Gals17 CP

GLOBAL
ACTIVE LEARNING SUMMIT

Tokyo, Japan
August 3-5, 2017
National Olympic Youth Memorial Center

Kaetsu Ariake High School
CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS VOL. 15, NO.1
Organized by 21ISSN: 2330-1236
st Century Academic Forum
21st Century Academic Forum

Global Active Learning Summit
21st Century Academic Forum
GALS 2017 Conference Proceedings
__________________________________________________________________________________

Editor
MARIA HABBOUSHI: Azm University, Fouad Chehab Boulevard
Tripoli, Lebanon
Tel: (+961) 71 949 249; Email: mhabboushi@azmuniversity.edu.lb

Conference Proceedings Editorial Board Members
OMAR ADRA, University of Balamand, Tripoli, Lebanon
HENK HUIJSER, Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, China
ALEX MONCEAUX, Lamar University, TX, USA
ROEHL SYBING, Nanzan University
ANTHONY RHODES, Zayed University, UAE
FARAH ARAB, University of Montreal, Universite Paris 8
NESRIN TANTAWY, British University in Dubai, UAE
NOHA HAIDAR, Lebanese international University, Beirut, Lebanon
RICHARD PEELE, Higher Colleges of Technology, UAE
SUNITI VADALKAR, Flame University, Pune, India

Impressum:
The papers included in this volume were part of an international conference, the Global Active Learning
Summit 2017. Papers were selected and subject to review by the editors and conference program committee.
The papers published in these proceedings reflect the work and thoughts of the authors and are published
herein as submitted.

Please use the following format to cite material from this book: Author(s), (2017) “Title of the Paper” in Global
st
Active Learning Summit, Vol. 15, No. 1, edited by Maria Habboushi, 21 Century Academic Forum Conference
Proceedings, Bozeman, Montana (ISSN: 2330-1236)
st
Copyright © 2017, 21 Century Academic Forum

st
Publisher: Facilitating, Fostering and Harnessing Innovation to Meet Key Challenges of the 21 Century is
st
published by 21 Century Academic Forum, 141 Discovery Drive, Suite 107, Bozeman, MT, 59718, USA. Email
contact address is: publications@21caf.org.

Production Editor: Maria Habboushi (mhabboushi@azmuniversity.edu.lb)

Copyright and photocopying: ©21CAF Publishing. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior permission in writing from
the copyright holder. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by 21CAF
Publishing. The articles in this conference proceeding remain in ownership of the authors.

Disclaimer: The publishers and editors cannot be held responsible for errors or any consequences arising from
the use of information contained in this conference proceedings journal. The opinions expressed do not
necessarily reflect those of the Publisher or Editors.

Mission: 21 Century Academic Forum is a global group of researchers and educators dedicated to supporting
research that has the potential to influence the shaping of educational policy and practices to more effectively
prepare students for the unique challenges of the 21st century.
Table of Contents
Gap Analysis Between External and Internal Profile (Case Study of PT. X) 1
Daisy Ade Riany Diem

Do You Play Tennis? Aristotle’s Eudaimonia as Key to Educational Performance 14
Management
Robert J. King

Investigating Students’ Motivation Toward Small-group Learning 21
Yung-Ho Huang

Researching Learning and Teaching Modalities and its Impact on Active Language 33
Learning
Rasami Chaikul and Yuri Jody Yujobo

It Takes the Whole Village to Bring up a Child: Discipline in Botswana Schools 41
Veronica Margaret Makwinja

Exploring the Application of Mathematical Concepts Encompassed in Problem through 51
Mutual Evaluation
George Gotoh

Global Active Learning Summit, Tokyo, Japan
August 2017, Vol. 15, No. 1
ISSN: 2330-1236

Gap Analysis Between External and Internal Profile

(Case Study of PT. X)

STT Wastukancana Purwakarta
Industrial Management
Purwakarta, Indonesia
Abstract
As a new chemical manufacturing company in the field of pulp and paper, PT. X must have
strategy determination in order to synergize the strengths of internal resources and the
environment at a strategic point of competition. One way of doing so is by competitive audit.
This case study aimed to analyze the gap between PT. X’s external profile business environment
and internal profile to determine PT. X’s position and level of competition in the present and
decision making in the future. The approach taken is based on four components which are
customer, company, competitor and change as used in The Strategic Marketing Plus 2000
concept. The audit results of customers, competitors and change form an external profile called
Competitive Setting Profile (CSP) whereas Alignment Company Profile (CAP) is the result of
the company’s audit which forms an internal profile. The negative gap between the profiles
indicates that strategy, tactics, and value applied by PT. X are still lagging behind competitors.
Keywords: Gap, Competitive Setting Profile (CSP), Alignment Company Profile (CAP)
1


Introduction
PT. X was established in 2011 and is considered as a new manufacturer company of
specialty chemicals. PT. X has a vision in the future to be a leading company in the Asia Pacific
region with sustainable growth and choice of products as solutions for various industry
applications by building long-term relationships with customers as well as delivering added
value in terms of productivity, quality and profitability.
The pulp and paper industry in Indonesia is expected to expand with the increasing paper
consumption in Asia and especially in China, the world's second largest economy. This
increased consumption will lead to an intensification of global competition in the pulp and paper
industry. Global pulp demand is expected to increase 2.6 percent annually to 38.9 million tons
in 2025 from 24.5 million tons in 2010. During the same period, demand for pulp in China is
forecast to grow 6.4 percent per year to 14.3 million tons in 2025 (http://www.indonesia-
investments.com/ cited on April 10, 2016).
The pulp and paper industry consumes chemicals that are so large and growing as the
growth of the paper needs itself. In addition, strict global market demands and environmental
maintenance issues and minimizing the impact of excessive use of resources that could damage
the environment have led to a trend to use products made from renewable sources and allow for
recycling or reused in the production process. This global situation has grown in the 3R (reduce,
reuse and recycle) paper industry while maintaining the quality that customers desire.
In its development, PT. X is quite successful in providing a positive performance
through continuous product development with regard to market needs, core business, and
resources owned. Some strategically developed products can be seen in Table 1 below:
Year Product
2013 - Bulky Agent

- Dispersant pH 7
2014 - Dispersant pH 5
- Dispersant pH 7
- Standard Wet Strength
- Dispersant pH 7
- Modified Wet Strength
- Standard Dry Strength
- Dispersant pH 7
- Modified Wet Strength
- Standard Dry Strength
- High Reactive Dry Strength
Table 1: PT. X Product Portofolio (2016)
Medium-scale or large-scale businesses are increasingly aware of the importance of

sustainable development to maintain the company's performance and improve the
competitiveness of companies in a similar business. Competing in the conditions of modern
business competition, companies are faced with as increasingly unpredictable and a highly
dynamic business environment. Globalization poses challenges for the companies involved, but
on the other hand, globalization also provides opportunities for the companies operating in it.
To survive and win the competition, companies need to make plans for their survival by
transforming existing challenges into opportunities for their business (Porter, 1994).
2

Gap Analysis Between External and Internal Profile(Case Study of PT. X)

Strategic management is one crucial factor in improving the existence of an

organization. According to Umar (2001), strategies are incremental and ongoing actions, and
are based on the viewpoint of what future customers expect. Porter (1994) states that the
formulation of competitive strategy is to connect the company with its environment. Although
the relevant environment is very broad, encompassing social forces as well as economic forces,
a major aspect of the corporate environment is the industry or the industries within which it
competes. For that, one way that can be done by PT. X is to conduct competitive audit.
Competitive audit is a marketing audit concept composed by Mark Plus and is an
essential part of the whole concept of Strategic Marketing Plus 2000. According to Kottler,
Gregor, and Rodgers (1997) marketing audit is an examination of a company in a
comprehensive, systematic, and independent was on a regular basis. The elements involved are
the environment, objects, strategies and marketing activities. Meanwhile, according to Barrow
(1992), marketing audit on the company is important when the company is experiencing a
decline or economic uncertainty. Every company should regularly review the business
environment and design strategies based on changes that occur (Kartajaya, 2002). Therefore,
conducting a marketing audit allows PT. X to establish the company's strategy and policies that
are in line with the expected turbulence.
Literature Review
Strategic Marketing Plus 2000 Concept
The marketing audit concept compiled by MarkPlus called competitive audit is an
important part of the whole concept of Strategic Marketing Plus 2000. The initial step of this
audit is to conduct an overview of the company's business environment. This review is done to
get an idea of the business environment profile that affects the company and the internal profile
within the company. In addition, this review is also conducted to find out the company's position
and the level of competition within the industry (Umar, 2013).
Figure 1 shows that there are three main components of Marketing Plus 2000 which are:
(1) competitive setting, (2) strategy, tactic and value, and (3) implementation, which is
questions concerning what, why, how, and when implementing strategy, tactics, and values.
Figure 1: Strategic Marketing Plus 2000 (Kartajaya, 2002)
3

Changes in the business environment must be taken into account in the formulation of
a strategy because this change is accelerating, complex, and unpredictable. D'Aveni (1994)
mentions that a rapidly changing business environment has forced companies to continue to
actively formulate strategies to gain resources in achieving a competitive advantage.
A review of the business environment is done on four components 4C's which are
change, competitor, customer, and company. These four components influence the competitive
situation. Therefore, the four components are divided into the external and internal environment
of the company so that competition can be understood at once to formulate the right strategy to
deal with it. Audit results from customers, competitors and change will form an external profile
called Competitive Setting Profile (CSP) and the audit results of the company will produce an
internal profile of Company Alignment Profile (CAP).
Competitive Setting Profile (CSP)

Competitive Setting Profile (CSP) is a profile that addresses the company's external
issues. The first variable of CSP is customer. Customers are individuals and households who
buy goods and services for consumption. The competitive audit of Strategic Marketing Plus
2000 will see the level of customer demand based on the factors that lead to changes in customer
needs, wants, and expectations. The three dimensions to be measured in a competitive audit to
see customer demand are enlightened, informational, and empowered. An enlightened customer
is a forward-looking, more rational customer and able to influence other customers. One of the
factors influencing enlightenment is education. The customer who knows the information is the
customer who has the ability to evaluate the available options due to the ease and speed of
customers getting the information. The third dimension is the ability of the customer to make
the decision happen (Kartajaya, 2002).
The second variable of CSP is competitor. Competitors are organizations or companies
in the same industry that become challenges and obstacles for the company to run its strategy.
From the competitor side, there are three competitor dimensions which are general,
aggressiveness, and capability. The third variable of CSP is change. The factors reviewed are
technological change, macroeconomic conditions, market dynamics, politics and government
deregulation, and socio-cultural change (Umar, 2013).
The position of a competitive situation can be predicted between two extremes by
forecasting the customer, the competitor, and the change driver. The level of competition faced,
can be categorized into 5 types of levels- Stable, Interrupted, Complicated, Sophisticated and
Chaos (Kartajaya, 2002).
Company Alignment Profile (CAP)

Company Alignment Profile is a profile that discusses the internal problems of the
company to achieve all the goals that are formulated. The Marketing Plus 2000 framework has
a principle that marketing is basically not a function but the soul or philosophy of a company.
The company can be regarded as a marketing company when every employee of the company
is a marketer (Kartajaya, 2008).
Characteristics that can be seen from a marketing company are the ability of a company
to be able to provide sustainable satisfaction to the three parties of mutual interest for the
company such as customers, employees, and owners of the company. In CAP, there are three
variables that can help the company to achieve its goals. The variables are strategy, tactic, and
value. The first CAP variable is strategy which is the way of delivering the idealism that is lived
and practiced in the real implementation by way of determining a consumer through a certain
perception to be achieved. Kotler (2012) provides a limitation that the strategy is segmentation
- targeting - positioning, or better known as STP.
12


Segmentation
Segmentation is how to divide the market based on certain variables which consists of
a group of heterogeneous customers who share the same needs and/or similarities of characters
who has the same response in spending their money (Kotler, 2012; Bussel and Forbes, 2002;
Kasali, 1998). Segmentation strategy has become the most important part in determining the
success of a company. It showed that by segmenting the different needs and desires of
customers, a company will get better returns (Smith, 1956; Kartajaya, 2008; Kotler, 2012).
Targeting
Targeting is the way a company should take to optimize a market through evaluating
different segments and deciding how many segments to cover, as well as which segments to
serve. To optimize a market, companies must use priority, variability, and flexibility concepts
(Kotler, 2012). Not all segments can be attractive and profitable for the company. The two
steps to targeting the market are developing a measurement of segment attractiveness and
selecting the target segments (Kotler & Armstrong, 2012).
Positioning
Positioning indicates how the business aspires to be perceived by the stakeholders in
relation to the competition and the marketplace (Aaker & McLoughlin, 2007). Positioning is a
way of placing themselves in order to perceive the people who are in the market / segment
targeted by the company. The company must be able to determine its product position on the
basis of the product's unique attributes according to the specific product class. With positioning
the product, then one can give the impression to the company's product compared with the
product of the competitors (Kotler & Kelly, 2012).
The second CAP variable is tactic. Tactics is how the strategy is implemented in the
field. In the book of art of war, Suntzu said that the strategy was designed by general and tactics
commander in the field. Also, tactical design needs to consider the state of the field, such as
topography, growing weight of plants above ground, sunlight, water and others. In Marketing
Plus 2000, tactics are also adjusted to the field situation, namely the situation of competition
faced.
Differentiation, Marketing Mix, and Sales are three components of tactics that need to
be designed:
Differentiation
Companies need to differentiate so that the company's products can be known clearly
because it is different from competitors' products. Kotler (2002) defines differentiation as the
business done by the company so that the products offered have some positive difference in the
eyes of customers and different from that offered by competitors. The four main sources where
a company can make differentiation are through product, service, people and image.
Marketing Mix
According to Kotler (2002), the marketing mix is a set of marketing tools that companies
use to achieve their marketing objectives within the target market. Meanwhile, according to
Lamb (2001), the marketing mix is a blend of product strategy, distribution, promotion, and
unique pricing designed to produce mutually satisfactory exchange with the intended market.
The concept of Marketing Mix commonly known as 4P are Product, Price, Place, and
Promotion. Marketing Plus 2000 proposes the best possible marketing mix according to the
competitive situation faced. So, it’s no longer just 4P whereas in price determination needs to
be considered as the cost incurred by consumers. Therefore, the company should think from the
5

buyers’ point of view. How much cost should be spent so that consumers are satisfied with the
price conformity with the benefits obtained (cost).
Sales
Sales are often regarded as the end result of all other marketing concepts. Thus, a firm’s strength
can be judged by how strongly it seizes the market depending on the proceeds of the sale. In
sales, Kartajaya (2002) proposes that the three things that must be considered are sales
organizations, sales management and sales force. The sales organization determines how people
in the sales department approach in offering products and building long-term relationships with
customers. Sales management is in charge of organizing sales target planning, operating system
and monitoring procedures and arranging customer visit programs. The task of the seller in
question must meet four aspects: (1) understand the company's situation, products and
competition, (2) have knowledge about customers and market opportunities, (3) make
presentations, offer solutions to problems, and to take care of customers, and (4) maintain
relationships to create positive image.
The third CAP variable is value. In value, there is a relationship between product and
price. Value comes from the difference between the benefits and costs of the product. The most
important value is the perceived value, not the true value. Indeed, high objective values are
easily communicated to form a high value. However, the relationship is not automatic.
Perception differs from reality. Reality in the eyes of consumers is what they perceive.
Therefore, in marketing, perception is reality.
Three components that can be used to form the perception of value are brand, service,
and process.
Method of Research
This research was conducted at PT. X which is located in the industrial area Delta
Silicon 3, Cikarang Center. The research method used in this study is a survey that uses
questionnaires and interviews. According to Sugiyono (2011), a survey method is used to get
data from a certain place in a natural way. The five respondents here are the management of
PT. X actively involved in the formulation of corporate strategy and they are Managing
Director, Operational Director, Accounting and Finance Manager, Marketing Manager and
Production Manager.
Data processing and result analysis uses the concept of a marketing audit/competitive
audit based on the Strategic Marketing Plus 2000 framework (Kartajaya, 2002). The ultimate
goal of this competitive audit is to get a profile of the business environment that affects the
company where the profile of the internal factors (CAP) consists of strategy, tactic and value
while the profile of external factors (CSPs) consists of customers, competitors, and change
driver. Scores of each dimension is calculated using standard deviation. Standard deviation is a
measure of the spread, which measures how much data spread from its mean value. The smaller
the data distribution, the better because it shows higher homogeneity and the data difference is
not too high. It means that each respondent has the same perception and understanding of the
answers given.
Calculating Competitive Setting Profile (CSP)

Competitive Setting Profile (CSP) is used to predict the competitive situation in the next
five years which is seen from customer demand, competitive situation, and change driver. To
be able to determine and interpret the average value of each dimension of the CSP (customer,
competitor, and change driver) which includes very small, small, medium, large, or very large
criteria, a scale is given by using the formula:
12


RS = (m-n) / b
Whereas:
RS = range of scale
m = highest value in Likert scale
n = lowest value in Likert scale
b = number of classes
Then get:
RS = (5 - 1) / 5 = 0.8
With RS = 0.8, the assessment standard is as follows:
1 - 1,8 : stable (2C)

1.8 <CSI <2.6: interrupted (2.5C)
2.6 <CSI <3.4: complicated (3C)
3.4 <CSI <4.2: sophisticated (3.5)
4.2 <CSI <5.0: chaos (4C)
The CSP charging guidelines can be seen in Table 2.
Competitive Stable Interupted Complicated Sophiticated Chaos

Setting (2C) 2,5C (3C) (3,5C) (4C)
Customer (C1) Buyer Con-sumer Custo-mer Client Partner
Competitor (C3) None Mild Strong Wild Invisible
Change (C4) None Gradual Continuous Discontinuous Suprising
Table 2: Competitive Setting Profile (Umar, 2013)
Calculating Company Alignment Profile (CAP)

Company Alignment Profile (CAP) provides conclusions about the marketing
undertaken by the company. The CAP is guided by the company's (S), tactic (T), and value (V)
strategies at the moment. Each component consists of three variables. Interpretation of strategy,
tactic, and value conducted to determine the type of marketing of PT. X.
The scale range (RS) is also used with the following rating scales:
1 - 1.8 : No Marketing (2C)

1.8 <CAI <2.6: Mass Marketing (2.5C)
2.6 <CAI <3.4: Segmented Marketing (3C)
3.4 <CAI <4.2: Niche Marketing (3.5)
4.2 <CAI <5.0: Individualized Marketing (4C)
The CAP scoring guide can be seen in Table 3 below:
7

1 1,8 2,6 3,4 4,2 5,0

Type of marketing Production Selling Marketing Market Customer
oriented oriented oriented driven driven
company company company company company
(2C) (2,5C) (3C) (3,5C) (4C)
Segmentati Geographics demographics Psychographics behavioral Individualized
on
Strategy
Targeting Everyone Suitable ones Chosen ones A few good Someone

ones
Positioning The only one The better one One statement Different One on one
ones
Differentiat Good for Better than Preferred by Specialized Customized for
ion company competitor customer for Niches individual
Marketing 4A 4B 4P 4V 4C
Mix Assortment Best Product Variety Customer
Affordable Bargaining Price Value solution
Tactic
Available Buffer Place Venue Cost

Announcement stocking Promotion Voice Convenience
Bombarding Communicatio
n
Selling Informing about Feature selling Benefit selling Solution Interacting for
product selling success
Brand Just a name Brand Brand Percieved Brand loyalty
awareness association quality
Service One business Value added Value in use Customer The only
category business business satisfying business
Value
business category
Process System & Inter Functional Total Extended value
procedure functional streamlining delivery chain
implementation team work reengineerin
g
Table 3: Company Alignment Profile (Umar, 2013)
Calculating The Gap Between External and Internal Profile

Having obtained the average value of each profile, then Competitive Setting Index (CSI) and
Company Alignment Index (CAI) are obtained. The gap between CAI and CSI comparison
yield three possibilities:
1. CAI> CSI. This means there is a positive gap.
2. CAI <CSI. This means there is a negative gap.
3. CAI = CSI. This is called the par situation, where the resulting gap is nil.
Findings
External Profile (Competitive Setting Profile)
Competitive Setting Profile (CSP) audit is conducted to measure the competitive
situation that will be faced by PT. X within the next five years. The external environment
consists of Customer (C1), Competitor (C3) and Change Driver (C4). From Table 4 (below),
the average customer score (C1) is 3.53 so that it is on a large interpretation when viewed from
the scale range of 3.4 - 4.2. This means that customer (C1) PT. X should be treated as a client
(customer), which should be more attention than regular customers. While the most influential
dimension of the customer aspect (C1) is informational where the average score of 4.46. This
12


means that the customer (C1) has many options due to the increasingly sophisticated
technological developments so that access to information is more easily obtainable.
Std.
C1 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 Average Dev
a 3 3 3 3 2 2,8 0,4
Enlightened b 3 2 3 2 3 2,6 0,5
c 3 3 4 3 3 3,2 0,4
a 4 4 5 4 4 4,2 0,4
Informational b 4 4 4 5 5 4,4 0,5
c 4 5 5 5 4 4,6 0,5
a 2 2 3 3 2 2,4 0,5
Empowered
b 4 4 4 4 4 4 0
C1 Average Index 3,53 0,44
Table 4: Customer (C1) Audit
The average score of the competitor (C3) is 3.75 (Table 5) shows that PT. X’s
competitor is increasingly seen from the general dimensions, aggressiveness, and capability of
each competitor. The most influential dimension is the capability of a large competitor seen
from the financial condition, employees, and tangible assets with the average score of 3.9.
Std.
C3 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 Average Dev
a 4 4 5 4 4 4,2 0,4
b 4 3 3 4 3 3,4 0,5
General
c 4 3 3 3 4 3,4 0,5
d 3 3 4 3 4 3,4 0,5
a 4 4 4 3 4 3,8 0,4
b 4 4 4 4 4 4 0
Aggressiveness
c 3 4 4 4 4 3,8 0,4
d 3 4 3 4 3 3,4 0,5
a 4 5 5 5 4 4,6 0,5
b 4 4 4 3 3 3,6 0,5
Capability
c 3 4 4 4 4 3,8 0,4
d 4 4 3 4 3 3,6 0,5
Table 5: Competitor (C3) Audit
From the aspect of change driver (C4) in Table 6, it obtained an average score of 3.70. This
means the government's technology, economy and politics are very influential in the
competitive setting.
9

C4 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 Average Std. Dev

a 4 4 3 3 4 3,6 0,5
Technology b 4 4 3 3 4 3,6 0,5
c 3 4 4 3 3 3,4 0,5
a 4 5 4 5 4 4,4 0,5
Economy b 4 5 4 5 4 4,4 0,5
c 4 4 3 4 4 3,8 0,4
Politic/ a 3 3 4 3 4 3,4 0,5
Government b 4 4 3 4 4 3,0 0,4
Table 6: Change Driver (C4) Audit
Competitive Setting Index (CSI) obtained from the average Competitive Setting Profile
(CSP) C1, C3, and C4 is 3.61 with a standard deviation of 0.39 which indicates that all
respondents have the same understanding and perception. Competition situation that happened
in PT. X in a sophisticated position (3.5 C) indicating more discontinuous changes, which not
only company (C2) but also competitor (C3) are shifting, but the change driver (C4) has also
started to be difficult to hold due to the changes already discontinued. In this situation, the
customer (C1) should be treated as a client, more than a regular customer.
Internal Profile (Company Alignment Profile)

Company Alignment Profile (CAP) contains 3 (three) elements namely strategy, tactic,
and value. The respondents who fill the CAP questionnaires are the management of PT. X which
only plays an active role in formulating marketing strategy that is the President Director (R1)
and Marketing Manager (R3).
C2 R1 R3 Average Std. Dev

Segmentation 4 4 4,0 0,0
Strategy Targeting 2 3 2,5 0,5
Positioning 4 4 4,0 0,0
Differentiation 5 4 4,5 0,5
Tactic Marketing Mix 5 4 4,5 0,5
Selling 3 3 3,0 0,0
Brand 4 4 4,0 0,0
Value Service 2 2 2,0 0,0
Process 2 2 2,0 0,0
Table 7: Company (C2) Audit
Strategy
From Table 7 above, the segmentation score is 4.0. This means that PT. X uses a
behavioral strategy in which the firm views markets according to usage levels, the benefits
sought, loyalty status, usage status and consumer attitudes toward the product. The score for
12


targeting is 2.5 which means it is in the range of the scale of 1.8 - 2.6 so that the targeting firm
is the suitable ones where to optimize the results of the market is to find the people who match
the product target. For positioning scores, PT. X is on score 4.0. This shows that the position of
PT. X is different ones which mean the company is positioning itself as a totally different
company from another company.
Tactic
Companies need to differentiate so that the company's products can be known clearly
different from competitors' products. PT. X’s score for the dimension of differentiation is 4.5.
This means tactics of PT. X is customized for individual where the company differentiates the
product to each customer and this difference can happen on what to offer and how to offer.
The Marketing Mix 4C (customer solution, cost, convenience, communication) obtained
by PT. X is 4.5. Marketing Mix 4C reflects the level of competition in the 4C position and the
company becomes a customer driven company. PT. X provides special services to customers
individually through products that meet customer needs. The products offered are oriented
towards providing solutions to the problems faced by customers. Price is defined as one
component of the cost (cost) that will be issued by the customer and by paying attention to the
customer's ability to buy the product.
The score for selling is 3.0. This shows that selling PT. X is a selling benefit that is
oriented to 3C marketing where the concept of sales focus on buyer benefits because at this
time PT. X already has a strong competitor.
Value
For brand, PT. X’s score is 4.0, whereas this score is in the range of scale 3,4 - 4,2 which
means the brand for PT. X is perceived quality. PT. X seeks to have its brand perceived to be
of superior quality in the view of the buyer.
The success of a business cannot be separated from the service provided to the customer.
Score service PT. X is 2.0. This means that PT. X sales oriented 2.5C so sales should be able to
provide added value to customers because competitors are starting to appear to take part in the
same market.
The score for process is 2.0. This means the value of processes that occur at PT. X is to
use inter functional team work that the company in doing its activities always increase
cooperation between functions in order to occur smooth process better.
To evaluate the implementation and strategy formulation, tactic and marketing value
that has been done by PT. X, then audited Company Alignment Index (CAI). CAI scores
obtained from the average C2 - Company Alignment Profile (CAP) of 3.39 are in the range of
2.6 to 3.4. This means the marketing type of PT. X is now a 3C-segmented marketing type that
is marketing by grouping the market into homogeneous consumer groups, where each group
can be selected as a targeted market.
Gap Analysis between External and Internal Profile of PT. X

Viewed from the value of CAI = 3.39 and the value of CSI = 3.61, then there is a
negative gap between external and internal profiles with the difference score of 0.42. This
shows that the strategies, tactics, and values applied by PT. X still lagging behind its
competitors. Thus, PT. X must take measures to catch up with any changes that occur so that it
can adapt in the face of changes that will occur in the future.
11

Discussion
From the results of competitive audit, PT. X should focus on Marketing Oriented
Company strategy. Thus, marketing activities can be done more focused and resources owned
by PT. X can be used more effectively and efficiently in order to provide satisfaction for
customers.
In making strategy, preferably PT. X could make some adjustments to the conditions
and competitive situation in order to retain customers. With the discontinuous changes, PT. X
is suggested in addition to providing benefits but also interacting with customers for mutual
success and treat every customer as a client that should be more attention than just regular
customers.
On the service dimension, in addition to providing added value it is also better to provide
services that value in use for customers and should be better than that given by competitors. As
competition conditions become more complicated, it is advisable to reevaluate the process
undertaken, then reduce or eliminate processes that deplete resources without clear results.
Conclusion
Based on competitive audit that has been done at PT. X, it can be concluded that:
(1) For external profile, the value of Competitive Setting Index (CSI) is 3.61. Competition
situation that happened in PT. X is in a sophisticated position of 3.5 C which indicates a change
driver (C4) that occurs is discontinuous and the competitor (C3) has become wild so it starts to
be difficult to control. In this sophisticated competitive situation, customer (C1) should be
treated as a client (customer), paying more attention than regular customers, (2) For internal
profile, the Company Alignment Index (CAI) value is 3.39. This means the marketing type of
PT. X is now a 3C-segmented marketing type that is marketing by grouping the market into
homogeneous consumer groups, where each group (section) can be selected as a targeted
market, (3) The gap between internal profile (CAI) and external profile (CSI) of PT. X is 0.42
where CSI> CAI. This shows a negative gap.
12


References
Aaker, D. A. & McLoughlin, D. (2007). Strategic Market Management. West Sussex: John Wiley &
Sons Ltd.
Barrow, P. (1992). Take Your Pulse with an Audit. Canadian Manager.
Bussel, Helen & Forbes, Deborah L. (2002). “Understanding the volunteer market: the what, where,
who and why of volunteering,” International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector
Marketing, 7(1), pp. 244-257.
D’Aveni, Richard A. (1994). Hypercompetition: Managing of Strategic Maneuvering. New York City,
NY: Simon and Schuster.
Kartajaya, H. (2002). MarkPlus on Strategy: Audit Pemasaran Berdasarkan Marketing Plus 2000.
Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama.
Kartajaya, H. (2008). Marketing Klasik Indonesia. Cetakan Kedua. Bandung: PT. Mizan Pustaka.
Kasali, R. (1998). Membidik Pasar Indonesia: segmentasi, targeting dan positioning. Jakarta: Gramedia
Pustaka Utama.
Kotler, P. (2012). Manajemen Pemasaran. Jakarta: PT. Prenhalindo.
Kotler, P., & Armstrong, G. (2012). Prinsip-prinsip Pemasaran. Edisi 13. Jilid 1. Jakarta: Erlangga.
Kotler, P., & Keller, K. L. (2012). Marketing Management. Edisi 13. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall,
Inc.
Kotler, P., Gregor D., & Rodgers, W. (1997). The Marketing Audit Comes of Age. Sloan Management
Review, Winter, pp. 25.
Lamb, C. W. Jr., Hair, J. F. Jr, & McDaniel, C. D. (2001). Pemasaran. Jakarta: Salemba Empat.
Porter, Michael E. (1994). Keunggulan Bersaing. Jakarta: Binarupa Asksara.
Smith, W. R. (1956). “Product differentiation and market segmentation as alternative marketing
strategy”, Journal of Marketing, 21(3), pp. 3-8.
Sugiyono. (2012). Metode Penelitian Bisnis. Bandung: Alfabeta.
Umar, H. (2013). Desain Penelitian Manajemen Strategik. Jakarta: Rajawali Pers.
(http://www.indonesia-investments.com/) diakses pada tanggal.
13

ISSN: 2330-1236

Do You Play Tennis? Aristotle’s Eudaimonia as Key to

Educational Performance Management
Robert J. King
University of Phoenix
Tempe, AZ, U.S.A.
Abstract
As based upon the historical reading of Aristotle’s virtue theory by Joseph Dunne (1992), and
applied to modern and post-modern management theory (Beadle, 2008), the theme of innate
versus conditioned motivation will be analyzed as applied to educational performance
management. From four years of standardized test prep tutoring applying coaching principles
derived from Olympic-level track & field clinics and IMG Academy, the key natural law
Aristotelian theme of eudaimonia (“happiness” or “flourishing”) as the end-goal of the virtuous
life will be presented as a key component for educational performance. How and why do some
students exceed natural potential while other students lack motivation? How can careful
clarification of internal goods of excellence be included within discussions of educational
performance? These questions will be answered by sharing several case study examples of
exemplary standardized testing performance improvement (50 – 90 percentile points
improvement), and elite athletic performance (e.g. All-American designation). Additionally,
several barriers to performance improvement will be examined to include physical injuries or
unexpected occurrences, performance plateaus, testing or physical fatigue, anxiety, and lack of
focus. Finally, through focus on Eudaimonia educators can formulate better the possible
motivations, innate and conditioned, which encourage greater academic performance
improvement.
Keywords: Eudaimonia, Aristotle, Performance Management, Knowledge
14

Robert J. King

Introduction
Contemporary discussions of virtue ethics, from Aristotelian natural law to the
Thomistic Christianization of this earlier tradition, are usually confined to questions of morality,
and how habituated action results in character, either negatively as vice or positively as virtue.
Alasdair MacIntyre (1981) sought to overcome practical and epistemological problems within
contemporary moral philosophy (ranging from deontological rules bereft of social context to
emotional appeals to intuition). However, when applied more broadly to management theory
fewer voices supporting a virtue ethics approach have emerged. Ron Beadle (2008), at
Northumbria University, UK, however, has sought to bridge this divide by introducing
MacIntyre’s Thomistic Aristotelian natural law virtue ethics to practices and theories of
management. Although business ethics and management are chief among his concerns, through
an emphasis upon specific virtues, such as constancy, a broader dissemination of Aristotle’s
natural law virtue theory can be further advanced (Beadle, 2013). Thus, as aligned with the
conference theme of the Global Active Learning Summit, Tokyo, Japan (2017), an analysis of
how natural law virtue theory can be applied to active student engagement in sports
performance aligned to standardized testing improvement will be examined. Specifically, what
roles do technical knowledge (techne), practical knowledge or “prudence” (phronesis), and
happiness (eudaimonia) play in assisting students in academic performance? The following
paper will provide an overview of Aristotle’s natural law virtue theory applied to performance
management with a brief examination of eight students in Florida, U.S.A., ages 13 – 18, who
were either coached in track and field or tutored in the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) or
American College Test (ACT) college entrance examinations.
Eudaimonia, Techne and Phronesis

What is the end goal of the virtuous life? Although answers may vary, from no end-goal
at all (virtue as its own reward) to hedonism (epicureanism), according to Aristotle, virtue
accumulation cannot be described apart from either the teleology of the virtues as producing
human flourishing (eudaimonia) or practices as defined according to quite specific crafts such
as “architecture, chess, portrait painting, physics, football and farming” (Beadle, 2008, p. 231).
The end-goal of eudaimonia is not to portray the virtuous life as reducible to its more emotive
rewards, but simply to include happiness and flourishing as constitutive of motivation for
making the sacrifices which virtue requires.
If eudaimonia can be considered as the end-goal of the virtuous life, then how should
knowledge be understood according to Aristotle’s natural law virtue ethics? According to
Dunne (1992), for Aristotle, a three-fold distinction of knowledge can be postulated. First,
theoretical knowledge (episteme) is neither practical, nor productive, but nonetheless
constitutes “real knowledge” that is not mere opinion (doxa), i.e. it is a logical ideal that is
demonstrable (p. 237). Second, productive knowledge (techne) is both aligned with production
that makes something in the strict sense (poiesis), but more technically, is any human activity
that is directed to a specific end (telos), e.g. music can be considered a techne (p. 254). Third,
practical knowledge (phronesis) is action that is not of necessity productive, but is a type of
virtue (arete or “excellence”) whereby techne is made best use of or optimized (p. 246).
As a multi-faceted theory of knowledge, Aristotle’s natural law makes close
epistemological and practical distinctions that can be especially helpful for contemporary
performance management. Contrary to sharp modern distinctions between theoretical and
practical rationality, the distinction between techne and phronesis is not only a distinction
between types of real knowledges, but is also complementary of each other (p. 246). Moreover,
techne is a type of productive knowledge, guided by practices, but not simply practice for its
own sake (praxis), and is thus still fully theoretical as well (p. 244). Techne instead is guided
by phronesis so that practices can be guided rationally to a productive end (p. 244). Thus, as a
virtue theory (virtue as arete or “excellence”), knowledge is conceived as both doing and doing
15

Do You Play Tennis? Aristotle’s Eudaimonia as Key to Educational Performance Management

correctly, and is thus excellence, not simply production (p. 264 – 265). As a productive
excellence techne is rational because the product, whether material or a skill mastered, traces
back to causes from which its being owes (p. 250). Thus, a person of techne is like a master
craftsperson who applies skillful theoretical and practical knowledge to a productive end (telos)
rather than working solely from memory or experience (p. 252). However, techne is sometimes
used interchangeably by Aristotle with episteme, for example, medicine is usually a techne, but
can be an episteme, and math, e.g. geometry, which is usually an episteme, can also be a techne
(p. 253).
Applying Aristotle’s Natural Law Virtue Theory: Case Studies

In applying Aristotle’s natural law virtue theory several caveats are necessary. First,
phronesis itself is a knowledge gained by doing, but is also an actual rational knowledge that is
neither luck, nor later Latin mistranslation as prudentia, for example, as formulated by St.
Thomas Aquinas (p. 255). Second, techne is similarly an excellence (arete or “virtue”), rather
than Latin ars (St. Thomas Aquinas), but closer to Latin theory known as Scientia (p. 253).
Third, phronesis, however, is not synonymous with techne since action and making are two
different activities (p. 262).
As applied to athletic and academic performance management several additional caveats
must be mentioned. Through the Thomistic Aristotelian moral philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre,
as applied to management theory by Beadle (2008), internal goods of excellence must be
pursued for their own sake. Thus, phronesis is a virtue in which the practices are perfected not
in isolation, but as a product of who we are (Dunne, 1992, p. 273). From such a pursuit of
excellence for its own sake, several case study examples can demonstrate that rather than
achieving “knowledge” per se, excellence in performance is attained as a byproduct of
character, i.e, who we are, and whether or not such virtue, or lack of arete (virtue or excellence),
produces sufficient eudaimonia (flourishing or happiness/good spirits) to sustain optimal
performance and improvement. Granted, happiness is somewhat subjective since what
motivates one person to virtue or excellence in performance may not motivate another. But, by
changing one’s perception of reality through choosing what is most valuable, identifying best
routes to success, how to use accelerants to success, and how to cancel one’s negative inputs
while seeking positive stimuli can all lead to happiness that is productive as motivation and
reward for excellent performance (Achor, 2013, p. xvii). The following eight brief case study
examples will show how personal motivations to success may differ, but once clarified and
incorporated into a coherent system of technical and practical rationality, can produce
exemplary standardized test score, or other universal, such as athletic, improvement results.
Case Study: “Catherine the great”

Perhaps the greatest natural academic mind I have coached or tutored was a track and
field athlete whom I will nickname, “Catherine the Great” after the famous Empress of Russia.
This athlete improved by 30 feet in 15 months in high school girls’ discus throwing, qualified
for the Amateur Athletic Union (A.A.U.) Junior Olympics, and through weightlifting and sports
training, according to her own admission, also improved from a 710 math SAT score to a perfect
800 SAT math level two subject test. Additionally, she scored a nearly perfect 35 of 36 ACT,
perfect 800 critical reading SAT, won the girls track and field varsity Most Valuable Player, the
prep school’s Latin Award and the Mu Alpha Theta math club Award. Ironically, her athletic
and academic performance excellence was almost entirely marked by eudaimonia. Although
able to “walk on” as a non-scholarship discus thrower on the Harvard University women’s track
and field team, she instead chose a mid-tier state university due to a full academic scholarship,
and less stressful social environment. As someone primarily marked by intrinsic motivation,
and as an excellent critical reader, she was also highly adept at noticing true motivations in
others. Thus, having noted my own love of sports and the “good life,” (eudaimonia) once during
16

Robert J. King

track and field practice she asked me, “So, are you looking at condominiums, Coach King,
because you are trying to find where you will play tennis? Do you play tennis?”
Case Study: “Emperor Constantine”

A second track and field athlete, a middle school discus thrower who placed in the top
20 for 13-year-old boys at the 2015 A.A.U. Junior Olympics, improved by 41 feet in discus
throwing in 5 months, set his middle school record the following year, but due to injury has
now switched to water polo. As a son of an Austrian Chief Financial Officer father and Greek
sports-minded “soccer mom” mother, this athlete can be described as motivated primarily by
technical precision. Unlike other athletes who seek extrinsic awards such as A.A.U. medals,
again, according to an emphasis upon eudaimonia, so was happiness a motivator for success.
Thus, whether a record-breaking throw was accomplished in practice or in an actual track and
field meet mattered less than the joy and exhilaration of a discus throw done well. In fact, as
technical precision was his primary motivator, once, even as a 13-year-old, he corrected me by
saying, “Coach, you need to kick your knee up more, and get your feet off of the ground.”
Case Study: “Michael Phelps”

The greatest athlete whom I have coached or tutored was a former PSAT and SAT
student, eventual All-American swimmer, coached by the strength and conditioning coach of
U.S. Olympic Gold medalist Ryan Lochte, and now a university varsity swimmer at a top 20
U.S. research university. Unlike the preceding two case study examples, “Michael Phelps” was
motivated more by extrinsic success as producing eudaimonia. Attending a top 20 university,
following an All-American status achieved with two individual Florida state swimming
championships, propelled him to success in standardized testing improvement. However,
although capable of a 750 math SAT score in practice, an official 620 verbal and 660 math set
of SAT scores (over 100 points of improvement per section) were achieved less for their own
sakes, but more instrumentally as a means to the end-goal of acceptance into a top 20 university.
Motivation as based upon happiness was less noticeable unless redefined as the happiness
attained by external motivations for success. Once so defined, however, such an emphasis upon
eudaimonia could also be noticed.
Case Study: “Jeff Bezos and his old sister”

Motivations of eudaimonia, if not aligned as the end-goal of virtue (arete or excellence
in performance), can also slip into either utilitarianism as happiness is maximized for its own
sake, irrespective of cause or source, or epicureanism as pleasure is simply maximized
irrespective of other concerns. Thus, the fourth case study is a track and field discus thrower
who is naturally gifted, but unmotivated, and his older sister who can be described as
competitive and driven. The young discus thrower improved by 24 feet in boys’ discus in 2
months, but once natural ability had been maximized a lack of motivation to practice caused a
plateau in performance with only a 5 feet improvement the following season. To quote this
athlete, once during a major track and field meet he stated, “It’s not like I am going to get a
discus scholarship. Oh well.” Conversely, his older sister improved her composite ACT score
from a 27 to a 32 following 20 hours of intensive tutoring, and gained admission into a top 20
globally ranked university. Such motivation as based upon the happiness of success itself could
be seen when during the conclusion of tutoring, prior to her final ACT, she frantically asked,
“What is the next question?” Granted, the siblings will likely both be successful, one through
natural talent operationalized with little effort, but the other having exceeded her natural talent
through incorporation of top 20 standardized test taking tips and test-taking procedures aligned
specifically only to the ACT.
17


Case Study: “C.E.O.’s son, Boston College,” ak.a. “Andre Agassi”

The fifth case study example exhibited the greatest percentile and raw score
improvement of any student whom I have tutored, also on the ACT, but possibly likely due to
outlier data that might mask true performance. For example, during the first practice ACT
“Andre Agassi” scored the worst percentile (bottom 1%) of all test takers. But, such a low score
was due partially to one third of questions which were not completed, and the student having
guessed on numerous answers. However, once time management, re-checking answers, and
other test-taking strategies were mastered, granted following 50 hours of tutoring, he improved
to the 91st percentile composite score on the ACT. He gained admission to Boston College,
appeased his extremely strict C.E.O. father, and was marked by a motivation of eudaimonia
expressed primarily as avoidance of punishment from his father. Lower test scores had
previously resulted in losing access to his BMW, no social engagements, and even an attempted
cessation of snack foods eaten during ACT tutoring sessions. Once success had been achieved,
however, happiness through the form of luxury auto, social life, and acceptance by his father
proved decisive as motivation.
Case Study: “C.E.O.’S son, Florida State University”

The sixth case study, similar to “Michael Phelps,” was an elite athlete having been
ranked as high as leading in assists, and second in goal scoring, in the U.S.A. for high school
lacrosse while at IMG Academy. His personal motivation for success was also expressed as a
form of eudaimonia, but more as admiration for his father, also a C.E.O. His SAT score gain
was approximately 100 – 150 points per section, and he gained admittance into Florida State
University’s program in entrepreneurship. Strengths included time management, full
incorporation of standardized test-taking strategies, and the ability to perform well under
pressure. Ironically, although above average in math, he was one of only two students to answer
correctly a difficult geometric question involving the hypotenuse of a cube.
Case Study: “Plato, the philosopher”

The seventh case study example involved the son of a major real estate developer whose
primary motivation was to enjoy the good life. His test score improvement was primarily in
verbal sections of the older SAT, with a 660 to 720 critical reading improvement, and acceptance
into the school of entrepreneurship at the University of Florida. His learning style was more
Socratic with dialogical approaches to tutoring the most effective. Since learning was its own
reward this student excelled especially in more esoteric or philosophical critical reading subject
matter. In summary, the classical philosophical life of introspection and analytical reflection
was its own reward.
Case Study: “Alexander the great”

The final case study example, and the student with the second highest overall score
attainment, was the Salutatorian of a larger public high school and graduate of its STEM
(Science Technology Engineering and Math) magnet program. His PSAT score improved from
a 168 to a 211, his SAT scores improved similarly to a 720 math and 640 critical reading, but
his SAT subject test scores were the most noteworthy having attained a 740 U.S. History, a 770
Biology, and a 790 Math level two. The student was driven less by success or extrinsic reward,
but more by personal self-motivation at having put forth his best effort. Of particular note in
having put forth his best effort was how routinization and internalization of test taking strategies
assisted him in overcoming fatigue and inattentiveness due to physical exhaustion as a track
and field mid-distance runner. Thus, eudaimonia in the case of “Alexander the Great,” much
like the actual historical student of Aristotle, gained satisfaction through excellence achieved in
having gained mastery over a set of difficult tasks.
18

Robert J. King

Conclusion
Due to the conference themes of the Global Active Learning Summit, Tokyo, Japan
(2017), greater attention has been given to how Aristotle’s virtue ethic may be applied to
practices of active student learning than either more theoretical or social scientific methodology.
Similar to the entire standardized test prep tutoring industry research is only effective to the
extent that consistent, higher than average, score gains can be achieved through mastery of best
practices of test-taking. Fuller studies of how overall motivation influences academic
performance, for example, through theoretical designs studying self-efficacy, are helpful
contributors to such a conversation. Also, both as an independent field of study, and also as a
contribution to standardized test improvement, sports psychology is a helpful area for future
theoretical and applied research. Having noted such possible overlap, however, the
incorporation of technical and practical reason (techne and phronesis) as a unified approach
resulting in the end-goal of happiness or flourishing (eudaimonia) can offer a unified, coherent,
and effective paradigm for superior student academic performance. Since happiness itself is
somewhat subjective, each student may exhibit different definitions of how eudaimonia might
be understood, much less serve as a motivation for performance. In spite of such subjective
understandings of how happiness is determined, in part, by each individual student, if connected
to the performance of academic tasks, in the case studies of this preceding analysis, standardized
test-taking improvement utilizing sports training models, then active student learning can result
in higher test score gains.
19


References
Aristotle (1984). The complete woks of Aristotle: The revised Oxford translation.
Princeton: University Press.
Achor, S. (2013). Before happiness: The 5 hidden keys to achieving success, spreading
happiness, and sustaining positive change. New York: Crown Publishing
Beabout, G.R. (2012). Management as a domain-relative practice that requires and
develops practical wisdom. Business Ethics Quarterly, 22(2), 405 - 432.
Beadle, R. (2008). Goods, virtues, practices, institutions: Defending, applying and extending Alasdair
MacIntyre’s theory of organization. Newcastle, UK: Northumbria University. Retrieved from
http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.537332
Beadle, R. (2013). Managerial work in a practice-embodying institution: The role of
calling, the virtue of constancy. Journal of Business Ethics, 113, 679 - 690.
Beadle, R. (2008). Why business cannot be a practice. Analyse & Kritik, 30, 229 - 241.
Beadle, R. & Konyot, D. (2006). The man in the red coat—Management in the circus.
Culture and Organization, 12(2), 127 - 137.
Bull, C. & Adam, A. (2011). Virtue ethics and customer relationship management:
Towards a more holistic approach for the development of ‘best practice. Business Ethics: A
European Review, 20(2), 121 - 129.
Dunne, J. (1992). Back to the rough ground: ‘Phronesis’ and ‘techne’ in modern
Philosophy and in Aristotle. Notre Dame: University Press.
King, R. (2015). From productivity to performance: Re-thinking the University of Phoenix
in light of Alasdair MacIntyre’s virtue ethics. Journal of Perspectives in Organizational
Behavior, Management, & Leadership, 1(1), 19 - 24.
MacIntyre, A. (1981). After virtue. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.
MacIntyre, A. (1990). Three rival versions of moral enquiry: Encyclopaedia, genealogy,
and tradition. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.
Moore, G. (2008). Re-imagining the morality of management: A modern virtue ethics
approach. Business Ethics Quarterly, 18(4), 483 - 511.
Sinnicks, M. (2014). Practices, governance, and politics: Applying MacIntyre’s ethics to business.
Business Ethics Quarterly, 24(2), 229 - 249.
20

ISSN: 2330-1236

Investigating Students’ Motivation Toward Small-group

Learning
Yung-Ho Huang
National Taipei University of Education
Department of Education
Taipei, Taiwan
Abstract
Small-group work has often been considered a useful active learning instructional strategy.
However, small-group learning involves many obstacles and challenges that may weaken
student motivation. Motivation in small-group learning is an internal state that arouses, directs,
and maintains behaviors for successful collaborative learning. This study developed and
validated a new instrument called the Motivation for Small Group Learning (MSGL) scale
based on expectancy-value theory, which was used to investigate junior high school students’
motivation for participating in small-group learning. The study sample included junior high
school students from Greater Taipei, Taiwan. A random sample of 30 schools was used, and
1950 students completed the survey. The study revealed the following results: (1) The MSGL
scale is valid and reliable, and it includes 32 items loaded onto six factors, namely positively
valuing, negatively valuing, self-efficacy, team efficacy, academic anxiety, and social anxiety.
This scale has potential as an index for evaluating students’ internal states and desires in a small-
group context. (2) Some aspects of student motivation exhibited gender differences. Boys had
significantly higher levels of positive valuing and academic anxiety than girls. (3) Experience
in small-group learning might affect student motivation. Students who perceived their teachers
as using small groups more had significantly higher overall motivation toward small-group
learning. (4) Students who had higher academic achievement scores exhibited higher levels of
self-efficacy and team efficacy and lower levels of academic anxiety in small-group learning.
Keywords: Small-group learning, Motivation, Active learning, Expectancy-value theory
21

Yung-Ho Huang

Introduction
Many aspects of education have changed in recent decades. New ideas, methods, and
technologies may have a profound impact on teaching and learning in the classroom. Despite
changes in educational theories and practices, small-group learning is an essential and
indispensable component of encouraging students and enhances the deep learning process.
Small-group learning is considered “central to all curriculum planning” (Johnson & Johnson,
2005, p. 13) in school settings.
Allowing students to work in small groups has many practical advantages (Barkley,
Cross, & Major, 2014; Johnson & Johnson, 2005). First, Vygotsky (1978) claimed that learning
is an interactive and social process. Students have an active role in this process, and teachers
must play the role of facilitators. In this process, effective teaching should center learning
activities on the interactions between teachers and students rather than on one-way knowledge
transfers. Small-group learning can reduce lecturing by teachers, increase opportunities for
students to engage and discuss their learning, and motivate students to develop their own minds
through active and meaningful information processing. Second, small-group work offers
students opportunities to learn effective teamwork and interpersonal skills and dispositions.
Except for students who will work completely independently in their future careers, most
students will work alongside colleagues. Teamwork skills are vital in today’s workforce.
Beyond improving subject matter learning, small-group work assists students to develop vital
teamwork skills that prepare them for their careers. Third, we live in a fast-changing
multicultural world. Our classrooms, workplaces, and societies are becoming more diverse. The
educational system should prepare students for citizenship in multicultural democracies. Small-
group work can open students’ eyes to ideas or solutions that they may never have considered,
develop an understanding for the perspectives of students from different backgrounds, and learn
to function in a multicultural, multiethnic environment. Finally, small-group learning provides
students with new opportunities to self-control and self-direct their learning and encourages
them to self-reflect on their work and self-regulate their behavior to optimize learning. Such
opportunities foster lifelong learning skills.
However, successful group work entails certain challenges. One of the greatest is
interpersonal conflicts between group members. Interpersonal conflicts are unavoidable when
a group comprises individuals with different personalities, attitudes, and values because people,
particularly young students, do not naturally know how to work in groups. Some students
cannot seem to work together and sometimes argue (Sapon-Shevin, 1999). Another challenge
is ensuring the equitable division of workloads among team members. Sometimes, high-ability
students might perform most of the learning task to complete the task quickly and correctly
rather than assist struggling students to progress and complete the learning goals. Subsequently,
struggling students may feel frustrated and exhibit pessimism toward their self-worth, draining
motivation in small-group learning. Alternatively, some students consciously or unconsciously
avoid their group responsibilities. These social loafers or free riders do not effectively perform
their tasks, which can cause stress and frustration for the other group members. Classroom
management is another challenge for small-group learning. When students work in groups, they
talk or move around the room, which can be a loud process. In noisy classrooms, off-task
behavior, conversations, and pursuit of nonacademic goals by some group members increase
significantly, which may undermine the motivation of other group members (Rogat,
Linnenbrink-Garcia, & Didonato, 2013). Ultimately, these challenges can reduce group
cohesiveness and productivity and weaken students’ motivation for small-group learning.
Although small-group learning is considered effective for engaging student learning,
few studies have investigated students’ motivation in a small-group context. The challenges that
are caused by social interaction might hinder rather than support students’ motivation.
Motivation in small-group learning is an internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains
behaviors for successful small-group work. It can be used to analyze students’ internal states
22

Investigating Students’ Motivation Toward Small-group Learning

and desires in a small-group context. The purposes of this study were to develop and validate a
new instrument, the Motivation for Small Group Learning (MSGL) scale, based on expectancy-
value theory and investigate junior high school students’ motivation for participating in small-
group learning.
Literature Review
Small-Group Learning
Small-group learning is a learner-centered instructional approach in which students
work in pairs or small groups to learn, and activities are structured to emphasize cooperative,
interactive, and dialogic learning. It is an umbrella term for numerous instructional approaches,
including cooperative learning, collaborative learning, peer-assisted learning, small-group
discussion, and team-based learning. It is supported by various learning theories, including
Piaget’s social-cognitive conflict perspective, Vygotsky’s social constructivist theory, and
Bandura’s social learning theory. When small-group learning works effectively, it can allow
students to “negotiate meanings, express themselves in the language of the subject, and establish
more intimate contact with academic staff” (Oneschuk, 2006, p. 132). A meta-analysis of 375
experimental studies related to cooperative learning concluded that small-group learning
resulted in significantly higher achievement and retention than did competitive and
individualistic learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1989). Furthermore, small-group learning tends
to result in higher level reasoning and metacognitive thought, more positive attitudes toward
the subject of study, and greater psychological health and social competencies. It is also a
powerful method for teaching 21st century skills, such as collaboration, communication, critical
thinking, and problem-solving (Barkley, Cross, & Major, 2014; Johnson & Johnson, 2005).
Some researchers consider some instructional approaches of small-group learning
extremely different. For example, collaborative learning appears to differ from cooperative
learning because of different epistemological assumptions. Barkley et al. (2014) argued that if
any instructional approach to small-group learning is effective, it must have three essential
elements: intentional design, colaboring, and meaningful learning. The first element means that
teachers must design intentional learning activities for students. Teachers cannot simply tell
students to form groups and subsequently hope that they work effectively together. Facilitated,
intentional group activities provide students with structural methods to share experiences,
discuss ideas, clarify understandings, or generate new insights. Colaboring is the second crucial
element. All members of the group must engage actively in working together toward the stated
goals. Several group members completing a task while the others simply watch does not
constitute effective small-group learning. Finally, when students work together on group tasks,
meaningful learning must occur. Small-group learning must help students to increase their
knowledge or deepen their understanding.
Expectancy-value Theory
Over the past few decades, numerous theories have been proposed by researchers for
understanding and explaining our behavioral motivations. Expectancy-value models of
motivation obviously stand out for their ability to adopt an integrative perspective of multiple
constructs from different motivational theories, capture the key elements that motivate people,
and explain many human behaviors (Barron & Hulleman, 2015). Expectancy-value theory has
now been applied to many different fields, such as education, management, marketing, and
economics.
According to Wigfield and Eccles (2000), individuals’ achievement performance,
persistence, and choice of achievement tasks are most directly determined by two constructs:
expectancies for success and subjective task values. They defined expectancies for success as
individuals’ beliefs about how competently they can complete an upcoming task, including both
ability beliefs focused on their present ability and expectancies focused on the future Subjective
task value is defined in terms of whether a task meets the needs of individuals. Subjective task
23

Yung-Ho Huang

values include four components: (1) attainment value, which is the personal importance
attached to performing effectively; (2) intrinsic or interest value, which is similar to the idea of
“flow” when people feel immersed in the task; (3) utility value, which is related to how a task
fits into an individual’s goals; (4) perceived cost, which is the cost of participating in the task
(Eccles, 2005).
Methodology
Participants
The population in this study comprised junior high school students from Greater Taipei,
Taiwan. The study used a proportionate stratification sampling method. The total population
was divided into two subgroups: (i) 80,483 students from Taipei City and (ii) 125,520 students
from New Taipei City. The Taipei City subgroup sample comprised 900 students who were
selected through random cluster sampling from 36 classrooms of 12 schools in the city’s 12
educational districts (three classrooms in each school, and one school from each educational
district). The New Taipei City subgroup sample comprised 1350 students who were selected
through random cluster sampling from 54 classrooms of 18 schools in the city’s nine
educational districts (three classrooms from each school, and two schools from each educational
district). The proportions of the samples in the total populations were approximately equal in
the two subgroups.
The MSGL scale was distributed to the 90 classrooms. The number of scales distributed
was 2250, and the number returned was 1950 (return rate: 86.67%). Table 1 shows the
participants by sex and grade.
Grade level Sex

School region Total*
7 8 9 male female
Taipei City 269 267 238 385 378 774
New Taipei City 388 437 346 614 552 1171
Total* 657 704 584 999 930
Table 1 Participants by sex, grade, and city
Note: *Five participants did not report grade data, and 21 participants did not report sex data.
Instrument Development
The MSGL scale was developed through a three-step procedure to ensure its validity
and reliability. First, 40 items were generated for the preliminary instrument on the basis of
expectancy-value theory, small-group learning practice, and the Taiwanese educational context.
A 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree) was used to respond to each
item in the instrument.
Second, the preliminary scale was administered to 164 junior high school students in
Taipei. Subsequently, exploratory factor analysis (principal component factoring and
orthogonal varimax rotation) was performed for the collected data to screen for the most
valuable items to include in the formal version of the instrument. On the basis of the results of
the factor analysis, this study retained 32 of the 40 items. The result also yielded a six-factor
solution with a simple structure that explained 74.92% of the variance (all factor loadings ≥ .63).
24


These six factors were labeled as follows:
Positively valuing: This factor refers to the student’s evaluation of the positive aspects of small-
group learning. It comprises nine items, including “small-group learning is an effective method
for motivating students to learn.”
Negatively valuing: This factor refers to the student’s evaluation of the negative aspects of
small-group learning. It comprises three items, including “small-group learning always makes
the course fall behind schedule.” The three items are scored inversely.
Team efficacy: This factor refers to the student’s confidence in the team’s capacity to succeed
at small-group learning. It comprises six items, including “I have confidence that my team can
successfully complete small-group tasks.”
Self-efficacy: This factor refers to the student’s confidence in his or her ability to succeed at
small-group learning. It comprises six items, including “I know how to get along with my group
members.”
Academic anxiety: This factor refers to the student’s feeling of being distressed, fearful, or
stressed because of academic learning during small-group leaning. It comprises three items,
including “I worry that I can’t learn the subject matter correctly in a small group.” The three
items are scored inversely.
Social anxiety: This factor refers to the student’s unpleasant feeling of nervousness, distress, or
worry in social situations related to small-group learning. It comprises five items, including “I
always worry that some group members are freeloaders.” The five items are scored inversely.
Positively valuing, team efficacy, and self-efficacy are positive motivation factors.
These responses are scored on a scale from 1 to 5 (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 =
neutral, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree). Negatively valuing, academic anxiety, and social
anxiety are negative motivation factors. These responses are scored inversely.
The total score is obtained by calculating the arithmetic mean of the item scores across
all items and thus can range from 1 to 5. Higher scores indicate greater motivation for small-
group learning.
Finally, the reliability of the new scale was estimated using the internal consistency
coefficient and test–retest method. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of the positively valuing,
negatively valuing, team efficacy, self-efficacy, academic anxiety, and social anxiety subscales
were .94, .82, .82, .96, .91, and .89, respectively. The whole motivation scale comprised 32
items, and the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .94. The subscales and whole scale had high
internal consistency. To estimate the test–retest reliability, the scale was re-administered to the
same 34 students after 5 weeks. The retest correlation coefficients of the positively valuing,
negatively valuing, team efficacy, self-efficacy, academic anxiety, and social anxiety subscales
were .87, .67, .84, .78, .73, and .77, respectively. The retest correlation coefficient of the
combined motivation scale was .92. The subscales and combined scale had high test–retest
reliability.
25

Yung-Ho Huang

Results and Discussion

Frequency of Small-group Learning
Table 2 shows students’ perceptions of the frequency of small-group learning. In total,
17.2%, 23.5%, 30.1%, 12.8%, and 12.9% of students perceived that small-group learning was
“rarely,” “occasionally,” “sometimes,” “frequently,” and “usually” implemented in their
classroom, respectively. In other words, approximately four-tenths of students (40.7%)
perceived a low frequency of small-group learning, and only approximately one-quarter of
students (25.7%) perceived a high frequency.
In today’s global economy and fast-paced world, students must be prepared for the
future. Teaching practice must be transformed to foster 21st century skills in students. Small-
group work can effectively improve student collaboration, communication, critical thinking,
and problem-solving skills; therefore, it is considered an effective approach for responding to
this need (Johnson & Johnson, 2010). Many Taiwanese education administrators, scholars, and
experts urge increased use of small-group learning in classrooms. However, this study
determined that 40.7% of students perceived a low frequency of small-group learning, and only
25.7% of students perceived a high frequency. The findings were similar to those obtained by
Huang (2016), who studied teachers’ self-reported cooperative learning use. Huang reported
that 57% of Taiwan’s teachers were low-frequency users of cooperative learning and that only
approximately 22.2% were high-frequency users. By contrast, Bassett, McWhirter, and
Kitzmiller (1999) revealed that approximately 16%, 43%, and 41% of U.S. teachers were low-
frequency, medium-frequency, and high-frequency users, respectively, of cooperative learning.
The realities of the 21st century learner in Taiwan require schools and teachers to dedicate more
effort to implement small-group learning.
Frequency Number Percentage

Rarely (Almost no lessons) 335 17.2
Occasionally 459 23.5
Sometimes (About half the lessons) 587 30.1
Frequently 250 12.8
Usually (Almost every lesson) 252 12.9
Table 2 Students’ Perceived Frequency of Learning in Small Group
Note: N = 1883, missing data = 67.
Motivational Levels
The MSGL scale is a 5-point scale that assesses an individual’s agreement or
disagreement with a particular statement. The total scale and subscale scores are the means of
the item scores. Scores of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 reflect extremely low, low, moderate, high, and
extremely high motivation, respectively.
Table 3 shows the means of the MSGL scale for the total sample. The means of the total
sample were 3.88, 3.40, 3.84, 3.87, 3.41, and 3.19 for positively valuing, negatively valuing,
team efficacy, self-efficacy, academic anxiety, and social anxiety, respectively, and 3.67 for the
total scale. In particular, the students’ motivation levels for the total scale and the six factors
were between moderate and high. These results are similar to those of Bhansali and Trivedi
(2008), who used a questionnaire to obtain the views of intermediate-level students toward
small-group learning. Their results indicated that the respondents generally held a positive view
of the implementation of small-group work in a teaching and learning context.
According to the expectancy-value model, individual behavior is a function of
expectancies for success and task value. Expectancies and values are influenced by prior
experience, cognitive factors, and social and cultural factors. The positive motivational levels
toward small-group learning may show that students have successful prior experience, positive
26


cognitive beliefs, and beneficial social and cultural impacts. It also implies that students will
desire to, rather than resist, participating in small-group learning if their teachers design the
lesson effectively.
Overall Male Female

Factor t
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Positively Valuing 3.88 0.81 3.94 0.81 3.81 0.80 3.43***
Negatively Valuing 3.40 0.97 3.39 1.01 3.41 0.93 0.31
Team Efficacy 3.84 0.92 3.86 0.94 3.80 0.88 1.36
Self-Efficacy 3.87 0.80 3.87 0.84 3.86 0.76 0.42
Academic Anxiety 3.41 1.09 3.34 1.17 3.49 0.99 3.19**
Social Anxiety 3.19 1.02 3.21 1.09 3.17 0.95 -0.79
Total 3.67 0.64 3.69 0.64 3.65 0.62 1.33
Table 3 Means, SDs, and t-test results of Students’ Motivation toward Small-group Learning
Note: total: N = 1950, boys: N = 999, girls N = 930, ** p<.01, *** p<.001.
Gender Differences
Table 3 shows the means of the MSGL scale for boys and girls and the results of t-tests
comparing the means by sex. Although the motivations of girls and boys were between the
moderate and high levels, the independent sample t-test results indicated that boys and girls
differed significantly in terms of positively valuing and academic anxiety. Boys had
significantly higher positively valuing and academic anxiety (inverse scoring) than girls. That
is, boys exhibited higher levels of positive evaluation toward small-group learning and higher
levels of academic learning anxiety during small-group learning. Nevertheless, total motivation
did not differ significantly between girls and boys.
Gender differences in the learning styles of girls and boys are widely recognized. For
example, Gurian (2006) suggested that task-oriented discussion and interaction and physical
movement access boys’ neurological strengths to keep them energized and attentive. James
(2015) claimed that cooperative competition is one of the most effective methods for engaging
boys in the learning process. This study suggested that boys prefer task-oriented discussion,
interaction, and cooperative competition, which are involved in small-group learning; therefore,
boys exhibited a higher positive evaluation toward small-group learning. Further study is
required to understand why boys experience higher levels of academic anxiety than girls.
However, comparing the means of this study indicated that students’ total motivation for small-
group learning did not significantly differ between genders. Generally, all middle-school
students, both girls and boys, can benefit from group work (Gurian & Ballew, 2003).
Differences between Frequency Groups

Table 4 presents the means, standard deviations, and F-test results of the frequency
groups. The one-way analysis of variation indicated significant differences between groups for
the six factors and the total scale motivation. Post hoc comparisons using Scheffe’s method
revealed the following results:
The mean score of positively valuing in the usually frequency group was significantly
higher than those in the sometimes, occasionally, and rarely frequency groups. It was
significantly higher in the frequently frequency group than in the occasionally and rarely
frequency groups, and it was significantly higher in the sometimes frequency group than in the
occasionally and rarely frequency groups.
The mean score of negatively valuing in the usually frequency group was significantly
higher than those in the occasionally and rarely frequency groups. It was significantly higher in
the frequently frequency group than in the rarely frequency group, significantly higher in the
27

Yung-Ho Huang

sometimes frequency group than in the rarely frequency group, and significantly higher in the
occasionally frequency group than in the rarely frequency group.
The mean score of team efficacy in the usually frequency group was significantly higher
than those in the sometimes, occasionally, and rarely frequency groups. Moreover, the mean
scores of team efficacy in the frequently and sometimes frequency groups were significantly
higher than that in the rarely frequency group.
The mean score of self-efficacy in the usually frequency group was significantly higher
than those in the sometimes, occasionally, and rarely frequency groups. In addition, the mean
score of self-efficacy in the frequently frequency group was significantly higher than that in the
rarely frequency group.
The mean score of academic anxiety in the usually, frequently, and occasionally
frequency groups were significantly higher than that in the rarely frequency group.
The mean score of social anxiety in the usually frequency group was significantly
higher than that in the rarely frequency group.
The mean score of total motivation in the usually frequency group was significantly
higher than those of the sometimes, occasionally, and rarely frequency groups. It was
significantly higher in the frequently frequency group than in the occasionally and rarely
frequency groups, and it was significantly higher in the sometimes and occasionally frequency
groups than in the rarely frequency group.
In summary, this study revealed a positive association between the frequency of group
work and the motivation toward small-group learning. Students who perceived their teachers as
using group work more often had significantly higher motivation toward small-group learning.
This indicates that, as students gain more experience in group works, they tend to have higher
expectation for success in group work and higher subjective task values toward small-group
learning. This result is similar but not identical to the findings of Gurian and Ballew (2003),
who demonstrated that frequent high-quality group experiences were associated with a more
positive classroom environment and greater intrinsic motivation, whereas frequent low-quality
group interactions were associated with negative perception. Battistich, Solomon, and Delucchi
(1993) suggested that the “quality” of group interaction is a moderator variable between
frequency and motivation. This point provides a basis for additional investigations into the
effect of quality on frequency and motivation.
28


Factor Frequency M SD F Post Hoc

Positively 1.Rarely 32.48 8.13 22.41*** 3>1***, 3>2*
Valuing 2.Occasionally 33.97 7.38 4>1***, 4>2**
3.Sometimes 35.40 6.93 5>1***, 5>2***
4.Frequently 36.13 5.99 5>3***
5.Usually 37.42 6.30
Negatively 1.Rarely 9.24 3.13 15.75*** 2>1***, 3>1***
Valuing 2.Occasionally 10.20 2.76 4>1**, 5>1***
3.Sometimes 10.28 2.82 5>2*
4.Frequently 10.75 2.67
5.Usually 10.93 3.00
Team Efficacy 1.Rarely 21.72 6.18 11.20*** 3>1*, 4>1***
2.Occasionally 22.73 5.28 5>1***, 5>2**
3.Sometimes 22.97 5.40 5>3**
5.Usually 24.48 5.14
Self-Efficacy 1.Rarely 22.13 5.22 11.89*** 4>1***, 5>1***
2.Occasionally 22.96 4.83 5>2***, 5>3***
3.Sometimes 23.08 4.67
5.Usually 24.66 4.62
Academic 1.Rarely 9.62 3.46 5.50*** 2>1*, 4>1*
Anxiety 2.Occasionally 10.38 3.13 5>1**
5.Usually 10.75 3.56
Social Anxiety 1.Rarely 15.21 5.25 4.00** 5>1**
2.Occasionally 16.03 4.98
5.Usually 16.90 5.64
Total 1.Rarely 110.41 22.07 22.45*** 2>1**, 3>1***
2.Occasionally 116.26 20.47 4>1***, 4>2***
3.Sometimes 117.98 19.28 5>1***, 5>2***
4.Frequently 121.15 17.54 5>3***
5.Usually 125.14 19.71
Table 4 F-test Results Comparing Different Frequency Groups in terms of Motivation
29

Yung-Ho Huang

Achievers’ Differences
In this study, we collected respondents’ academic performance scores and used k-means
clustering to divide the students into three groups, namely low achievers (mean score = 10.95,
N = 312), medium achievers (mean score = 18.75, N = 636), and high achievers (mean score =
26.57, N = 991). Table 5 presents the means, standard deviations, and F-test results of the
frequency groups. Analyses revealed that the differences between the groups for the factors of
negatively valuing, self-efficacy, academic anxiety, and total motivation were significant.
However, no significant differences were observed between the groups for the factors of
positively valuing, team efficacy, or social anxiety. Post hoc comparisons using Scheffe’s
method revealed the following results:
1. The mean score of negatively valuing in the high-achiever group was significantly
higher than those in the medium- and low-achiever groups.
2. The mean score of self-efficacy in the high-achiever group was significantly higher
than those in the medium- and low-achiever groups.
3. The mean score of academic anxiety in the high-achiever group was significantly
higher than those in the medium- and low-achiever groups, and that in the medium-achiever
group was significantly higher than that in the low-achiever group.
4. The mean score of total motivation in the high-achiever group was significantly
higher than that in the low-achiever group.
Factor Achiever M SD F Post Hoc

Positively Valuing Low 34.78 7.79 .07
Medium 34.89 7.33
High 34.95 7.05
Negatively Valuing Low 9.73 3.05 6.26** 3>1*, 2>1**
Medium 10.44 2.95
High 10.21 2.85
Team Efficacy Low 22.55 6.07 1.46
Medium 23.02 5.42
High 23.16 5.34
Self-Efficacy Low 22.38 4.97 8.64*** 3>2*, 3>1**
Medium 23.00 4.91
High 23.60 4.64
Academic Anxiety Low 9.52 3.44 13.02*** 3>2*, 3>1***
Medium 10.11 3.25 2>1*
High 10.56 3.19
Social Anxiety Low 15.95 5.48 .76
Medium 16.18 5.00
High 15.86 5.08
Total Low 114.89 20.54 3.43* 3>1*
Medium 117.66 20.05
High 118.34 20.46
Table 5 F-test Results Comparing Different Achievement Groups in terms of Motivation
30


In summary, the results demonstrated that academic achievement might affect
motivation. Although research findings have revealed that students working in small groups
learned significantly more effectively than when using other instructional methods (Johnson,
Johnson, & Stanne, 2000), Ahmad (2010) determined that high achievers obtained superior
results through small-group learning. Topping (1987) reported that tutors tended to gain more
of a benefit than did tutees in paired tutoring formats. Khatoon and Akhter (2010) claimed that
students learn most effectively when they are actively involved in the process of learning and
opportunities exist for interaction with other students. According to this view, higher achievers
obtain more opportunities to participate in group work and interact with other students and thus,
exhibit higher levels of motivation toward small-group learning.
Implications and Recommendations

The results of this study provide some valuable insights for educators and
administrators who aspire to develop effective small-group teaching. First, the MSGL scale has
favorable construct validity, strong internal reliability, and high test–retest reliability. Its
potential uses included facilitating the evaluation of small-group learning programs by
assessing changes in students’ motivation, and it is a valuable tool for assessing the
effectiveness of the collaborative approach. The scale also can be used as a diagnostic measure
to identify areas in which students have positive and negative motivation.
Second, this study revealed that Taiwanese students have a moderate to high level of
motivation for small-group learning, but the frequency of using group work in Taiwanese
classrooms remains low. Because of the positive association between the frequency of and
motivation toward group work, students tend to participate in small-group learning if their
teachers effectively design lessons. This offers a solid basis for more widespread
implementation of small-group learning. Making the effort to prepare students for 21st century
skills is worthwhile.
Finally, future research should investigate why boys exhibit higher academic anxiety
than girls in small-group learning. Additionally, the moderating role of quality in the
relationship between frequency and motivation of small-group learning should be thoroughly
investigated.
31

Yung-Ho Huang

References
Ahmad, F. (2010). Effect of cooperative learning on students' achievement at elementary level.
International Journal of Learning, 17(3), 127-141.
Barkley, E. F., Cross, K. P., & Major, C. H. (2014). Collaborative learning techniques: A handbook for
colledge faculty (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Barron, K. E., & Hulleman, C. S. (2015). Expectancy-value-cost model of motivation. In J. S. Eccles
(Ed.), International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences (2nd ed) (pp. 503-509).
Oxford, UK: Elsevier.
Bassett, C., McWhirter, J. J., & Kitzmiller, K. (1999). Teacher implementation of cooperative learning
groups. Contemporary Education, 71(1), 46-50.
Bhansali, R., & Trivedi, K. (2008). Is Academic Anxiety Gender Specific: A Comparative Study.
Journal of Social Sciences, 17(1), 1-3.
Battistich, V., Solomon, D., & Delucchi, K. (1993). Interaction processes and student outcomes in
cooperative learning groups. The Elementary School Journal, 94(1), 19-32.
Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices.
In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105-121).
New York, NY: Guilford.
Gurian, M. (2006). Teaching to the minds of boys. Educational Leadership, 64(1), 56-61.
Gurian, M., & Ballew, A. C. (2003). The boys and firls learn differently: Action guide for teachers.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Huang, Y. H. (2016). Exploring teachers' motivation for implementing cooperative learning using
expectancy-value theory. . International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education,
7(3), 2852-2856.
James, A. N. (2015). Teaching the male brain: How boys think, feel, and learn in school (2nd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (1989). Cooperation and competition: Theory and research. Edina,
MN: Interaction Book Company.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. J. (2005). Learning groups. In S. A. Wheelan (Ed.), The handbook of
group research and practice (pp. 441-461). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2010). Cooperative learning and conflict resolution: Essential 21st
century skills. In J. Bellanca & R. Brandt (Eds.), 21st century skills: Rethinking how students
learn. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tress.
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Stanne, M. B. (2000). Cooperative learning methods: A meta-
analysis. Retrieved from http://www.co-operation.org/pages/cl-methods.html
Khatoon, S., & Akhter, M. (2010). An innovative collaborative group learning strategy for improving
learning achievement of slow learners. Journal of Research and Reflections in Education,
4(2), 142-160.
Oneschuk, D. (2006). Undergraduate eduction. In E. Bruera, I. J. Higginson, C. Ripamonti, & C. v.
Gunten (Eds.), Textbook of palliative medicine (pp. 129-135). Boca Raton, FL: Taylor &
Francis Group.
Rogat, T. K., Linnenbrink-Garcia, L., & Didonato, N. (2013). Motivation in collaborative groups. In C.
E. Hmelo-Silver, C. A. Chinn, C. K. K. Chan, & A. M. O'Donnel (Eds.), The international
handbook of collaborative learning (pp. 250-267). New York, NY: Routledge.
Sapon-Shevin, M. (1999). Because we can change the world: A practical guide to building
cooperative, inclusive classroom communities. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Topping, K. (1987). Peer Tutored Paired Reading: outcome data from ten projects. Educational
Psychology, 7(2), 133-145. doi:10.1080/0144341870070206
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.
Cambridge, Massachuseets: Harvard University.
Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation.
Contemporary Educaitonal Psychology, 25(1), 68-81.

32

ISSN: 2330-1236

Researching Learning and Teaching Modalities and its

Impact on Active Language Learning

Tamagawa University
Center for English as a Lingua Franca
Tokyo, Japan
Abstract
This paper is focuses on the introduction of new learning spaces and their influence on
enhancing active learning and curriculum development at a private university in Tokyo.
Research on effective learning spaces often address the integration of physical space attributes
into pedagogy to promote learner engagement through active and interactive styles. A major
renovation of the building housing the English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) language program
took place in Fall of 2015 after a year of extensive meetings among international faculty
members, university administrators, and outsourced interior designers in creating new
classroom learning configurations that best enhances optimal active learning and support best
practices for an English language curriculum. After occupancy in Spring 2016, the presenters
started a project to assess the affordances of the new learning spaces and its effect on students’
perceived learning of English and teachers' pedagogical shifts by taking a closer look at the
relationship between specific attributes of the learning environments such as aesthetics,
furniture, and technology to name a few. Specifically, teacher’s pedagogical choices and
student’s perceptions of their new learning environments were uncovered through students’
open-ended comments, teachers’ open-ended comments, and online surveys to 1,717 students
and 20 teachers. The analysis of the data indicates a positive correlation on how the new spaces
directly enhanced active learning but also reveals best teaching modalities in expanding their
pedagogical repertoire toward student-centered learning, 21st century skills, project-based
learning and other collaborative approaches.
Keywords: Active Learning, Learning Spaces, Curriculum Development, Learning

Environment
33

Researching Learning and Teaching Modalities and its Impact on Active Language Learning
Introduction on Learning and Teaching Modalities

Researching how learning and teaching modalities impact on learning is resourcefulness
and indispensable for teachers, educators and researchers especially in a language learning
environment as it is mentioned by OECD that the learning environment is increasingly
significant (Kuuskorpi, M. and N. Cabellos González, 2011). The classroom attributes to
students learning may imperatively increase students learning attitude and performance. The
OECD (Kuuskorpi, M. and N. Cabellos González, 2011) defines “educational space” as “a
physical space that supports multiple and diverse teaching and learning programmes and
pedagogies” including the classroom attributes significantly contribute and facilitate not only
students effective learning but also teacher teaching methodology. The physical learning
environment is an influential element in the complex and highly contextualized nature of
learning (OECD, 2017). According to the physical learning environment is an influential
element in the complex and highly contextualized nature of learning, characterized by dynamics
and interactions between the learner, teacher, pedagogy, equipment and technologies.
Traditional style lecture based teaching still dominates university teaching in Japan.
These lectures are often taught in large classrooms accommodating over fifty students with
stationed tables and chairs that often constrain the teacher from selecting different modalities
in teaching. Also, students are physically and socially constrained to passive learning styles.
Björkman (2013, p.156-157) defines a lecture as “traditionally long stretches of monologic
speech events, which does not allow for opportunities for pragmatic speech” and monologic
approaches risk communicative effectiveness of the speakers and deter from maneuvering and
making use of discursive strategies. These types of “monologic events where the listener has
very few opportunities if any to check his/her own understanding is where misunderstandings
are most likely to occur” (p. 182). In retrospect, the English language classes held in these
traditional lecture halls are detrimental to students’ communicative development and its ability
to transfer knowledge beyond the classroom walls. Other literature on the distinct differences
between passive and active learning is recognized in Hake’s (2002) comparative study on
traditional vs. active learning as findings acknowledged that students taught through active
group-work methods learned two to three times more than students taught through traditional
lecture methods.
Active learning is defined as the methodology to focus on giving students a collaborative
and engaging activity which simultaneously requires deeper learning. In language tasks,
examples of active learning take place when students interact with written texts, or audio/video
materials in which they are not asked for regurgitating information, but instead to further
discuss, and include a level that promotes analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of class content
(Bonswell & Eison, 1991). By understanding the current issues of learning space as not only as
a physical barrier but as a mental barrier to educational growth, the higher education institutes
must transpire for changes. Thus, in order for active learning to work at its best, the outdated
spaces needed to be recognized as one of the major constraints for learning.
Research on deeper learning dispositions address the gaps between what students are
learning in the classrooms, and what employers expect from them. Seven dispositions are
mentioned by Wagner (2008) as the Seven Survival Skills from the Global Achievement Gap
and include critical thinking and problem solving, collaboration across networks, agility and
adaptability, entrepreneurialism, effective oral and written communication, assessing and
analyzing information, and curiosity for imagination.
Taking these barriers into consideration, our private Japanese university took proactive
measures by deciding to go under major physical renovation of their English language building.
The building originally housed several mid and large sized lecture rooms that were multi-
purpose and multi-department use classrooms.
34


These rooms accommodated approximately sixty to over one hundred students and had
fixed long tables and chairs in a lecture style room facing a chalkboard and a podium. The
English language courses minimized the number of students for communication effectiveness
and had a maximum of 25 students per class, so these vast created an awkward distance between
the students and the teacher (Figure 1).
Figure 1: lecture style room facing a chalkboard and a podium
A university appointed committee consisting of four English teachers, several

administrators, and outsourced interior design consultants met several times over eight months
to discuss ideal ways to improve the building with a focus on English language education. First,
several smaller-sized classrooms (38-49 square meter rooms) for a maximum of 27 students
were created. This was in response to the nature of the language communication based courses
which need close proximity between the teacher and the students. Each room was equipped
with the latest ergonomically designed movable chairs with attached desks, short-range
projectors, WiFi, length-of-the-room whiteboards and speakers (Figure 2).
Figure 2: short-range projectors, length-of-the-room whiteboards and speakers
The ergonomic-friendly chairs made an immediate effect on the modalities of teaching,

as teachers could easily reconfigure the layout of the classrooms. The change to the mobile
chairs facilitated the transformation from a traditional classroom into a more interactive and
dynamic teaching and learning environment. Also, the chairs were modern with five vivid
colors and allowed for classroom management to run smoother for teachers by being able to
35

form random groups by grouping chair colors together. Random grouping is an ideal way for
students to work with new peers and brings with it a fresh outlook. The classroom could change
to multiple modes during one class to support the activity (Figure 3).
Figure 3: the ergonomic-friendly moveable chairs
In the new style, lessons shifted to group-based approaches. Also, random pairing and
grouping increased rapport among all of the students. The closer proximity between the teacher
and the student allowed for a free flow of information and a role of a mentor rather than only a
teacher. Active learning teaching methodology including project-based learning (PBL) and
problem based learning replaced textbook and formal teacher lectures and opening up a more
interactive and dynamic teaching repertoire. From the learner’s perspective, students had
increased autonomy and direct control over how content was learned and who they chose to
learn from. The healthy and respectful relationship among the students and teacher resembles
real-world attributes of effective communication that is essential in the workforce. The active
learning style of the tasks also shadowed real-world situations in which group work challenged
one's leadership abilities in tackling difficult issues and productive teamwork skills arising from
conflict resolution.
These skills lead directly to 21st Century Skills. The Partnership for 21st Century
Learning is a coalition comprised of business leaders, policy makers, and education leaders
addressed a framework to address the readiness skills necessary in preparing students for
college, life, and career. Soule, an executive at Partnership for 21st Century Learning
mentioned the 4Cs of 21st Century Skills (Partnership for 21st Century Learning, 2013) which
included collaboration, critical thinking, communication, and creativity (Paterson, 2013) as the
crucial skills. The renovation of the learning spaces led to student-focused learning,
development of 21st century skills, and more active learning methods and has impacted our
students and teachers English learning and teaching experience.
This research aims to answer the following research questions:
1) Is there a strong relationship between effective learning spaces and the impact on
English learning experience?
2) Is there a strong relationship between effective learning spaces and the impact on
selection of English teaching approaches (i.e. active learning and other collaborative
learning modes)?
36


Methods of Research
Survey based investigations were implemented in the assessment of learning and
teaching modalities and its impact on active language learning. To gather the data on students’
opinion on the impact of the new learning spaces to effective learning for teachers to choose
their methodologies, two sets of 5 point Likert scale electronic based, online surveys for
students and teachers were created.
New questions were added to students’ end-of-semester survey to ask students about the
attributes for learning spaces which include: 1) physical environment: classroom dimensions,
students per teacher ratio, classroom size, technology (projector/lan /Wifi) 2) classroom
furniture: flexible configuration, mobility
The study also took into consideration a view from teachers who were utilizing the new
learning spaces. For the teacher survey, the questions about the attributes for their choices of
teaching methodology were asked. The teacher survey was created for investigating the
perceptions of value and its impact on classroom approaches. This part of the questionnaire
asked teachers about their pedagogical choices such as active learning, group work, pair work,
and other classroom approaches such as project-based learning, and technology-use such as
CALL, Blackboard management system.
The two groups of participants in this study were: a) 1,921 university students who took
an English course in the spring semester of 2017 academic year. The students belonged to 8
colleges, 18 departments both in Liberal Arts and Science fields. b) Twenty teachers from a
total of 43 who were teaching and voluntarily participated in the digital survey in spring
semester of 2017
Findings
For evaluating the students’ perspectives on the learning space satisfaction, two items,
the classroom size and the classroom’s chair were included in the student survey. Students were
asked to rate their satisfaction for their new learning environment. Based on the surveys
administered to 1,931, 88.06% of the 1,707 students who responded to the survey, stated
satisfaction for the new learning space, among them 35.93% revealed that they were very
satisfied with the facilities. It also can be seen in Table 1 that the majority of the students,
87.74% were satisfied with the ergonomically designed mobile chairs in the classroom (Table
1).
Very Satisfied Somewhat not not N/A Total Weighted

satisfied satisfied satisfied satisfied at average
all
a. Classroom 36.93% 37.39% 14.78% 9.78% 1.86% 0.29% 1717 2.03

617 642 253 168 32 5
b. Classroom 34.19% 35.06% 17.47% 9.67% 2.68% 0.93% 1,717 2.09

chairs 487 602 300 46 46 16
Table 1 the students survey results for students’ satisfaction on learning facilities (N=1,717)
Regarding the impacts of learning space on students’ learning experience, the number
of students’ which was 1,512 (N=1,717) or 89.1% of the total number of the students’
indicated somewhat to impact on classroom to their learning. Comparatively to the
satisfactory survey, the impact of classroom chairs was also investigated. The survey revealed
only a few participants were not satisfied with the classroom’s furniture while more than 93%
indicated an impact on flexible seating in the new learning environment impacted their
learning from great to moderate extent (Table 2).
37

Very Satisfied Somewhat not not N/A Total Weighted

satisfied satisfied satisfied satisfied at average
all
a. Classroom 36.93% 37.39% 14.78% 9.78% 1.86% 0.29% 1717 2.03

617 642 253 168 32 5
b. Classroom 34.19% 35.06% 17.47% 9.67% 2.68% 0.93% 1,717 2.09

chairs 487 602 300 46 46 16
Table 2 The impacts of learning space to the students’’ learning experience (N=1,717)
The new learning and teaching modalities also had a marginal significance to teachers’
pedagogical approaches and were reflected in the teacher survey results as seen in Table 3.
From the teacher surveys, whole-class lecture approach was indicated as highly valued by
70%. Only 5% of the teachers mentioned the whole-class lecture as the least valued
pedagogical practice. While group work was highly valued by 95% of the English teachers
and 5% with moderate value, no one marked least valued nor not as valued.
For assessing the impact of learning and teaching environment to the teacher choices
of pedagogical methods, pair work was either highly valued or valued by 100%. All of the
teachers revealed the strong relationship between effective learning spaces and the impact on
selection of English teaching approaches. The active learning method such as project based
learning was both highly valued and valued at 45% and only 10% mentioned this pedagogy
moderate valued (see table 3).
Spring 2017 N= 20 Highly valued----5----------------4----------------3-----------------2---------------1----Least valued
Whole-class lecture 25% 45% 10% 15% 5%

5 9 2 3 1
Group work 70% 25% 5% 0 0

14 5 1
Pair work 70% 30% 0 0 0

14 6
Project based learning 45% 45% 10% 0 0

9 9 2
Learning management system 25% 45% 15% 0 15%

5 9 3 3
Table 3 the impacts of classroom to teachers’ teaching (N=20)
Discussion
In the survey and the investigation, the students’ revealed their satisfaction on the new
learning space in the smaller-sized classrooms which were equipped with the latest
ergonomically designed movable chairs with attached desks, short-range projectors, WiFi,
length-of-the-room whiteboards and speakers. The evidence showed a significant link
between student satisfaction on learning spaces and its impact on their language learning. In
this study, the preponderance number of students’ illustrated the compelling impact of their
learning modalities on their learning experience which is in conjunction with Byers’ (2005)
position. In his research on the empirical evaluation of the transition from traditional to new
generation learning space, he addressed the changes of the learning spaces to become more
“effective and efficient” to students’’ movement through their learning activity and had a
significant effect on the students’ learning (p. 39).
38


The result from the student survey on satisfaction of classroom furniture indicated
that more than 93% of the students thought the ergonomic-friendly chairs had a significant
impact on significantly on their learning. In addition, the ergonomic-friendly chairs made a
compelling effect on the modalities of the 21st century learning such as active and task-based
learning. This flexible seating allowed students to study in pair, in group or as a whole class in
their new learning environment. Kuuskorpi, M. and N. Cabellos González (2011) supported
that the dynamic physical learning environment is needed and the possibility to adapt the class
furniture to different configurations fosters students’ learning. The collation also can be seen
in Alastair’s (2015) study, where he mentioned that there are now “literature that supports and
verifies the benefits of designing and building new learning environments” (p. 74).
The new modalities, mobile furniture and refurbished buildings not only impact
students’ learning but also on teacher’s choice of pedagogy. While the majority of the students
indicated an impact on flexible seating in the new learning environment impacted their
learning, all of the teachers revealed the strong relationship between effective learning spaces,
furniture and the impact on selection of English teaching approaches. This newly renovated
building and the new learning spaces allowed a wider range of learning activities than
previously was possible (Yujobo, Y.J., Chaikul, R., & Hsu, J.,2017). All in all, the new
language classrooms configuration provided best learning environment possible to promote
student active learning as well delivering the pedagogical advantage to teachers.
Conclusion
This study set out to identify a strong relationship between effective learning spaces
and the impact on English learning experience and its relationship between effective learning
spaces and the impact on selection of English teaching approaches. The evidence from student
and teacher surveys reveal the significant link between the effective learning spaces and had
an impact on students’ learning experiences and teachers’ pedagogical teaching approaches.
The research was based on these new renovated learning spaces and the impact that it had on
perceived learning because there had been very little rigorous academic research into the
design and effectiveness of learning environments and there are few researchers that have
linked the relationship on the effective attributes of a classroom to impact on language
learning and teachers’ pedagogies. The results of the study highlighted several key
components related to learning and teaching modalities and its impact on students’’ language
learning namely the students’’ satisfaction of the learning space and classroom facilities and
the impact of learning space to their learning experience. The researchers, educators, schools
and education policy makers could benefit from this study.
Though it appears that the new learning and teaching modalities have an impact on
students’’ active learning and teachers’ choices of pedagogical teaching method, there is still a
need for deep understanding through focus group discussions regarding the effectiveness of
learning environments and how it can enhance students’’ learning, motivation and
achievements. Cleveland and Fisher (2014) stated that the creation of innovative learning
environments encouraged the researchers to study methods for evaluating the effectiveness of
educational facilities. Furthermore, a more detailed research of the relationship between
specific attributes of the learning environments (i.e. aesthetics, furniture, technology, and etc.)
and pedagogies are needed. Moreover, the study of the linkage between the modalities and its
impact on teacher’s teaching approaches should also be further investigated through focus
group discussions. Finally, the continuum of scholarly research through collection of more
data sources by conducting more focused questionnaires in order to utilize the new learning
spaces to its fullest potential.
39

References
Alastair, W. (2015, June 5). Confusing messages: Is the modern learning environment an
example of idealized curricular or disruptive innovation. In W. Imms, B., Cleveland, H.,
Mitcheltree, K., and Fisher & LEaRN (Eds.), TERRAINS 2015 Mapping learning environment
evaluation across the design and education landscape: An international symposium for research
higher degree students. Paper presented at TERRAIN 2015, Melbourne School of Design,
University of Melbourne (pp. 72 - 79). Victoria, Australia: University of Melbourne.
Bonswell, C. and Eison, J. (1991). Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom. Eric
Digests. https://eric.ed.gov/
Bjorkman, B. (2013). English as an Academic Lingua Franca. De Gruyter Mouton. 156-157.
Byers, T. (2015, June 5). The empirical evaluation of the transition from traditional to New
Generation Learning Spaces on teaching and learning. In W. Imms, B. Cleveland, H.
Mitcheltree, K. Fisher & LEaRN (Eds.), TERRAINS 2015 Mapping learning
environment evaluation across the design and education landscape: An international
symposium for research higher degree students. Paper presented at TERRAIN 2015,
Melbourne School of Design, University of Melbourne (pp. 34 - 41). Victoria,
Australia: University of Melbourne.
Cleveland, B. Fisher, K. (2014). The Evaluation of Physical Learning Environments: A Critical
Review of the Literature. Learning Environments Research, 17, 1–28. doi:10.1007/s10984-
013-9149-3.
Kuuskorpi, M. & N. Cabellos González. (2011). The Future of the Physical Learning
Environment: School Facilities that Support the User. CELE Exchange, Centre for Effective
Learning Environments, No. 2011/11, OECD Publishing, Paris
Mastascusa, E., Snyder,W. J, & Hoyt, B. (2011) Effective Instruction for STEM Disciplines:
From Learning Theory to College Teaching. Wiley Imprint. 64.
OECD. (2006). 21st Century Learning Environments, OECD Publishing, Paris.
OECD, 2017. Learning Environments Evaluation Programme (LEEP)
https://www.oecd.org
Partnership for 21st Century Learning. (2007). Framework for 21st Century Learning.
http://www.p21.org/Framework
Paterson, S. (January 15, 2013). P21 on Collaboration, Common Core, and 21st
Century Learning. EdCompass.
Wagner, T. (2008). The Global Achievement Gap: Why even our best schools don’t
reach the new survival skills our children need- and what we can do about it. New York: Basic
Books.
Yang, Z., Becerik-Gerber, B., & Mino, L. (2013). A study on student perceptions of
higher education classrooms: Impact of classroom attributes on student
satisfaction and performance. Building and Environment, 70, 171-188.
Yujobo, Y. J., Chaikul, R., & Hsu, J. (2017). New learning and teaching modalities: The
reinvented learning spaces at ELF Study Hall 2015. The Center for English as a Lingua
Franca Journal, 3, 80-86.
40

ISSN: 2330-1236

It Takes the Whole Village to Bring up a Child: Discipline in

Botswana Schools
Veronica Margaret Makwinja

Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research
Botho University
Gaborone, Botswana
Abstract
Discipline is part of human nature and it provides a structure and guidance for individuals within
societies. Traditionally in Botswana, discipline is instilled in children from a tender age through
teaching them how to be responsible citizens, respect the elders, their peers and themselves as
individuals. Children in various Botswana communities are jointly brought up by relatives,
neighbours and any other member of society who happens to have the interest of children at
heart. Recently Botswana has embraced and emulated different cultures that do not respect the
concept of, “it takes the whole village to bring up a child”. Batswana no longer bring up children
together as a community and this has led to problems of misbehavior at home and in schools.
This concept paper reviews the shared responsibility of bringing up children and the effect this
has on misbehavior in Botswana schools. The Researcher has reviewed literature on child
upbringing in Botswana and other countries and provided an overview of the observed trends
of child rearing in the country. The paper further reviews the traditional ways of shared
responsibility and recommends ways of using the strategies to discipline children is school
better than what is presently happening. This paper is an analysis of literature about discipline
in schools in Botswana.
Keywords: Discipline, Corporal Punishment, Abuse, Community, Human and Children’s

Rights.
41

It Takes the Whole Village to Bring up a Child: Discipline in Botswana Schools

Introduction
Traditionally, Batswana literally held the adage, “It takes a whole village to bring up a child”.
When an elderly person observed any youngster misbehaving, he/she would not hesitate to
punish even before they questioned his/her paternity. Every parent in the community had a right
to discipline any child. The school and the community collaborated in raising a child. This
general societal acceptance reflected the widespread perception that children were the
possessions of their parents, rather than individual human beings with fundamental human
rights (Gradinger, 2005). However, the Batswana parents’ intention was not to deny the children
their rights but thinking it was protection and care. Parents did not hesitate to report
misbehaviour to the school leadership and vice versa. Neighbours cared for each other’s
children and discipline was universal and all children were canned and reprimanded without
any inhibitions. There are proverbs in Setswana that describe the communal care of children
such as, “go tshwarwa ke ntsha pedi ga go thata” (Garagae, 2008), literally meaning that a task
is easy when there is people collaboration.
Sometimes discipline became too severe to a point of abuse. In the traditional courts (kgotla)
culprits were [and still are in some communities] punished severely through canning either
across their bottoms or their backs, so in most instances they would never repeat the same
mistake again. A meeting usually ensues in the traditional court where cases are listened to by
those closest to the chief including the village elders. Arbitrary decisions may be taken and one
who fails to convince the group ends up receiving corporal punishment.
Apart from corporal punishment, children are scolded by either their parents, grandparents,
guardians or neighbours if they step out of line. No child is allowed to be rude or disrespectful
to their elders. There are instances where scolding may include insulting the child leading to
low self -esteem or other social problems. According to the UNICEF Report (2010), “on
average, three in four children between the ages of 2 and 14 were subjected to some kind of
violent discipline, more often psychological than physical” (p. xv).
However, the 21st century has brought along changes that have eroded the community
upbringing of children to more individualized family values. Due to child abuse perpetrated
under the pretense of discipline countries have acceded to various Human and Children Rights’
Acts to protect children from abuse and neglect.
Discipline
Discipline has been there since the origin of mankind. Traditionally, communities set standards,
values, beliefs and norms to be followed and respected. When children are born in these
communities, they abide by the rules and regulations of that particular community. In Botswana
there (were) are sayings, proverbs and idioms which controlled children’s behavior. Not only
did these aspects warn children, but they also shared wisdom, provided advice and was a
learning mechanism. For example, children were wared not to walk backward because their
mothers would fall into a hole. This was meant to warn children against danger since walking
backward would lead to accidents.
Children belonged to the whole community and every elder had the right to discipline any child
who misbehaved. The widespread acceptance can be partially explained by the fact that children
were considered to be “chattels” of their fathers and, consequently of those in whose charge
their parents left them (Gradinger, 2005). Children shared household chores, headed livestock
together and got punished as a group if the livestock destroyed any community member’s crops.
It literally took a whole village to bring up a child. However, things have changed. The rich
42

Makwinja Veronica Margaret
language that was used before to advice children has been forgotten by most African
communities, and modernization has taken over the responsibilities of shared child rearing.
Communities are now isolated and the rule of formal documented Roman Dutch Law provides
the basis for child rearing. In some instances, punishment was confused to be discipline. Some
Batswana parents and teachers used severe punishment as a means to change children’s
behavior and this was condemned internationally leading to the accession of the Children’s
Rights.
Communal upbringing of children

Historically to date, and in some instances, families have been sharing the upbringing of
children. Among the of Menderin of Ethiopia, both the boys and girls run errands, clean the
house, make beds, make fire, prepare food and cook (Pankhurst, Crevello & Tiumelissan, 2016).
The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (1999) also advocates an education
that is directed to processing and strengthening positive African morals, traditional values and
cultures. Batswana treasure education and yearn for a change of lifestyle for their children.
When family members spend more time in the cattle-post [where livestock is kept or the fields
[farming areas]; children are sent to relatives living in villages, towns/cities were better schools
are located. Relatives with better opportunities had or still have the responsibility to care for the
clan’s children, discipline them according to their values, norms and beliefs with the support of
the biological parents.
No one questions the discipline procedures followed by the care takers or guardian. Although
this system tends to be slowly dying off, there are still families dedicated to assist their own
through caring for the children. Children from the host family refer to their bequeathed cousins
as brothers or sisters and there is no discrimination among the children. The children share all
the necessities and are taught and encouraged to respect one another. Older children within the
family are expected to counsel and talk to the younger ones about life in general or even go to
an extent of disciplining them.
Uncles were (are) disciplinarians especially for single female headed families. When the
children misbehaved, the mother would threaten that she would report them to their uncle. If
the uncle was absent, on his return back the guilty would receive their punishment. It could be
denial of what they enjoyed most, or head cattle alone (in most cases chores were shared), stamp
the corn, weed or harvest, or be flogged. The discipline measure would be administered after
some counselling or scolding. If a member of the community is around at the time of
punishment they had the privilege to participate in the process. According to Perrino, Gonzalez,
Pantin & Szapocznik (2000), parents and other adult family members exert considerable
influence as teachers and role models for children through skill building or discipline. It is not
so these days due to the modernization of communities.
Communal child care extends to the time of marriage. In some communities the young couples
discuss their intention to marry with their maternal uncles and aunts who become the middle
person in the negotiations. Sometimes parents are informed by the uncles and aunts about the
procedure for the marriage or are consulted to indicate what they require for the lobola [bride
price]. The uncles and aunts may even get a cut of the bride price or receive gifts from the
groom’s family as a token of appreciation for participating in the upbringing of the bride to be.
Things have changed to some extent. Though sending children to stay with family members in
better resourced areas and better livelihoods, family members are now cautious about leaving
their children with relatives due to the high rates of incest, rape and child abuse. There have
been incidences of sexual, physical and emotional abuse by family members, fathers, brothers,
uncles, cousins and neighbours who are usually viewed as family members, raping young
43


children and at times murdering them.
What is discipline?
Discipline must not be confused with punishment. In our communities, when children are
canned, insulted and broken emotionally, it is viewed as discipline. The term discipline
‘originates from the Latin words discipulus, which means pupil, and disciplina, which means
teaching (Oxford English dictionary, 2018). The term discipline is defined by the Oxford
English Dictionary as "a branch of learning or knowledge." Discipline is teaching, learning and
knowledge, and when pain is inflicted on children there is no guarantee that they will learn and
attain knowledge. The pain experienced may lead to worse behavior, hatred and other social
problems. Corporal punishment is a discipline method in which a supervising adult deliberately
inflicts pain upon a child in response to a child's unacceptable behavior and/or inappropriate
language (Andero & Stewart, 2002).
Types of Discipline
For teaching and learning to take place, there should be a conducive environment that entails
effective classroom management. Teachers can utilize various strategies to manage students’
behaviour and attitudes during teaching and learning. These strategies must be consistent, fair
and impartial to enable the students understand the teachers’ expectations and change their
behaviour for the better. An inconsistent form of discipline leads to confusion and loss of respect
for the teacher. If the teacher is not reliable, the students tend to form some ideas about him/her.
There are various types of discipline that can be used for better classroom management and
child development namely;
Preventative Discipline
Teachers who wish to teach in a better managed environment clearly set expectations,
guidelines and rules for behavior. At the beginning of the school year or term the teacher openly
explain what the students are expected and not expected to do. This proactive move is a form
of intervention to prevent misbehavior before it begins. This provides a non-confrontational
classroom atmosphere in which the students know that there are consequences for their actions.
In Botswana, especially in basic education, the teachers usually write the rules and regulations
on a poster and read them to the students during their orientation period. The poster is displayed
on the wall for the whole year or more as a reminder for the students. However, the orientation
and display of the rules and regulations does not prevent the students from misbehaviour. When
the students misbehave, they may be canned, told to perform hard manual labour or sent out of
class, leading them to missing out on the lessons.
Supportive Discipline
Supportive discipline is when a teacher corrects a student after making a mistake. This provides
students with suggestions and options for correcting their behaviour before any consequences.
At times, teachers can use non-verbal communication. Supportive strategies focus on positive
behavior, resulting in less need for corrective interventions (Kyle & Rogien, n.d). However, at
times, what is expected to be supportive becomes abusive; for example, a teacher may call a
child names and destroy the child’s self-esteem.
Corrective Discipline
When a student continues to make the same error even after repeated attempts at supportive
discipline, this may result in consequences. The consequences must be consistently applied for
them to be effective.
44

Children’s rights in Botswana

Botswana in 2009, repealed and replaced the Children’s Act with a new Act, with a view to
fully domesticate the Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNICEF, 2012). Included in the
new Act is the Bill of Child Rights which guarantees the fundamental rights of the child, and
further ensures the protection of the child from all forms of violence from persons entrusted
with the care of the child.
However, there have been reports in the media, NGOs advocating children’s rights and many
other forums on child abuse in Botswana. Children have been sexually exploited and Childline
Botswana, an NGO, emphasizes that it is a major problem in the country. There is rampant
inter-generational sex in some farming areas where older men working in farms and the
construction industry as labourers take advantage of the children. This exposes the children to
HIV and AIDS infections.
Botswana established a National Children’s Consultative Forum (NCCF) emanating from the
Children’s Act of 2009 (Part VI (34) (1), as an attempt to empower children to influence actions,
processes and decisions that affect them. This forum takes cognizance of the children’s needs
such as their survival, development, protection and participation in all aspects that involve their
lives. The Children’s Act protect children from abuse through corporal punishment.
Causes of Indiscipline in Schools

According to Botha, Marishane, Merwe, van Zyl, & Zengele (2016), disciplinary problems may
arise as a result of internal and external factors. Children may display indiscipline due to various
factors such as hailing from dysfunctional and violent families, living in poverty, using and
exposure to drugs and different forms of abuse.
Some children live with violent parents or guardians, and orphans hosted by extended families
may suffer this abuse more. These children live in abject poverty despite the government rations
and in squatter areas where there is constant smoking and drinking. However, not only children
from poor environments are exposed to drugs. Children from affluent families have access to
lots of money and can purchase the most expensive drugs in the market. Their easy access to
money may lead them to undermine the school authority. Ngwokabuenui (2015) alluded that in
Cameroon, students were insubordinate to school authority and would assault and insult their
teachers, non-academic staff and prefects.
The use of drugs is rampant in Botswana schools. Children use cold syrup and mix it with soda
to become intoxicated. Drug cartels hire boys to push cocaine, marijuana and other drugs in
schools. A Botswana Report of 2008, expressed concern about the rate of drinking among the
youths (Botswana AIDS impact survey III, 2008). This was not a problem before in Botswana,
but since the country is used as a gateway by drug traffickers to neighbouring countries, drug
abuse is becoming the norm for a lot of people in the country.
Discipline in Botswana schools

Formal education was introduced by colonizers and missionaries in Botswana who propagated
corporal punishment. Coming into a society that already believed that “sparing the rod spoiled
the child’, the colonizers fitted well in the strict Botswana customs. For several decades, school
children were canned and punished in different ways such as digging deep holes, cutting trees,
collecting garbage, collecting firewood or soil and sand, cleaning the school yard etc. In some
cases, several children dropped out of school due to severe punishment.
45


Schools in Botswana used [some still do] corporal punishment with the belief that it teaches
children self-control and acceptable behaviour. The then single Ministry of Education stipulated
the size of the stick and the number of strokes to be given to the students. This is a very
controversial issue to date. Corporal punishment is lawful in schools. Article 29 of the
Education Act 1967 provides for the Minister to make regulations to prescribe “the conditions
for the administration of corporal punishment”.
There have been several reports through the media and other sources on indiscipline of children
in Botswana schools. Some students have been abused under the pretext of discipline and bold
ones may retaliate and mishandle their teachers or the perpetrator. According to the Global
Initiative Report on “Corporal Punishment of Children in Botswana” of 2016, corporal
punishment is lawful in schools, and would be administered either by the headmaster [school
head] or other teachers in the presence of the headmaster. “No instrument of punishment other
than a light cane shall be used and no punishment shall exceed 10 strokes with the cane” (p.3).
Male teachers are prohibited from caning girls over 10 years old.
The report continues to explain that in primary schools, corporal punishment is regulated by the
Education (Primary Schools) Regulation of 1980 that punishment shall be administered when
the students have breached a good order or discipline. Those administering the punishment do
so as a means of reforming the pupil; and would not worsen the mental or physical disability a
child might suffer from. The punishment should be administered on the boys’ palms, buttocks
and the back of the legs. For the girls, they would be beaten on their palms and calves. The
pupils would receive 3 strokes and if a child has breached good order or discipline, the
punishment would be given in the presence of other teachers.
In secondary school (grades 10-12) corporal punishment is regulated by the Education

Government and Aided Secondary Schools Regulations 1978. Corporal punishment shall be
administered “only on reasonable grounds and only where it appears that other disciplinary
measures would be inadequate or ineffective in the circumstances of the case” (art. 21). The
headmaster, teacher, boarding master or parent who has been delegated to administer
punishment is the one to administer punishment. Some people may be delegated by the
permanent secretary in special circumstances. According to article 23, corporal punishment
shall be “moderate and reasonable,” and children would be beaten on their palms or across the
buttocks, with a light cane not more than 1 m long and at the thickest end not more than 1 cm
in diameter or with a suitable strap. The maximum strokes would be 5. Similar to primary
schools, a male teacher, except the headmaster, is prohibited form punishing female students.
The schools are expected to keep a record of the punishment inflicted on the children.
It is difficult to fathom how those inflicting the punishment would measure the moderation and
reasonableness of the flogging. One is bound to use all the strength they have despite the size
of the stick and mete out more pain than expected. Sometimes children are punished in rage and
end up being hurt. A teacher may hit a child all over the body or the stick may be thrown at the
child and injure them.
The former Permanent Secretary in the then Ministry of Education and Skills Development
(currently divided into the Ministry of Basic Education and the Ministry of Tertiary Education,
Science and Technology) spoke about intensifying discipline in government schools to improve
poor examinations results. It is important to note the kind of discipline the permanent secretary
was alluding to. Schools cannot punish students for poor performance but need to evaluate the
learning environment to understand the causes of poor performance.
46

Instances of child abuse in the name of discipline in Botswana schools

Researchers have identified several factors that lead children to misbehavior, such as family
issues, the school, and community-based problems. Some children lack attention from their
families and disrupt the teaching to get the attention of the teacher. Others have low self-esteem
and want to be popular as the classroom clown while others’ misbehaviour is a cry for help,
either to express their pain or fear of what happens to them at home. The parents and teachers
in Botswana have a weakness for not being able to openly discuss any social issues with their
children. However, when children misbehave, they get punished without an understanding of
the reasons for the punishment or the consequences of their misbehavior. Children are punished
through flogging, undermining their integrity by either using vulgar language or belittling them.
Below are some of the common ways teachers discipline children in Botswana.
Corporal Punishment
According to Tafa (2002), corporal punishment is part of the penal system in Botswana and he
argues that it is part of a historically embedded cycle of authoritarian coping strategies of
teaching, from schools to colleges of education and back to schools, bequeathed to the country
by colonialism. Children are canned for various reasons and in some instances may get hurt. A
newspaper article by Molefe and Pansiri (2006) covered the story of a primary school child who
was hit on the head with a belt buckle in a Setswana class. Students in a grade 11-12 school
were given 5 lashes for threatening the school authorities following a suicide of one of the boys.
Their parents permitted this punishment to be meted on the students. The boy committed
suicide when the school authorities requested him to bring his parents for discussions about his
fight with another student (Banda). However, corporal punishment is a controversial issue in
Botswana. Childline Botswana, Ditshwanelo (meaning Right) and other stakeholders are
against this form of discipline since it violates the rights of the children.
One teacher in a training programme indicated that their school’s enrollment was over 1000 and
it was difficult to use other means of discipline and that for minor offenses the school resorted
to corporal punishment because it was simpler to administer and solved problems immediately.
Use of Demeaning Language

Some teachers and parents use demeaning language when children misbehave. A child could be
degraded according to their poor performance, physical appearance, economic and social status.
This undermines the child’s integrity and dignity and destroys his/her self-esteem.
Physical Activities
A child may be asked to dig a hole, pick up litter or move a pile of dirt from one spot to another.
At times children are sent out of class while the rest learn. This denies the child the opportunity
to learn and in some cases children take advantage and misbehave in order to have some free
time.
Denial of Feeding
Most of the children in Botswana public school come from poor families and rely on the ration
provided by the schools. When teachers deny children food, it affects their performance.
Ignoring a Child
In some instances, teachers may ignore a child because they are naughty or are termed dull.
This form of punishment makes the child feel unwanted, hopeless and useless. Sometimes
children misbehave because they yearn for attention and hope to attract it through misbehavior.
The teacher may not ask the child any questions or not mark their books or make comments
47


that indicate the child is a trouble maker to the amusement of their peers.
Sending the Child out of the Classroom

Sometimes when children go against the set rules and regulations, they may be sent outside of
the classroom and miss a chance to learn. This happens when a teacher fails to find an alternative
to keep the child busy. Some children complete their work on time and idle while others are still
working. This leads to boredom. There is no provision in a Botswana classroom to provide
interesting and challenging tasks to high achievers. The curriculum is a one size-fit-all.
Reaction of children to discipline

In his study on crime and school violence in Botswana, Matsoga (2003) stated that schools had
no or incomplete records of violence perpetrated by the students. Most of the incidents referred
to in this paper were reviews from newspapers. There have been various occurrences of school
children destroying property, fighting the teachers to avoid corporal punishment, dropout of
school or even committing suicide. In some cases, there have been strikes or students staying
away from classes leading to the destruction of the learning and teaching environment. When
such incidences occur, those deemed as ring leaders would be suspended or expelled from
school. The government has spent large amounts of money in repairing damaged property.
There were cases where parents were required to pay for the damage caused by the student.
What can the Botswana community and teachers do?

The Botswana society is conflicted over the use of corporal punishment as a measure for
discipline. The traditionalists are in support of it while the contemporary society is against it.
The elderly members of the society still uphold the belief of sparing the rod and spoiling the
child”. Various NGOs that advocate the rights of children condemn the use of corporal
punishment and believe there are other ways of disciplining children. Most traditionalists
believe children have become unruly due to abolition of corporal punishment. There are
traditional courts in Botswana that still flog offenders.
Since corporal punishment is controversial there are other ways of curbing indiscipline among
the youths. Batswana have an indigenous system called the kgotla [traditional court] where
meetings, issues concerning community development, disputes or any other issues are discussed
and there is no comment ignored as the saying goes, “mafoko a kgotla mantle otlhe”. This
means any comment made by any member of the community at the traditional court must be
heeded and supported. Communities could use these forums to develop traditional ways and
means of instilling discipline in children without hurting them. There could be counseling
sessions held for the parents who at the moment fail to communicate with their children openly.
The meeting could be a collaboration between the teachers and the parents to enable the parents
appreciate that teachers are their partners, and it is necessary to work together to improve the
behavior of children. At the moment, parental involvement is very low in schools; whether in
rural or urban area, and the teachers lament that parents visit schools during celebrations or
when summoned for the misbehavior of their children. Some parents fail to even visit the
schools to collect their children’s performance reports.
There should be clubs established in schools to encourage peer counselling. There is still a large
number of well-behaved children in schools who could be used to counsel their peers about
good behavior. When children listen to their age mates, they are able to open up to them and
communicate more than when they are in the company of elders.
Parents have formed clusters that work towards community development in both rural and urban
areas. This is another forum to use to develop discipline strategies that are compatible with their
48

norm, beliefs and values. These clusters could be used for meeting children in smaller groups
and listening to their experiences and reasons for misbehavior. It could also be a forum for the
youths of that particular community to share their experiences and work of solutions appropriate
for their age, not just accepting solutions imposed by the elders. Parents could visit schools
more often to check on their children’s performance and assist teachers in the classroom to
appreciate the behavior of their children and the disciplinary strategies the teachers use in the
classroom.
Most Batswana parents find it difficult to open up and discuss sensitive issues with their
children. Parents could talk to their children about life in general and the importance of avoiding
misbehavior in more cordial meetings rather than talking to children after the misbehaviour has
been displayed. They could partner with teachers and provide counselling to their children
especially sharing with the children the values, norms and beliefs that are a foundation of their
culture.
Conclusion
Discipline is part of human development and Batswana believe in docile, well behaved and
respectful children. When the modern child challenges his/her parents or teachers, it comes as
a shock and the elders get frustrated and compare the child to how they themselves behaved as
children. It is difficult to acknowledge that children in these modern times are exposed to
various environments that influence their thinking, beliefs, norms and values. Batswana elders
still want to meet a child they can chastise and correct regardless of whether they are related or
not. There is a wish that things were still as easy as in the past when children belonged to the
whole community. Children nowadays stun and baffle their own parents let alone a stranger.
Teachers are faced with challenges of misbehavior of children and without the support from the
parents in counselling children, teachers tend to ignore some of the behavior displayed by the
children leading to poor performance. Teachers are afraid to talk to children because they are
never sure of their reactions. Teachers have been threatened and beaten by the students. Students
have refused to receive corporal punishment leaving teachers with no alternative but either to
throw them out of class or not assist them in any way.
Disciplining children in schools has become a difficult task especially when teachers fail to find
other alternatives to deal with misbehavior. Schools that were in the past known to perform well
are now failing to meet the set standards of education. The quality of learning in various schools
has plunged since teachers spend more time dealing with misbehavior instead of concentrating
in teaching the students. The concept of the whole community coming together to share the
responsibility of caring for children does not exist anymore. Families have separated and lost
the extended family kinship. There is no longer, “taking the whole village to bring up a child.”
The trend for schools to not keep a record of the disciplinary cases is a serious weakness and
negligence of duty that requires attention. If records are not available for researchers to review,
it insinuates that schools are condoning to the wrong discipline measures perpetrated on the
students. Keeping records would enable the schools identify the recurring misbehavior and
develop appropriate discipline strategies to deal with it.
The parents, teachers, community, chiefs and other leaders require training on dialoguing with
children instead of resorting to corporal or other forms of destructive discipline.
49


References
Andero, A. A. & Stewart, A. (2002). Issues of corporal punishment re-
examined. Journal of Instructional Psychology Publisher. 29 (2), 90-96.
Botha, R.J.N., Marishane, R. N., Merwe, H., van Zyl, A., & Zengele. T. (2016). The effective
management of a school: Towards quality outcomes. Pretoria: Van Schaik publishers.
Central Statistics Office & national AIDS Coordinating Agency. (2008). Botswana AIDS
Impact survey III. Retrieved from http://catalog.ihsn.org
Discipline. (2018). Oxford Dictionary of English. Retrieved from en.oxforddictionaries.com
Faliero, J, Barrington, G. (2002, August 17), Paddling not right choice for disciplining school children.
Tampa Tribune.
Garegae, K. G. (2008). The crisis of student discipline in Botswana schools: an impact of culturally
conflicting disciplinary strategies. Educational Research and Review Vol. 3 (1), 48-55.
Global Initiative to End All (2018, February). 2018 National Report. Corporal punishment of children
in Botswana. Retrieved from http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/
Grandinger, E. (2005). Teaching Children the Right Lesson: Challenging the Use of Physical
Punishment in Canadian Schools. Education Law Journal. 15 (1), 1-30.
Kyle, P., & Rogien, L. (n.d).Classroom management: Supportive strategies. Retrieved from
www.skschools.net/
Matsoga, (2003). Crime and school violence in Botswana secondary education: The case of Moeding
senior secondary school. Retrieved from https://etd.ohiolink.edu
Mokomane. Z. (2012). Role of Families in Social and Economic Empowerment of Individuals. 2012
United Nations Report. Retrieved from www.un.org
Molefe, D. & Pansiri, O. (2006, May 22). Issues in education: Corporal punishment and children’s
rights. Mmegi Newspaper. Retrieved from http://www.mmegi.bw
National Report (2012). 2012 National Report. Botswana: Children's Rights References in the
Universal Periodic Review (Second Cycle). Retrieved from https://www.crin.org/en/
Ngwokabuenui, P. Y. (2015). Students’ indiscipline: Types, causes and possible Solutions: The case of
secondary schools in Cameroon. Journal of Education and Practice, 6 (22), 64-72.
Pankhurst, A., Crevello, G., & Tiumelissan, A. (2016). Children’s work in family and community
contexts: Examples from young lives Ethiopia. Young Lives. Retrieved from
www.younglives.org.uk
Perrino, T., Gonzalez-Soldevilla, A., Pantin, H., & Szapocznik, J. (2000). The role of families in
adolescent HIV prevention: A review. Clinical Child Fam Psychology Review.3(2), 81-96.
Tafa, E. M. (2002). Corporal Punishment: The brutal face of Botswana's authoritarian schools.
Educational Review, 54(1), 33-40).
The African Child Forum. (1999). African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child. Positive
traditional practices/responsibilities of the child: International and regional instrument.
UNICEF (2012). Annual Report. Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2010). Child Disciplinary Practices at Home Evidence
from a Range of Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/
50

ISSN: 2330-1236

Exploring the Application of Mathematical Concepts
Encompassed in Problem through Mutual Evaluation
George Gotoh
Niigata University
The Institute of Education and Student Affairs
Niigata, Japan

Abstract
This paper reports on lesson practice and learning that emphasizes activities to grasp the overall
structure and mathematical concepts of problem by reviewing and exploring the application of
mathematical concepts included in the problem. The purpose is to foster the ability to deeply
understand and apply the mathematical concepts appropriately, by focusing on the importance
of reification of concepts in mathematical problem solving. Regarding the teaching materials
(themes) dealt in the class, problem scenes are set to be able to grab the essence of mathematical
concepts included in the problem and figure them out critically. The results of the analysis of
the problems are clear, although, the validity of the analysis itself and various interpretation of
the results are conceivable. The lesson employs various kinds of activities such as critical
thinking, problem posing, problem making, and so on. For example, critical thinking activities
are composed of ones such as explaining his or her own interpretation, reviewing the process
of analysis based on the interpretation of others, and searching for better analysis and
interpretation. Problem posing activity is changing initial conditions (or scenes) of the problem
and further exploring the modified problem. These activities encourage students to consider
how to apply the main mathematical concepts encompassed in the problem. In the class, these
learning activities were conducted by group work, it was confirmed that mutual evaluation of
the students was effective, such as examination of the process of analysis and various
interpretations in activities like problem making. On the other hand, it was suggested to be also
important to reexamine the matters not enough mentioned by the students' review alone, such
as points to be noted in data analysis.
Keywords: Problem Solving, Reification of Concept, Metacognition, Critical Thinking
51

George Gotoh

Introduction
In mathematics education, there has been many references to the importance of
problem solving and mathematical modeling. And since the 2000s, education for mathematics
literacy has been drawing attention. Especially in modern society where informatization and
globalization are progressing, the necessity of education to allow mathematical knowledge and
concepts to be utilized properly in order to continue to learn throughout life and live as an
autonomous global citizen has been widely recognized (OECD, 2016).
In Japan, students understand basic mathematical knowledge, but their competence of
utilizing mathematics is inadequate. Despite they acquire a certain level of mathematical
contents and problem solving skills, they have low motivation to learn mathematics. Student
have "narrow" and "negative" attitude towards mathematics (Garofalo, 1989; Schoenfeld,
1983). Today, it is important to apply mathematics to daily circumstances, and to interpret
problems of social life mathematically. Through learning with emphasis on utilization,
modification of their "inactive" perspective on mathematics is needed.
On the other hand, just knowing mathematical knowledge and concepts is not enough
for using mathematics. For example, it has been pointed out that there is a big difference
between understanding and using mathematical concepts. Mathematical concepts have
operational and structural outlook. "What one actually sees in them depends on the requirements
of the problem to which they are applied. It depends on what one is able to perceive and
prepared to notice." (Sfard & Linchevski, 1994). That is, in order to properly apply concept, it
is necessary to grasp the overall structure of the problem and to recognize mathematical
concepts included in the problem. Learning how to grasp and apply concepts through come-
and-go between operational and structural outlook of mathematical concepts is supposed to be
important.
Also, cognitive studies on mathematical problem solving have found that knowledge
and concepts (mathematical resources), strategies, metacognition, and even contexts are
important elements to the formation of belief about mathematics (Schoenfeld, 1992). Solving
problem mathematically means to read and understand given conditions and assumptions for
solving problems, select appropriate strategies according to the context of the problem, execute
the calculation accurately. In addition, it is necessary to perform complicated processes
appropriately, such as examine whether the obtained solution is correct, wrong or insufficient,
consider what is the problem, when needed. These things suggest the importance of fostering
the ability to embody mathematical concept as well as metacognitive ability.
In this way, the importance of the ability to objectify and manipulate mathematical
concepts included in the problem and that of metacognitive ability to monitor and control the
solution processes by oneself has been mentioned for a long time, but investigative studies and
educational researches on these theme are far from enough. One of the reasons why these efforts
are not spreading widely is seemed that a practical framework for verification is not presented
and clear. In each lesson, it is necessary not only to clarify the purpose, content and method of
the lesson, but also to maintain the consistency of them. So, presenting a viewpoint for teaching
material development and points of learning activity (not only introducing teaching materials
and activities) etc. need to be set concretely so as to be consistent with the purpose. In this
paper, I present the points of practicing lessons that focus on reification of mathematical
concepts but also metacognitive abilities, and considering the effectiveness of this lesson by
analyzing student comments.
Lesson Design and Practice

The purpose of this class is, throughout the class, to analyze the mathematical attributes
of the problem and to develop the ability to understand the essence and structure of the problem.
So the class provides opportunities to revise viewpoints and thinking about mathematics of your
own through lectures and exercises from various perspectives such as problem analysis,
52

Exploring the Application of Mathematical Concepts Encompassed in Problem through Mutual
Evaluation
philosophy, data analysis, mathematical modeling. By doing this, the class also aims to change
student's stance from mathematics learners to mathematics users. Undergraduates from 1 to 4
years (30 in total) took this class. The affiliation of the students was varied, for example, the
Faculty of Science, the Faculty of Agriculture, Humanities and Education Faculties.
In the case introduced here, especially, the purpose is to foster the ability to deeply
understand mathematical concepts and apply them appropriately. The author conducted a lesson
focusing on activities to grasp the overall structure and mathematical concept of the problem
by examining and applying mathematical concepts included in the problem, i.e., paying
attention to the importance of reification of concepts in mathematical problem solving.
One of the focuses of this case is examining the context of the problem dealt in the class.
In development of teaching materials, it is important that problem scenes are set to be able to
grab the essence of mathematical concepts included in the problem and figure them out
critically. And the results of the analysis of the problems are clear, although, the validity of the
analysis itself and various interpretation of the results are conceivable is also important. In this
way, it will be easier to identify and examine the main concepts of the problem by directly
presenting and considering mathematical matters (formula, solutions, concepts, etc.).
Another focus is to have students examine how key concepts are utilized and applied.
So, learning activities are organized to encourage students to consider how to apply the main
mathematical concepts encompassed in the problem. In particular, the following activities are
set; explaining his or her own interpretation, reviewing the process of his or her own analysis
based on others' interpretations (opinions), searching for better analysis and interpretation,
changing initial conditions of the problem, further exploring the modified problem. Then, it is
expected that mathematical resources (mathematical knowledge and concepts) will be learned
through application to actual scenes or similar ones by utilizing them.
Example 1: Data analysis (correlation)

Problem
Let's analyze the data yourself. You may search and use the data. Please use one or more of
the following to analyze.
[Average, median, mode, variance, standard deviation, correlation coefficient]
Please briefly describe "purpose of analysis", "data used", "analysis method", "analysis result".
Flow
> Please check your analysis first.
> Next, in the group, let's explain your analysis content one by one. Other members ask
questions such as unknown points or doubts. Also, point out what you think is good or what
you think is better to improve.
> Let's do this in order.
> Finally, please look back on your analysis.
Example investigated by students

> Whether earthquake countermeasure in Japan is effective or not.
> Correlation between happiness level and GDP in the top 20 countries of happiness ranking.
> Relationship between average temperature and ice cream consumption.
> What kind of change is seen in Japanese academic ability.
53

George Gotoh

Relationship between as following;

> Average score and height in the basketball league
> Average salary and average life expectancy
> Rice consumption and wheat consumption
> Umbrella expenditure and precipitation
> Annual income and age
Student’s comments (excerpt)

> When considering the correlation coefficient, I thought that it is necessary to look back
whether it really correlates with each other.
> I felt that I could see more relationships when I increased the number of parameters.
> The definition of the value to be compared was unclear and the data was ambiguous.
> I thought it would be better to study the relationship between age and annual income by
occupation and age.
> Judgment of outliers etc. was not very precise, I thought that it is necessary to examine
more accurately.
> When I looked at the table it seemed to be a curved correlation and I thought it was
important to draw scatter plot.
> There were also many parts that I do not know by correlation alone.
> I felt it was more difficult to analyze the data correctly than I imagined.
Example 2: Problem making (ingenuity of calculation)

Problem
Let's create simple problems related to ingenuity of calculations with reference to the example
and practice we worked on. As a procedure, first write an idea (subject matter) and write a
problem (set a scene) that will lead to that formula. Anything is OK as long as it relates to
ingenuity of calculation.
Example:
[Subject] factorization; a2 - b2 = (a + b) (a - b)
[Expression you want to derive] 652 - 352 = (65 + 35) (65 - 35)
[Problem statement] ···
[Answer] ···
Flow
> First of all, let's consider what kind of problem you can make yourself.
> Next, in the group, share opinions and create one problem.
> And please present the problem your group created.
> Finally, on the problems other groups created, please write what you think is good or what
you think is better to improve.
Example of problems created by students

(1) Bowling pin
I am going to arrange 100 rows of bowling pins. How many in total are needed?
(The solution of this problem is sum of arithmetic progression.)
(2) The face of Anpanman*

Anpanman gives half of the face to the child whenever he meets a child. If he met 10
children, how much face he has remained?
(The solution of this problem is setting up and calculation of formula of geometric
progression.)
* Japanese anime character; the head is made of bread containing bean paste, and gives
54

Exploring the Application of Mathematical Concepts Encompassed in Problem through Mutual
Evaluation
part of face (bread) to hungry person.
Student’s comments (excerpt)

> I thought that most groups created problems pertaining to everyday life, and that their idea
were amazing.
> There was humor in the problem sentence and it was fun.
> It was good to change the example well and create problems.
> It was fresh to tackle a problem by replacing them with concrete ones.
> The idea of changing example from square to cube or changing it for everyday life was
good.
> It is good to pick up real things (like Earth and mantle), but I think that there are many
people who do not know the value, too large number.
Findings
In the case introduced above, the focus is on objectification of concepts in
mathematical problem solving, a critical scrutiny of context setting, and student's review. This
class aimed to cultivate ability and metacognitive one to embody the concept encompassed in
the problem by examining the main mathematical concepts of the problem as a target of
consideration and the application (way of being used) of the concept and reviewing these
activities.
Therefore, I set a context in which thinking about application of the concept leads to
capturing the essence of the problem. And problems prepared are such that the solution method
and result are clear, but various interpretations of the analysis and the examination of the
validity of the problem created by students are conceivable. Activities such as critical thinking
and problem posing were done by group work.
Looking at student's comments, in [Example 1: Data analysis], it can be seen that
various awareness has occurred by students' mention to other factors or (re) examination of the
process of analysis. Besides, in [Example 2: Problem making], the conditions of "good
problem" were concretely pointed out, by comparing and examining problems made by other
groups and reviewing his or her own problem.
For example, the comments below focus on other elements; "We need to turn our
attention to other parts that cannot be seen with data alone.", " There is a possibility that the
analysis result may change greatly simply by changing view of data collected and combination
of data." The comments below also refer to reexamination of analysis; "There were problems
such as lack of data and whether truly the data was correctly analyzed.", "I examined whether
the given data was correct and whether it was really correct to compare the two factors."
This means that students could analyze the problem structurally by critically
considering the mathematical concepts involved in the problem and the process of applying
them, making it possible to consider better solutions and similar questions. For this reason, a
level of certain achievements was observed in the reification of mathematical concepts and
arousal of critical thinking. In this sense, mutual evaluation by students is effective in examining
the process of analysis and interpreting variously the problem made.
The effectiveness of this case was suggested, but this case is still a trial stage and
further practice needs to be repeated. It was suggested to be also important to reexamine the
matters not enough mentioned by the students' review alone such as points to be noted in data
analysis. For example, with regard to notes on correlation analysis, there is room for
consideration of countermeasures to points not sufficiently mentioned by students alone, such
as supplementing or commenting on points not noticed only through group work. As for the
effectiveness of the lesson, verification through detailed comparison before and after class is
also important.
55

George Gotoh

References
Garofalo, J. (1989). Beliefs and their influence on mathematical performance.
Mathematics Teacher, 82, 502-505.
OECD. (2016). PISA 2015 assessment and analytical framework: Science, reading, mathematic
and financial literacy. OECD Publishing.
Schoenfeld, A. H. (1983). Beyond the purely cognitive: Belief systems, social cognitions, and
metacognitions as driving forces in intellectual performance.
Cognitive Science, 7, 329-363.
Schoenfeld, A. H. (1992). Learning to think mathematically: Problem solving, metacognition,
and sense-making in mathematics. In Grouws, D (Ed.), Handbook for Research on
Mathematics Teaching and Learning. 334-370. NY: MacMillan.
Sfard, A. & Linchevski, L. (1994). The gain and the pitfalls of reification - The case of algebra.
Educational Studies in Mathematics, 26, 191-228.
56

Gals17 CP

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Gals17 CP

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

GLOBAL

ACTIVE LEARNING SUMMIT

National Olympic Youth Memorial Center

21st Century Academic Forum

Gap Analysis Between External and Internal Profile

Daisy Ade Riany Diem

2013 - Bulky Agent

Table 1: PT. X Product Portofolio (2016)

Medium-scale or large-scale businesses are increasingly aware of the importance of

Strategic management is one crucial factor in improving the existence of an

Figure 1: Strategic Marketing Plus 2000 (Kartajaya, 2002)

Competitive Setting Profile (CSP)

Company Alignment Profile (CAP)

Calculating Competitive Setting Profile (CSP)

With RS = 0.8, the assessment standard is as follows:

1 - 1,8 : stable (2C)

The CSP charging guidelines can be seen in Table 2.

Competitive Stable Interupted Complicated Sophiticated Chaos

Customer (C1) Buyer Con-sumer Custo-mer Client Partner

Competitor (C3) None Mild Strong Wild Invisible

Change (C4) None Gradual Continuous Discontinuous Suprising

Table 2: Competitive Setting Profile (Umar, 2013)

Calculating Company Alignment Profile (CAP)

1 - 1.8 : No Marketing (2C)

The CAP scoring guide can be seen in Table 3 below:

1 1,8 2,6 3,4 4,2 5,0

Targeting Everyone Suitable ones Chosen ones A few good Someone

Available Buffer Place Venue Cost

Calculating The Gap Between External and Internal Profile

Table 5: Competitor (C3) Audit

C4 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 Average Std. Dev

Table 6: Change Driver (C4) Audit

Internal Profile (Company Alignment Profile)

C2 R1 R3 Average Std. Dev

Table 7: Company (C2) Audit

Gap Analysis between External and Internal Profile of PT. X

Do You Play Tennis? Aristotle’s Eudaimonia as Key to

Keywords: Eudaimonia, Aristotle, Performance Management, Knowledge

Eudaimonia, Techne and Phronesis

Applying Aristotle’s Natural Law Virtue Theory: Case Studies

Case Study: “Catherine the great”

Case Study: “Emperor Constantine”

Case Study: “Michael Phelps”

Case Study: “Jeff Bezos and his old sister”

Case Study: “C.E.O.’s son, Boston College,” ak.a. “Andre Agassi”

Case Study: “C.E.O.’S son, Florida State University”

Case Study: “Plato, the philosopher”

Case Study: “Alexander the great”

Investigating Students’ Motivation Toward Small-group

Keywords: Small-group learning, Motivation, Active learning, Expectancy-value theory

Grade level Sex

Results and Discussion

Frequency Number Percentage

Overall Male Female

Differences between Frequency Groups

Factor Frequency M SD F Post Hoc

Table 4 F-test Results Comparing Different Frequency Groups in terms of Motivation

Factor Achiever M SD F Post Hoc

Implications and Recommendations

Researching Learning and Teaching Modalities and its

Rasami Chaikul and Yuri Jody Yujobo

Keywords: Active Learning, Learning Spaces, Curriculum Development, Learning

Introduction on Learning and Teaching Modalities