoor hecames”inpractical. Thus, the fluté.vivel ts ele- vated by means of a'structirsl r¥ser to 2 position near the surface but beton wave ation ane tanker Keely ‘The deeprater SAIM {2 character‘ed by two erticur jation points, one. the seafloor ard one at-ar inter nediate’potnt typically 100 fe (30 m|.~ 150 fe (46m) fetow the surrage, This feature relveves benditg fonents and allows for a mall dieneter riser ard NbTy compliant fast. response systen. 1 SAIK charace teristic nich helps to reduce snatching Toads en the Booting rawser. OFT flows. fron the PLEM into piping Tecated insice or autsice the riser through short. Sunper hoses or through seivels tncorporeted in the Tower untversal olnes, foses fron the flat swivel tothe tancer may Be suapendec fa a catenary or lett floating ofthe surface ‘he’ deeprater SAM {s coxt effective relative to the GAM ane ts substantially cheaper than the ALT. For fiste export tn water depthe beyond S00 Te (160m) the SAM ts probably the oniy viable systen, Oestans Safed’ on Thi concept ave’ en developed for water depts of 5,000 (915 mjC2) anda sain tn ene Roreh Sen 1s tho seaport SOM in the world today at G90 (162 m). Present day technology may be considered Viable to about 1,200 ft (366 m). This. design offers Tor mintenance, safety {ron olisslon and reasonable nobility for tie at other Sites. in water depths which vary fron design depth ityricaty) + ioe’ Gon) BOS) ALT: The Articulated Loading Tovar obtatne ite restoring force from buoysney. It is a heavy, large ‘laneter column with a single articulation at’ the reafloor, It is characterized by 0 yery long ntural period and may require a hawser tensioning system to Prevent high peak "snatching" loads, The ALT 15 a proven system whose primary advantages are that the fluid swivel and turntable are yell above ‘the wave zone and are accessible without divers. Aaditionly, the loading hose may be suspended fron a toon wilch"el imtnates protlens of hose-hawser entangle tment and nay simplify hose retriavel onto che tanker (relative to designs” for unich the hose must. be retrieved directly from the water). The ALT has several disadvantages, anoag which are igh installation cort and eabetantial rist with respect to fire and colliston damage. This syster has found prinary application in deep North Sea locations 350 ft" ~ 400 fe (100 m = 120 m) 0s @ loading terminal for platform supported storage. The very high effictencies assoctated with forth Sea ALT's may'be attributed to substantial platform storave capa city and nigh loading rates which reduce the tankers tine_on station. ‘The ALT may; at great expense, concetvably be excenaed to 60g (183m), Out péyond this 2 sabr-type double articulated structure will be required, (4 RIGID YOKE TYPE PM's CALM ~ Yoke: The CALM yoke operates identically to the Hawser CALN with the major exception that the tanker is attached to the buoy by a rigid steel struc- ture (yoke) rather than a flexible hawser. ‘The yoke 1s connected to the tankor by horizontal Bins (to allow the tanker to pitch and heave). Bepending on the specific design, the yoke nay, be attechea rigidly to the CALM tumtable. (SB5)¢°) or 1¢ ay be connected to the tumtable by pins vhichurcouple the buoy fron the tanker vith respect to pitch and heave. Due to the added weight of the yote and the loss of elasticity provided by the hawser. the CALM yoke will experience Somewhat greater loads than the havser system and will, therefore, require greater buoyancy (larger buoy) ata a teeonger anchorage (larger, longer anchor chains). As with the hawser systes, product flows fron the searioor to the buoy Tluid swivel via submarine hoses. From the buoys product 1s routed along the yote, clini rating the need for floating hoses. Aydraulte/Electric Control Tines can follow the sane path. UeTl ization of these flexible Condutts between bucy and seafloor imposes a practical limit at to. the number of indivigual wells which can be serviced with this, type of system. Im water depths Tess than approximately 150 ft (48 mm) the CALM Toke provides 1 cost effective permanent ‘mooring facility in nominal environments. Certain CALM Yoke designs do not allow for or-site disconnection of the yore fron the buoy. This can pose fan operational disadvantage in that the entire moring system must he decommissioned if the tanker needs to be taken (even temporarily) trom the field. ALT-Yoke: The articulated tower-yoke system con sists of 2 lerge, bucyant tower, as previously Gescribed, but which 1s comected to the tanker through a rigid steel yoke in Tiew of @ havser, The yoke 1s, Connected to the tankor through vertical hinges and to tthe toner in a namer which will accomodate. pitch (heave) and roll while permitting weathervaning.. Product and control Tises are routed from the seafloor to the vessel along (or inside) the tower and ‘through the swivel assenbly, The unfversal Joint on the searloor, the connect 10h of yole to tower ang the hinges ot the vessel may be bridged either with Flexible Toops or through comaxial swivel elenents. This concept has the advantage of being atle to accosmodate 2 greater number of flowlines.(nence, wellheads) with greater integrity than the CALM. Disadvantages include large buoyancy requirenents in order to obtain the required restoring force and a high initial cost, relative to the CALM, particularly fn shallow waters Deepwater SALN-Yoke: The SALM-Yoke 1s similar to ‘the SALM previously ceseribed, but with the SALM-Tanker connections being 2 rigid yoke instead of a hawser. As water depth increases beyond 350 ft. - 400 ft [105 m “122 ), bending forces tn the articulated tower Becone 3G Targe as to ungite ¢ secondary articulation potne.(6) This te accomplished by comecting the ‘mooring buoy to the riser shaft through a universal {Joint which allows X-Y articulation. This Joint. Tel leyes bending stresses and allows the riser to be of relatively Tight canstruction ‘As on the tower, the yake-tenker connection is a horizontal hinge and the yoke-buoy conection provides three degrees of freedom. Product routing 13 siniTar fo what might be used ona tover. In relatively deep vater 400 ft - 800 ft (122 m - 244), the SALAYoKe should provide an efficient, ecc- funical solutfon for permanent. moorings with no undue Cestrictions regarding the number of wells which can be serviced, In the event that the storage/process vessel needs 19 be reneved from the ffeld, the yoke my be discon- lected fron the buoy and removed along with the vessel. The SAL vi1l remain functional ane can'de used for yooring other vessels via nayser, in the interim vertods 382 Single Anchor Leg Storage System (SALS): The SALS consists of 2 slender riser connected by @ universal sjotnt to e seafloor mooring bese and to the storage vessel by a rigid yoke Incorporating a large buoyancy ‘tank located between the riser and the vessel. The system obtains its restoring force from this offset bunyency chenber which provides an especialy erfective mmathed or concentrating buoyancy near the surface. This increases system efficiency, particularly in shallow water. Connect toi of yoke to riser and yoke to vessel 1s accomplished in essentially the tame mancer as with the ‘tover and the SALN. Product and control lines are also routed in a similar manner with the sane advantages with regard to'multipl icity of Vines. ‘The SALS provides an efficient mooring in a vide range of water cepths. However, in particularly deep water where buoyancy requirements ore high, or 1n par~ Hicularly severe etvironnents, the large buoyancy chanter located in the vave zone will result in esce- ated systen-forces. ‘he SALS has the disadvantage that, vith the ‘storage vessel off location, the systen will not func Hon in a temporary mode as'will the SALN and the Tower. SALM — Very Deep Yater: In very deep water below 809 ft (244 m) a modified SALW offers excellent potentiz]. The systen will be essentially the sane as the ceepwater SALM, except that the riser section WITT consist of a series of joints (to facilitate install) ‘tion using a drilling ria) ang the riser section will be purely a tension mbar, deriving its fgrtstance to Verge deflections ty the tension app! ted. Tn addition to tension supplied by the buoy, riser ‘support may be achieved with Buoyancy adced to each Section of the riser vith flotation (buoyancy) chambers. Tals concapt offers a good solution to very deep water Tecations utilizing proven technology and should Be viabie in water depths of up to about 1,200 ft (356 mm) without ony new technical breakthroughs. Offtake systems: From a pernanent. storage/process. facility, atten ene oll is stored aboard the vessel it Inust be discharged to another ship for transport to market. In general, there are three methods wach may Be expicyed: ‘Discharge through adjacent moring terminal Disenarge to vessel tied “along-side" 1 Discharge to vessel noored “astern” Ae Adjacent Mooring Terminal ‘SelehGtng on eTFerte Treoncy and environsaneal conditions, a second SPM may be installed nearby and connected by seafloor pipeline to the storage facility. ‘Shuttle vessels will then moor to the SPN and recel ve argo from storage. his concept hs ste adartage of Nich st faation, even in adverse environments, safet leptability. Estreccive Songs ef opportuniey's Dioeeverceyes ere mmalnly related to Mgh initial cast, 2. Hlotg-side Mooring 4h iistetTing-Woser tendertag and cargo transfer ystems on the storage vessel , it is practical to bring “shuttle vessels" élongside afd discharge product. This method of ship-to-ship transfer 1s well practiced in sea Tightering eperations worldwide, “This method of offtake offers Tow initial cost and certain flexibilities regarding the servicing of ships Of varying characteristics. Unfortunately, envi ronsen-‘tal conditions (swell perpendicular to current) and ship size Inconpatabitities often pose severe restric. tions onto this concept. 3. Astern (Tandem) noorin; inbtalTation of special ized mooring and hese faci ities on the stern cf the storage vessel orovides 2 facility wereby “shuttle” tankers can moor by a single point to the storage vessel aid receive product through 2 Fleating hese. In vetsarce, the ctorage vorsel bo- cones. an auxiliary SPM. nis system offers’ greater flexibility with resare ‘to environment. ang ship conpatint1ity than alongs1 de rmeoring and repreants signi ficently less investnent than an auxiliary SPM. Disadvantages are’ that the specialized equipnent wilt be expensive, Also, nooring aval labitTty wil not Be ae high (curing acverze weather) az with 2 second SPW and safety is not as secure, ‘The Vitradeep challenge EE prevent SPH tochrotoay, especially the SAIN and the SALS, can certainly Be extanded to beyond 1,000 ft (300 mm).. 'Wow far beyond wil! be determined by eCononics and OWNER/OPERATOR experience and preference. ‘Since the classic 1975 FPF of Hamilton Brothers “ARGIL™ Field in the North Sea, a great number of jeeas have appeired in the market place. Wany of these “early production aystens” ere in fact ortented about & single Specialized concept ar piece of equipment. such as a Sudesea manifold center, a nacine riser design, ¢ ‘tanker stabiiization systen or an avaliable sent~ submersible dr{lling rg... Others rave gone a step further to incorporate a syecial riser support system, ‘and. sone have addressed methods for floating process, Storage and affloaging, Wille it 1s obvious that huge Seni submersible FPE'S can operate. in water depths greater than 2,000 ft (600m), it is also expensive and often represents a viable aveiue only when the sent ‘does not have a driTTing contract on the hortzon. Historically, the ofl industry has pushed "conventional" narine technology far beyonc the limit: originally conceived (witness the "COGNAC", "CERVEZA' ard: *HONDG" platforas). Thus, it Is reasonable to expect SPM's'to be pushed to sone yet-to-be-deF ined Gepth, but it ts difficult to inagine that this will be very fhuch beyond about 1,590 Te (437 n), AL ints Pointy segregation of the flovline support systen from the mooring requirement may provide attractive overa~ tional Flexibility and econony. In this approach, Tiowitnes are supported by a surface (or sub-surféce) buoy on by 2 caries of buoys. The production/storaga vessel is moored nearby via seperate device and linked to the riser assemply by means of 4 flexible flovl ine ‘and control system bundie. Thie type of fee hae Seon proposad for signi fi- Gantly deepwater 2,500 ft (762m) by ASTANG with the “ALGA" (Fig. 10) system and Glotal Narine Cevelopment, Inc. with the Buoyant Tower concep: (Fig. 11). Others, such a5 PCB and CANUCEAN, have daveloped ‘deep water” production risers ané sone protctype equip- tient has already been built. This Segregated approach 1s distinctly a1rterent from Excon Production Research Conpany's, integrated deep water riser witch is an extension of SALA tech- nology designed around an installation procedure using 2 floating drit1ing vessel. This concept (Fig. 9) uti- Tizes the Flow] ine support systen ae a structural ele- rent directly respansible for meoring the process-storage vessel. Mobility vith respect to water depth is achieved by adding (or deleting) sections to the riser. 383 Segregated flowl ine support anc floating process storage concepts mve not clearly defined the means, by which vessel station-keepirg is accomplished. "It is Conceivable that spread mocring, or djnanic pasitioning ‘or some conbination will De enpioyed, spread mooring hat been suecesstully denorstrated in the oriTling industry for mary years where it provided excursion control of typically 54 - 6% of water depths and could weatter 50 TE (15 n) waves. New super-strang fibers uch ae KEVLIR nay oxterd the feasible vater copths for spread soorings and inprovenerts in acoustic posi- tioning coupled with satellite position reference capa- DTittes make OF a conpetert statton-teeping option. ‘The spread-ooring/IP approach, however well it ‘moors the slave vessel , have the problem of offloading, Yue. neither provides & secure offloading base for shuttTe tankers, A separate Tteld export SPM or, Perhaps, OP controled shuttle taniert my previ For margina) field development in sone areas of the worlé, the Segregated flonline support system and Spread-poorec:process-storage vessel may well provide acceptable operational efficiency and will certainly offer attractive economics relative to advanced SPM technology, espectally in water depths beyond 1200 ft (30'n). ‘CONCLUSTOKS the ‘The uti lization of Single Point Mooring Systems as an integral component. in-an of shore production complex is occurring with increasing frequency. Industry is accepting the concept 5 an excelent. econoric. and technical solution and the equipment presently being produced 1s cortinuusly proving its adequacy for the application. Systems are pre- tontly in service on 2woll fteldt in water. depthe of 300 feet (92m) and state-of-the-art, technology 4s available today to extend these capabilities to Sei) well Fields tn locations in water depen: up to about 1200 ft. (570m). For water depths beyond 1200 ft (336 m) the “segregated riser" approach with spread ndored or UP tankers nay offer a cost effective solution for diract offshore field. productien + Regardless of the baste approach, the ‘nacroscopic" questions renain ané mist be determined on a case- By-ease basis in view of the Operctor's preference and experierce: + Cluster (template) or satelite walls 2 Subnarine om Surface Trees 1 Wet or Dry (atonespheric) Trees Flexible Risers or Rigid Risers 1, Mireline or TFL Maintenance ‘ne’ SPM cesigner with specttic expertise in ana- lyzing wave effects on the vessel nooring system, pre- dicting the resultant forces ané motions and perforning tthe detailed structural design and project-construction mmanagenent, 1S not equipped to ensver all of these questions, but say certeinly srovice valuable guidance asee on fis experience with other operators. REFERENCES. (1) Swan, RaOe, Van Zellers Ss Gruy, Rete: "Teabunge’ SALW - Seven’ Years Operating Experience", Offshore southeast Asta Conference, Singapore, February 1932. (2 Gruy, RoR, Kiely, Webs et al: "The LOOP Deepwater Port: Besigh and Construction of the Single Archor Leg Mooring (SALM) Tanker Terairals", OTC 3562, 1979.(3) Ganderson, Ral Lande, Pofs 2 EXION'S ew Deeovater Praduction #iser", OCEAN INDJSTA Nov. 1978 pp 67-73. (6) Mel fram, Wee, ore, Gunderson, eetirai besign of Product{on Risers. and Offshore’ Production Terminals", OTC 3535, 1979, (5) Saguts dndres Yan Beljst, hed, '*The Advantages ar the Single Buoy storage Systen (385)", OTC io, 1973. (6) Molffam, Mite» Law, TE, "Senta tarvara SALA — A Frotetype Deepwater Production Riser and Floating Production Systen", voumnel oF Petroleum Tachnel ogy, Fasreary 1980. (7) Wolfram, W.R.:.°R beepwater Floating Storage and Ottleading'Sjsten esing Tosey's Tectnology™, “offshore Loading Systens Toaay and Tonorrov® conference, kristiznsind, Norway, April” 1963. Instatied 1965. Field Export Hawser Moored Permanent Storage Installed 1067. Field Export Havser Moored Pematent Storage Export from Floating Storage Hawser Moored Permanent Storage Havser Moored Permanent Storage Field Export (1973) from FPF Hawser Moored Pemanent Storage Hawser Moored Permanent Storage Export from Floating Storage Hawser Moored Permanent Storage Howser Moored Permanent Storage Installed 1974, First Rigt¢ Yoke Mawser Moored Permanent Storage Export fron Floating Storage Le 1 FIELD EXPORT AND FLOATING STORAGE TERMINALS waree tanec county une DEPTH SLE (OWT) TYPE OF sysTen senaRAs Gabon eu. © 100,000 caum (39) cater sveUL {oo fe 38,000 cau (0 1) Instelvee 1965 éaben seu 12 168,000 cau (34 a) bubat conoco 1S so.to can Field Export (ie saudi Arabia eave {i 20,000 cau (4) (1570) Seuts Arata Rat Yes Fe 450,000 oun (a) foray panu.tss fra % 150,000 au Feld export an ronay airs 28 o.000 aun Fela Exgor Gis) Uennart anor Hoe m.so can Fela Export 8 Indonesia aco 135" 1,000,000 barret aL (iia) blnge Barge. (1972) Indonesia co 150 Fe 11000,000 barre? cALN (398) barge Barge (1972) united Kingcon HAMILTON eRos, 42 FE 100,000 cu (7a) tou Dhabi ToTAL/ABK Be wm oun 23 8 sarge caescent a 90,00 our Field export Indonesia co fig aso.to can 2 Indonesia seco i "2 200,000 aur Ga) Indonesia ora BH 10.00 aun en hatasta com £56 "% 40,000 stu (0 ») Instaltea 1974 United Kingdon a¥000 Sua 50,000 ou Fleld Export (3) United kingdom A400 HAT sos cum Field Export $3 0 Tunisia AQUITAINE Zo" 70,000 3s @n) Nigeria essco Rs9,00 ou 26 8 Noort Texaco #3 250,000 aun (2 a)TABLE 1 (continued) FIELD EXFORT AND FLOATING STORAGE TERMINALS WATER TANKER ccouwrey owe DEPTH SIZE (OWT) Tyre oF system REMARKS Indonesia aRco. 140 ft Concrete barge $B Fernanent Floating Storage (43 mn) for L9G (30,000) Tunisia ACQUITAINE zea tt 100,000 can Export. Trom Floating Storage (61 m) Indonesia cies seni JM FE 58.000 ses Fernanent Floating Storage India onsc eee ronan can hawser moored Permanent storage 72 a India nec Bott 00.00 cALM Expert from Fleating Storeae Unrted kinggon— BNOC 533 TE 80,000 san Fela Export. Worla’s beepest (153 8) SPM, Insta lied 1976 United Kingdon MOBIL ang woo Aur Field Export from Plat fore 1) Storage nadaysta EPA ant sate sas First SALS for Floating storage 7 a) Cameroon ‘NEA 7 ft 120,000, ALM Field Export from Spread-Noored (23 m) Storage Vessel qatar wo.caR ‘33 T6000 cau Nawser Moored Pernanent Storage (27 m) ‘Abu Dhabi AEHOA WESS 1M) fH 252,000 ses Fernanent Floating Storage Zaire our 73 78,000 cam Hawser Moored Permanent Storage (20m) Ghana AGRI PETCO oe eee SAM Hawser Moored Pernanent Storage Brazil PETROBRAS, 410 53,000 cam Field Export from FPF (225 m) Philippines. CITIES seRvIce 200 ft 90,000 ses Installed 1979 (61 m) Indonesia ccovoco gar ft 00,000 ses Fornanont Floating Storage 92 1) Tunisia ‘SeREPT gait 120.00 ses Permanent Floating Storage 6? United Kingdon BP 36) 107,000, cam Field Export from FPF 2 m) Norway STATOIL, 480 ft 150,000 Aur Field Export from Platfora (246 m) storage. There are two ALT's currently in service with a third scheduled for Installa- thon tn 1985 caneroon swea asf 25,000 can Held Export trom spread eoored Gsm) Storage Yossel cabor skea BH reno cam Howie? Hoored Permanent. Storage Angola reco {29 aseson0 can lavser Hoored Perpanant Storage Gm usa exion fof 50,00 sam First SALMAIOKE system, (I &) insteited 1981 Angora our iis 5,000 caus Murer Moored LPC Tanker Gen Angola our fo s00,o0 cam Vawser Hoored Permanent Storage is a) Indoreste anco {3 se,on0 can Yawser Hoored futane Tanker (i a} arezil erReBRAS fo 53,000 can Held Export G8 a) breast etreoeas aot ft ss,010 cam Feld Export (i209) Thatiand uvton 20 108,070 CALW-YOLE Condensate Storage with Tendes Om frioading United Kingdon SELL EXPRO Bas TE 220,000 SALNVOKE rst Dergarant Floating storage (ia) fn forth Sess Installed 1981 India onic 1 sono cam Hewser Mored Perpanent: Storage (ion Ivory Geos PILLIPS Son CRMYOKE —_Farnanant Floating Storage (tal 385country Spain Italy nit ippines. rari Tunista SHELL JG1-SHELL 080 FeTROBeAS HELL TABLE 2 FLOATING PROCESS S2M TERMINALS WATER DEPTH 53 tt (7m) ae tt (95 m) soo re (2m) ao tt (122 m) aro tt (183 m) Taner Side (Ovr) 60,000 80,000 120,000 53,000 200,000 286 TYPE oF SYSTEM SLs sks sas cALK sas REMARKS Single Well Seaflcor Coaplet fon (wet) procucing directly’ to a Permanently moored process tanker via @ flexible riser. Installed’ 1977 Dual welt systen with wet sear cor completion producing directly te permanently noored process tanker Via flexible high pressure risers. Hawser moored vessel racetves pro- duction fron dry sub-se2 mnifole center. Process tanier will be replaced by SAROUPA Platform ané SPM retained for Field Export. Multivel! systen which vill procuce from subsea trees directly to permanelty moored tanker which Will process crude, ‘Tare gas, Store stabitized eruee and cortrot vali.Fluid Swivel Unit. Rotating Table — Chinese Lantern ALTERNATE UNDER BUOY HOSE SYSTEM KO Stoop-s lozy-S FIG.-1 CALM 387eee Bucy Mooring Hawser Chain Swivel | Fluid Swivel ag, Universal int ——Loading Hoses i Se “ i) Pile or Gravity Mooring Base FIG-2 SHALLOW WATER SALMSN Buoy Buoy U-Joint - — Buoy Swivel RiserU.Joint — I” Product Swivel: \—submarins Hose _———Riser Shaft Base U.joint ‘Mooring Base FIG-3 DEEP WATER SALMHelideck Rotating Head ~—— ‘Mooring Base ‘Main Buoyancy Tonk | —twbulor Riser ee Universal Joint FIG.4 ARTICULATED LOADING TOWERVertical Hinge Tubular Yoke = Ny Rotating Assembly FIG.S CALM— YOKE 3HRigid mooring yoke —— Buoy ——~ Exignsion tube— = Product distrib unit power swivel _ Universal joint FIG-6 SALM-YOKE DEEP WATERee Swivel —— ~ Rigid Yoke Buoy fendering system Sey Universal Jo'at SS i _-——Moering Base FIG.7 ALT-YOKETop unijoint ‘Swivel chamber oS Jumper hoses ~ Wellhead —— / y— Yoke: hinge \—Yoke structure XS \—Buoyaney tonk —— Riser Universal Joint Mooring base Za FIG. 8- SALSUniversal joint Mooring Bose i FIG-9 ULTRA DEEP SALM YOKEFIG.10 SUBMERGED BUOYANT TOWER FOR ULTRA DEEP WATER PRODUCTIONMid section 7 bate section FIG-11 BUOYANT TOWER reprinted from Proceedings of the Second International Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering Syrposium Editors J. 8, Chung aad V. J. Luni (Book No. 100165) publehed by ‘THE ANERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS ‘345 East 47th Street, New York, NY. 10017 Primedin USA,