FLUID MECHANICS 3 - LECTURE 1

BASIC EQUATIONS AND THEOREM IN THE

THEORY OF IDEAL FLUID FLOWS
In this lecture, we recapitulate main equations and theorems of Fluid Mechanics, we have learnt
in the course of Fluid Mechanics I.

Differential equation of the mass conservation

Basic (conservative) form


t    (  υ)  0
Other (equivalent) forms

D
0  t    (  υ)  
t   υ    υ     υ
Dt
D

Dt
For a stationary (steady) flow …

 (  υ)  υ    υ  0
Equation of motion of and ideal fluid (Euler Equation)

Basic form

 t υ  (υ ) υ   p   f

Conservative form
t (  υ )  (  υ  υ  p)   f
The Lamb-Gromeko form

 
(υ ) υ   21  2  ω  υ

t υ   
1 2
2
1
 ω υ    p  f

Bernoulli integral of the Euler Equation

Assumptions:
 Flow is stationary
 Fluid is in the barotropic state, hence the pressure potential can be defined
1
P(  ) :  p(  ) d  .

 1  1  1
P[  ( x)]  p[  ( x)]  p[  ( x)]  P  p
 xi  ( x)  xi  ( x)  xi 
Example – adiabatic flow of the Clapeyron gas …

p
P  cPT  i (specific enthalpy)
(  1) 

 The volumetric force field is potential, i.e. f   for some scalar field 
With the above assumption the Euler Equation can be written in the following form


 21  2  P  f  υ ω 
We choose arbitrary streamline and write ( τ - unary vector tangent to this streamline)

d
dτ  1
2
2
  1
2

2
 1
  P  f :    P  f  τ  υ  (υ  ω)  0

Hence, the function under the gradient operator is constant along the streamline:

1
2  2  P  f  CB

If the cross product υ  ω  0 then

  21 2  P  f   0  21  2  P  f  const
 

i.e., the Bernoulli constant is global (the same for all streamlines)
Equation of energy conservation

We begin with the differential energy equation, which in the case of an ideal fluid reduces to
( u - mass-specific internal energy)

 Dt
D (u  1 2 )   ( p υ)   f  υ
2

By expanding the pressure term, this equations can be re-written equivalently as

 Dt
D (u  1 2 )   p υ  υ  p   f  υ
2

Assume now:
 Flow steadiness
 Potentiality of the volumetric force field

We do not assume that the flow is barotropic!

Since the volume force is potential, the corresponding term in the right-hand side can be
transformed as follows

 f  υ   υ    ( t  υ  )   Dt

D
0

Moreover, due to flow steadiness we have

υ  p  t p  υ  p  DDt p
0

Next, from the mass conservation equation

D
Dt    υ  0
we get the following expression for divergence of the velocity field

D 
 υ   1 Dt
The energy equation can be now written in the following form

D (u  1  2 )  p D   1 Dt
D p  D
Dt 2  2 Dt Dt
D ( p/  )
 Dt
or
D (u 
Dt p   21 2  )  0
i
where i u p  denotes the mass-specific enthalpy of the fluid.

Thus, the energy equation can be written as

D (i  1 2  )  0
Dt 2

Since the flow is stationary, the above equation is equivalent to

υ (i  21 2  )  0
Using the same arguments as in the case of the Bernoulli Eq., we conclude that along each
individual streamline

i  21 2   Ce  const
In particular, for the Clapeyron gas i  c pT and we get

cpT  21 2   const , c p  1 R

In general the energy constant Ce can be different for each streamline.
If Ce is the same for all streamlines then the flow is called homoenergetic.

Let us recall that if the flow is barotropic then along each streamline we have

P  21  2   CB  const
Thus, when the flow is barotropic then

i  P  Ce  CB  const
i.e., the enthalpy i and the pressure potential P differ only by an additive constant.
Internal energy equation. Entropy of a smooth flow of ideal fluid

The equation of internal energy of an ideal fluid reads

 Dt
D u   p υ

We know that
D 
 υ   1 Dt
Thus, the equation for the internal energy u can be written as follows

D u p D  D (1 /  )   p D 
  p Dt
Dt  2 Dt Dt

Let us remind that the 1st Principle of Thermodynamics can be expressed in terms of complete
differentials of three parameters of thermodynamic state: entropy s , internal energy u and
specific volume   1 /  .
The corresponding form of this principle reads

Tds  du  pd
For the thermodynamic process inside individual fluid element one can write

D s  D u  p D   p D  p D  0
T Dt Dt Dt Dt Dt

Conclusion: If the flow is smooth (i.e., all kinematic and thermodynamic fields are sufficiently
regular) then the entropy of the fluid is conserved along trajectories of fluid elements.

We have already introduced the concept of homoenergetic flows. In such flows we have

i  21  2   Ceglobal
or equivalently

(i  21  2  )  0 .
Similarly, we call the flow homoentropic if  s  0 . Thus, when the flow is homoentropic
then the entropy is uniformly distributed in the flow domain.

Since the 1st Principle of Thermodynamics can be written in the following form

T ds  di  (1 /  )d p
then for any stationary flow one has

T s i  (1 /  ) p
In the case of a homoentropic flow we get

i  (1 /  ) p P .
Hence, any homoenergetic and homoentropic flow is automatically barotropic and the
Bernoulli constant CB is global. Note that in the case of 2D flows, it implies that the velocity
field is potential (its vorticity vanishes identically in the whole flow domain).
The Crocco Equation

Consider again the Euler equation in the Lamb-Gromeko form

( 21 2 )  υ  ω   1  p 
Using the entropy/enthalpy form of the 1 st thermodynamic principle, we can re-write the above
equation in the following form called the Crocco Equation

T s ( 21 2  i  )  υ ω
According to the Crocco Equation, any inhomogeneity in the spatial distribution of
entropy in the homoenergetic flow immediately leads to vorticity generation.
Mechanics and thermodynamics of small disturbances

Consider again the First Principle of Thermodynamics …

TdS  cv dT  p d (1  )
dU  int. energ . d  spec. vol .

The differential of (mass-specific) entropy can be expressed as follows

cv p cv R c (  1)cv
dS  dT  2 d   dT  d   v dT  d
T T Clapeyron T  T 
equation

Using the Clapeyron equation can write

1 1  p  1 dp p  d p d
dT  d     2 d   
T T  R   TR     p 

Thus
cv
dS  d p 
 cv cv cp
d  d p  d
p  p 
Flow is isentropic, hence dS  0 and

dp d dp p
      RT  0
p  d  S const 
Thus, the flow is barotropic and the derivative of the pressure as the function of density is
always nonnegative function.

We can introduce the quantity a defined as a   RT .

dp
Then  a2 .
d  S const

The physical unit of a is [m/s]. In has been demonstrated in the course of FM 1, that this
quantity is the velocity of small (acoustic) disturbances measured with respect to the gas.
If an external force field is absent, then the energy integral can be written as

i  21 2  const
The mass-specific enthalpy can be expressed in several forms

i  c pT  1 RT  1 p   11 a 2

V
Mach number: M
a
We define:

 Stagnation parameter: the parameter’s value at such point where   0 ; e.g. T0

 Critical parameter: the parameter’s value at such point where   a ( M  1) ; e.g. T

In gas dynamics we often use three equivalent forms of the energy equation

c pT  21  2  c pT0
p  p0
  
1 2

(  1) (  1)0
2

a2 a 2
 1 2
 2 
1 2 0
 a
 1   1 2(  1)

Maximal velocity which can be achieved in any stationary flows is (T  0 )

c pT  21  2  c pT0  21 max
2
 max  2c pT0

If the flow is adiabatic, the temperature of the gas is a simple function of a local Mach number

2 T0 2 T0   1 2 T0
1   1 2 2   1 M 
2c pT T  1 a T 2 T
1
1 
T   1 2  a   1 2  2
We have (M )   1  M  and (M )   1  M 
T0  2  a0  2 
If the flow is also isentropic, we have p /    const and p   RT . Then
1 
   1 2  1 p   1 2  1
(M )   1  M  , (M )   1  M 
0  2  p0  2 

Isentropic relations (1.4)

1

0.9

0.8

0.7
a/a0
0.6

0.5

0.4 T/T0
0.3 
0.2

0.1 p/p0
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Mach number M
Normal shock wave – summary of main formulae and results

Equations for conserved quantities:

(1) Mass  

n ds  0 
1D case
1u1  2u2

(2) Linear momentum


 ( n υ  pn)ds  0 
1D case
1u12  p1  2u22  p2

 p1  p2
(3) Energy  u 
1 2
 21 u22
(  1)1 (  1) 2
2 1

After a lengthy algebra, we have shown in the Fluid Mechanics I course that the nontrivial
relation between density and pressure ratios reads

p2  1  1  1 2  1
 1 2  1 1
 
 1 1  1
  1  2
p1  1 2  1 1
This formula describes the Rankin-Hugoniot adiabat which is different from the (isentropic)
Poisson adiabat, see figure below.

Rankin-Hugoniot and Poisson adiabats ( = 1.4)

30

Normal shock wave (Rankin-Hugoniot)

25

20
p2/p1

15

10

5
Isentropic flow (Poisson)

0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6


Yet, for the density ration only slightly larger than unity, the difference is really small (as RH
and P lines are strictly tangent for the argument equal 1)
Physically it means that weak shock waves are nearly isentropic and
3
p2 p2  2 
  C   1   h.o.t
p1 Hugoniot
p1 isentropic  1 

Since
s  cv ln p  c p ln   const  cv ln( p   )  const
 cv

the change of entropy between two thermodynamic states can be expressed as follows

s s2  s1  p2   p1   p2   2 
  ln     ln     ln    ln   
cv cv  2   1   p1   1 

From the 2nd Principle of Thermodynamics we conclude that physically admissible shock
waves must be compressing shocks (the entropy cannot diminish while crossing the shock).
The most important relations concerning the normal shock wave are:

 The Prandtl’s relation

u1u2  a2
 Relation between Mach numbers

2  (  1)M 12
M2  1
2 M 1    1
2

Other important relations can be derived. We usually use either plot or tabularized values.

For instance
1
2 u1 M 1 a1 M1  a  a
(M 1 )  (M 1 )  (M 1 )    ( M 1 )   [ M 2 ( M 1 )]  1
1 u2 M 2 ( M 1 ) a2 M 2 ( M 1 )  a0 is  a0 is
To evaluate the pressure ratio (as the function of M1) we rewrite the momentum equation in the
following way

 u2   u2 
p  u  p  1 
2
  p  1  2   p(1   M )  const
2

 p   a 

Since the above expression has the same value at both sides of the shock wave, we get

p2 1   M 12
(M 1 )  1
p1 1   M 2 (M 1 )
2

We can also write

T2
(M 1 ) 
 T T0  ( M 2 )
1
T1 T T0 [M 2 (M 1 )]
1
T   1 2 
where (M )   1  M 
T0  2 
Entropy of the gas increases while crossing the shock wave. The formula derived earlier can be
written for stagnation parameters, namely

s2  s1
0  ln  p02 p01    ln  02 01 
cv
The energy is conserved, hence the total temperature at both sides is the same and
02 p02
T01  T02  T0  
Clapeyron
Equation
01 p01

We conclude that the stagnation pressure drops while crossing the SW …

s
0  (1   )ln  p02 p01   p02 p01  1
cv