Zeros of Polynomials

and Inverse Functions

At the end of this lecture, a student must be able to:

Relate the zeros of a polynomial with solving equations and

factoring
Use the rational zero test to list down possible zeros of a
polynomial
Determine the inverse of a function (if it exists)
Recognize one-to-one functions
Obtain the domain, range, and graph of the inverse function
RECAP:
Given polynomial function p(x) with real coefficients of
degree n:
• ri is a zero of p(x) ⇔ p(ri ) = 0 ⇔ x − ri is a factor of
p(x)
• p(x) has exactly n zeros (counting multiplicities):

p(x) = an (x − r1 )m1 (x − r2 )m2 ...(x − rk )mk

• If x − (a + bi) is a factor, then so is x − (a − bi).

• p(x) is a product of linear and quadratic factors with
real coefficients.
• If p(x) has odd degree, one of the zeros is a real
number.
 Real Zeros of a Polynomial

Let p(x) be a polynomial function with real

coefficients with domain R.

The following are equivalent:

1. finding all real zeros of p(x)
2. obtaining all the real solutions of the
equation p(x) = 0
3. finding the x-intercepts of the graph of p(x)
4. factoring p(x) into linear and quadratic
factors with real coefficients
 Complex Zeros of a Polynomial

Let p(x) be a polynomial function with complex

coefficients with domain C.
The following are equivalent:

1. finding all complex zeros of p(x)

2. factoring p(x) into linear factors with
complex coefficients
3. obtaining all the complex solutions of the
equation p(x) = 0
Rational Zero Test
Given a polynomial with only integer coefficients (with
an 6= 0)

p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 ,

p p
if is a zero of P (x) and p and q are integers such that
q q
is in lowest terms, then p is a factor of a0 and q is a factor
of an .
Note:
1. If p is a not factor of a0 and q not a factor of an then pq
is not a zero of P (x).
2. The test gives a finite set of rational numbers as
“candidate zeros”.
3. The test does not give all the zeros of the polynomial,
as polynomials may have irrational zeros, and
imaginary zeros.
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution:
First, we list all possible rational zeros of the polynomial
given by the Rational Zero Test.
p : ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6
q : ±1, ±2
p 1 3
: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6, ± , ±
q 2 2
Use synthetic division to determine which are indeed zeros
of the polynomial. Try 1:
2 1 − 13 6
1
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution:
First, we list all possible rational zeros of the polynomial
given by the Rational Zero Test.
p : ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6
q : ±1, ±2
p 1 3
: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6, ± , ±
q 2 2
Use synthetic division to determine which are indeed zeros
of the polynomial. Try 1:
2 1 − 13 6
1
2
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution:
First, we list all possible rational zeros of the polynomial
given by the Rational Zero Test.
p : ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6
q : ±1, ±2
p 1 3
: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6, ± , ±
q 2 2
Use synthetic division to determine which are indeed zeros
of the polynomial. Try 1:
2 1 − 13 6
1 2
2
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution:
First, we list all possible rational zeros of the polynomial
given by the Rational Zero Test.
p : ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6
q : ±1, ±2
p 1 3
: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6, ± , ±
q 2 2
Use synthetic division to determine which are indeed zeros
of the polynomial. Try 1:
2 1 − 13 6
1 2
2 3
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution:
First, we list all possible rational zeros of the polynomial
given by the Rational Zero Test.
p : ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6
q : ±1, ±2
p 1 3
: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6, ± , ±
q 2 2
Use synthetic division to determine which are indeed zeros
of the polynomial. Try 1:
2 1 − 13 6
1 2 3
2 3
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution:
First, we list all possible rational zeros of the polynomial
given by the Rational Zero Test.
p : ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6
q : ±1, ±2
p 1 3
: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6, ± , ±
q 2 2
Use synthetic division to determine which are indeed zeros
of the polynomial. Try 1:
2 1 − 13 6
1 2 3
2 3 − 10
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution:
First, we list all possible rational zeros of the polynomial
given by the Rational Zero Test.
p : ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6
q : ±1, ±2
p 1 3
: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6, ± , ±
q 2 2
Use synthetic division to determine which are indeed zeros
of the polynomial. Try 1:
2 1 − 13 6
1 2 3 − 10
2 3 − 10
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution:
First, we list all possible rational zeros of the polynomial
given by the Rational Zero Test.
p : ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6
q : ±1, ±2
p 1 3
: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6, ± , ±
q 2 2
Use synthetic division to determine which are indeed zeros
of the polynomial. Try 1:
2 1 − 13 6
1 2 3 − 10
2 3 − 10 −4
1 is not a zero of the polynomial.
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution:
First, we list all possible rational zeros of the polynomial
given by the Rational Zero Test.
p : ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6
q : ±1, ±2
p 1 3
: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6, ± , ±
q 2 2
Use synthetic division to determine which are indeed zeros
of the polynomial. Try -1:
2 1 − 13 6
−1
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution:
First, we list all possible rational zeros of the polynomial
given by the Rational Zero Test.
p : ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6
q : ±1, ±2
p 1 3
: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6, ± , ±
q 2 2
Use synthetic division to determine which are indeed zeros
of the polynomial. Try -1:
2 1 − 13 6
−1
2
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution:
First, we list all possible rational zeros of the polynomial
given by the Rational Zero Test.
p : ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6
q : ±1, ±2
p 1 3
: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6, ± , ±
q 2 2
Use synthetic division to determine which are indeed zeros
of the polynomial. Try -1:
2 1 − 13 6
−1 −2
2
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution:
First, we list all possible rational zeros of the polynomial
given by the Rational Zero Test.
p : ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6
q : ±1, ±2
p 1 3
: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6, ± , ±
q 2 2
Use synthetic division to determine which are indeed zeros
of the polynomial. Try -1:
2 1 − 13 6
−1 −2
2 −1
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution:
First, we list all possible rational zeros of the polynomial
given by the Rational Zero Test.
p : ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6
q : ±1, ±2
p 1 3
: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6, ± , ±
q 2 2
Use synthetic division to determine which are indeed zeros
of the polynomial. Try -1:
2 1 − 13 6
−1 −2 1
2 −1
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution:
First, we list all possible rational zeros of the polynomial
given by the Rational Zero Test.
p : ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6
q : ±1, ±2
p 1 3
: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6, ± , ±
q 2 2
Use synthetic division to determine which are indeed zeros
of the polynomial. Try -1:
2 1 − 13 6
−1 −2 1
2 −1 − 12
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution:
First, we list all possible rational zeros of the polynomial
given by the Rational Zero Test.
p : ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6
q : ±1, ±2
p 1 3
: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6, ± , ±
q 2 2
Use synthetic division to determine which are indeed zeros
of the polynomial. Try -1:
2 1 − 13 6
−1 −2 1 12
2 −1 − 12
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution:
First, we list all possible rational zeros of the polynomial
given by the Rational Zero Test.
p : ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6
q : ±1, ±2
p 1 3
: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6, ± , ±
q 2 2
Use synthetic division to determine which are indeed zeros
of the polynomial. Try -1:
2 1 − 13 6
−1 −2 1 12
2 −1 − 12 18
−1 is not a zero of the polynomial.
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution (cont.):
Try 2.
2 1 − 13 6
2
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution (cont.):
Try 2.
2 1 − 13 6
2
2
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution (cont.):
Try 2.
2 1 − 13 6
2 4
2
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution (cont.):
Try 2.
2 1 − 13 6
2 4
2 5
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution (cont.):
Try 2.
2 1 − 13 6
2 4 10
2 5
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution (cont.):
Try 2.
2 1 − 13 6
2 4 10
2 5 −3
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution (cont.):
Try 2.
2 1 − 13 6
2 4 10 −6
2 5 −3
Example: Factor completely: 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6.
Solution (cont.):
Try 2.
2 1 − 13 6
2 4 10 −6
2 5 −3 0
The remainder is 0; hence, 2 is a zero of the polynomial.
Thus, 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6 = (x − 2)(2x2 + 5x − 3).
The other factor is already quadratic, which we can factor.
We get

2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6 = (x − 2)(x + 3)(2x − 1).

 Example
Find the solution set of 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9 = 0.
Solution:
Let p(x) = 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9.
Possible Rational Zeros:
p : ±1, ±3, ±9
q : ±1, ±3
p 1
: ±1, ±3, ±9, ±
q 3
Try 1.
3 17 22 −3 9
1 3 20 42 39
3 20 42 39 48
1 is not a zero of the polynomial.
 Example
Find the solution set of 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9 = 0.
Solution (cont.):
Let p(x) = 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9.
Possible Rational Zeros:
p : ±1, ±3, ±9
q : ±1, ±3
p 1
: ±1, ±3, ±9, ±
q 3
Try −3.
3 17 22 −3 9
−3
 Example
Find the solution set of 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9 = 0.
Solution (cont.):
Let p(x) = 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9.
Possible Rational Zeros:
p : ±1, ±3, ±9
q : ±1, ±3
p 1
: ±1, ±3, ±9, ±
q 3
Try −3.
3 17 22 −3 9
−3
3
 Example
Find the solution set of 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9 = 0.
Solution (cont.):
Let p(x) = 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9.
Possible Rational Zeros:
p : ±1, ±3, ±9
q : ±1, ±3
p 1
: ±1, ±3, ±9, ±
q 3
Try −3.
3 17 22 −3 9
−3 −9
3
 Example
Find the solution set of 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9 = 0.
Solution (cont.):
Let p(x) = 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9.
Possible Rational Zeros:
p : ±1, ±3, ±9
q : ±1, ±3
p 1
: ±1, ±3, ±9, ±
q 3
Try −3.
3 17 22 −3 9
−3 −9
3 8
 Example
Find the solution set of 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9 = 0.
Solution (cont.):
Let p(x) = 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9.
Possible Rational Zeros:
p : ±1, ±3, ±9
q : ±1, ±3
p 1
: ±1, ±3, ±9, ±
q 3
Try −3.
3 17 22 −3 9
−3 −9 − 24
3 8
 Example
Find the solution set of 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9 = 0.
Solution (cont.):
Let p(x) = 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9.
Possible Rational Zeros:
p : ±1, ±3, ±9
q : ±1, ±3
p 1
: ±1, ±3, ±9, ±
q 3
Try −3.
3 17 22 −3 9
−3 −9 − 24
3 8 −2
 Example
Find the solution set of 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9 = 0.
Solution (cont.):
Let p(x) = 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9.
Possible Rational Zeros:
p : ±1, ±3, ±9
q : ±1, ±3
p 1
: ±1, ±3, ±9, ±
q 3
Try −3.
3 17 22 −3 9
−3 −9 − 24 6
3 8 −2
 Example
Find the solution set of 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9 = 0.
Solution (cont.):
Let p(x) = 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9.
Possible Rational Zeros:
p : ±1, ±3, ±9
q : ±1, ±3
p 1
: ±1, ±3, ±9, ±
q 3
Try −3.
3 17 22 −3 9
−3 −9 − 24 6
3 8 −2 3
 Example
Find the solution set of 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9 = 0.
Solution (cont.):
Let p(x) = 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9.
Possible Rational Zeros:
p : ±1, ±3, ±9
q : ±1, ±3
p 1
: ±1, ±3, ±9, ±
q 3
Try −3.
3 17 22 −3 9
−3 −9 − 24 6 −9
3 8 −2 3
 Example
Find the solution set of 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9 = 0.
Solution (cont.):
Let p(x) = 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9.
Possible Rational Zeros:
p : ±1, ±3, ±9
q : ±1, ±3
p 1
: ±1, ±3, ±9, ±
q 3
Try −3.
3 17 22 −3 9
−3 −9 − 24 6 −9
3 8 −2 3 0

So, 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9 = (x + 3)(3x3 + 8x2 − 2x + 3).

 Example
Find the solution set of 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9 = 0.
Solution (cont.):
Find the zeros of the other factor 3x3 + 8x2 − 2x + 3.
Its possible rational zeros are:
p : ±1, ±3
q : ±1, ±3
p
q
: ±1, ±3
Try −3.
3 8 −2 3
−3 −9 3 −3
3 −1 1 0
Thus, −3 is a zero of the original p(x) with multiplicity 2.
Hence, 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9 = (x + 3)(x + 3)(3x2 − x + 1).
 Example
Find the solution set of 3x4 + 17x3 + 22x2 − 3x + 9 = 0.
Solution (cont.):
We have
(x + 3)(x + 3)(3x2 − x + 1) = 0.

x = −3 or 3x2 − x + 1 = 0.
Using the quadratic formula,
p √
−(−1) ± (−1)2 − 4(3)(1) 1 ± 11i
x= =
2(3) 6
Therefore, the solution set is
( √ √ )
1 + 11i 1 − 11i
−3, , .
6 6
 Inverse Functions

Let
1 1
f (x) = 2x + 1, and g(x) = x − .
2 2
Observe that
1 1
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(2x + 1) = (2x + 1) − = x,
2 2
   
1 1 1 1
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f x− =2 x− + 1 = x.
2 2 2 2
 Inverse Functions
Definition
Two functions f and g are inverse functions
of each other if:
(f ◦ g)(x) = x for all x ∈ dom g, AND
(g ◦ f )(x) = x for all x ∈ dom f .

Note:
1. We write g = f −1 and f = g −1.
2. (f −1 ◦ f )(x) = x for all x ∈ dom f
(f ◦ f −1)(x) = x for all x ∈ dom f −1
Example: f (x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 12 x − 1
2
are inverse
functions of each other.

Thus, f −1 (x) = 12 x − 1
2
and g −1 (x) = 2x + 1.

Does every function have an inverse

function?
 One-to-One Functions
Definition
A function f is said to be one-to-one if for
all a, b ∈ dom f with a 6= b, f (a) 6= f (b).
Different elements of dom f have different images
under f
f g
a1 b1 a1 b1
a2 b2 a2 b2
a3 b3 a3 b3
a4 b4 a4 b4
one-to-one not one-to-one
 f inverse mapping
a1 b1 b1 a1
a2 b2 b2 a2
a3 b3 b3 a3
a4 b4 b4 a4

one-to-one function
 g inverse mapping
a1 b1 b1 a1
a2 b2 b2 a2
a3 b3 b3 a3
a4 b4 b4 a4

not one-to-one not a function

Theorem
A function f has an inverse function if
and only if f is a one-to-one function.
f f −1
a1 b1 b1 a1
a2 b2 b2 a2
a3 b3 b3 a3
a4 b4 b4 a4

1. If f (a) = b, then f −1 (b) = a.

That is (a, b) ∈ f precisely when (b, a) ∈ f −1 .
2. dom f −1 = ran f
ran f −1 = dom f
Example: Let f (x) = x2 + 1. Does f have an inverse
function?
Solution:

Is f one-to-one?

Note that f (1) = 2 and f (−1) = 2. Since two different

elements of dom f have the same image, f is not one-to-one.

f has no inverse
 Finding f −1
Let f be a one-to-one function. To find f −1 :

Example
y = f (x) = 2x + 1

1. Interchange x and y to
get x = f (y). x = 2y + 1

2. Solve for y in terms of

x−1
x to get y = f −1 (x). y=
2

f −1 (x) = 12 x − 1
2
 √
Example: Find g −1 if g(x) = 3
x + 1.
Solution:
√
y = 3x+1
√
x = 3y+1
√
3 y = x−1
y = (x − 1)3

g −1 (x) = (x − 1)3
 x+1
Example: Find the range of f (x) = .
x−2
Solution: Note that ran f = dom f −1 . We obtain f −1 first:
x+1
y =
x−2
y+1
x =
y−2
x(y − 2) = y + 1
xy − 2x = y + 1
xy − y = 2x + 1
y(x − 1) = 2x + 1
2x + 1
y =
x−1
2x + 1
f −1 (x) =
x−1
Therefore, ran f = dom f −1 = R \ {1}.
Example: Let f (x) = x2 + 1. Does f have an inverse
function?
Another Solution: We can try and find f −1 (x):

y = x2 + 1
x = y2 + 1
y2 = x − 1
√
y =± x−1

The last equation does not represent a function.

√
For example, when x = 5, y = ± 5 − 1 = ±2.
 Horizontal Line Test
Theorem
A function f is one-to-one if and only if
any horizontal line intersects the graph of
f in at most one point.
Examples:
√
f (x) = x + 1 f (x) = |x| f (x) = 3
x

one-to-one not one-to-one one-to-one

Example: Let f (x) = x2 + 1. Does f have an inverse
function?
Another Solution:

Is f one-to-one?

The graph of f (x) = x2 + 1 is an upward parabola with

vertex at (0, 1), it fails the horizontal line test. Hence, f is
not one-to-one.

f has no inverse
Recall: If f −1 exists, then (a, b) ∈ f precisely
when (b, a) ∈ f −1

y = f (x)
= b+a
x2 =11(x − a+b
y`⊥−
: slope 2 )
(a, b)

( a+b b+a
2 , 2 y )
= f −1 (x)
(b, a)

b−a
slope −1
a−b
The graph of f −1 is the reflection of the graph of
f about the line with equation y = x.

√
f (x) = 2x + 1 g(x) = 3 x + 1
f −1 (x) = 12 x − 21 g −1 (x) = (x − 1)3
The graph of f −1 is the reflection of the graph of
f about the line with equation y = x.

√
f (x) = 2x + 1 g(x) = 3 x + 1
f −1 (x) = 12 x − 21 g −1 (x) = (x − 1)3
 Restriction of Domain

If f is not one-to-one, we may restrict its domain such that

f is one-to-one on the restriction. The resulting function
has an inverse.
Example: f (x) = x2 + 1.
f is not one-to one on
R,
 Restriction of Domain

If f is not one-to-one, we may restrict its domain such that

f is one-to-one on the restriction. The resulting function
has an inverse.
Example: f (x) = x2 + 1.
Since f is not one-to one on
R, we restrict dom f to
[0, ∞).
x = y 2 + 1, y ≥ 0
y2 = √x − 1, y ≥ 0
y√= ± x − 1, y ≥ 0
y = x − 1 since y ∈ [0, ∞)
√
f −1 (x) = x − 1
 Restriction of Domain

If f is not one-to-one, we may restrict its domain such that

f is one-to-one on the restriction. The resulting function
has an inverse.
Example: f (x) = x2 + 1.
Since f is not one-to one on
R, we restrict dom f to
[0, ∞).
x = y 2 + 1, y ≥ 0
y2 = √x − 1, y ≥ 0
y√= ± x − 1, y ≥ 0
y = x − 1 since y ∈ [0, ∞)
√
f −1 (x) = x − 1
Recap:
Relate the zeros of a polynomial with solving equations and
factoring

Use the rational zero test to list down possible zeros of a

polynomial

Determine the inverse of a function (if it exists)

Recognize one-to-one functions

Obtain the domain, range, and graph of the inverse function

 Exercises:
1. Solve for all (including irrational and complex roots if any)
x in the equation 27x4 + 27x3 − 6x2 − 2x + 4 = 0.
2. Determine if each function is one-to-one. If not, explain
why.

1. {(2, 3), (3, 5), (5, 7)} 2. {(x, y) | y = |x + 2|}

3. Determine whether the given pair are inverses of each

other.
1
1. f (x) = 20 − 5x, 2. f (x) = x−3 ,
g(x) = −0.2x + 4 g(x) = 3 + x1

4. Give the domain and range of the following functions and

their inverses.
√
1. f (x) = 2x − 3 2. x 7−→ x−1
5−x