Biological Science Reviewer Osteocyte – cells E.

Muscular Tissue
Histology Calcium – mineral  As to Location and as to Structure
Chapter 4: The Tissues Diaphysis – flat 1. Skeletal Muscle – Striated
Animal Tissues Epiphysis 2. Cardiac Muscle – Striated
I. Epithelial Tissue – compressed cells 1. Spongy Bone 3. Visceral Muscle – Smooth or
A. Simple Epithelium – 1 layer 2. Compact – flat Unstriated
B. Stratified Epithelium – multiple  As to Function
layers C. Cartilage 1. Voluntary – skeletal
C. Pseudostratified Columnar 1. Hyaline Cartilage 2. Involuntary – cardiac, visceral
Ciliated Epithelium – in reality, 2. Elastic Cartilage
only 1 layer 3. Fibrocartilage III. Nervous Tissue
Cilia – fliter dust or dirt from the air Neurons – functional and structural units capable
Simple cuboidal – blood vessels D. Blood or Vascular Tissue of receiving and conducting impulses
Simple columnar – digestive organs 1. Red Blood Cell – prokaryotic, 1. Cell body (Cyton) – central nucleus within
Stratified squamous – kidney found in spongy bone the protoplasmic fluid (neuroplasm)
Stratified cuboidal – sweat glands - Contains large amount of 2. Cell processes – cytoplasmic extensions
Stratified columnar - epididymus, mammary hemoglobin that continue for a considerable length
glands, larynx Bone Marrow (connective tissue) - blood elements from the cell body
Basement Membrane – attachment of cells 2. White Blood Cell – with a. Dendrite or Dendron – one or
nucleus, found in fatty more processes which is usuallt
II. Connective Tissues – Space called - Body defense against short that carry impulses towards
matrix microorganisms the cell body
A. Connective Tissue Proper – fluids, (phagocytic action and b. Axon or axis cylinder – single
fibers (connective tissue material) antibody production) process, usually long, does not
Fiber: Collagen – thick, Elastic – thin, Reticular  Graneulocytes: branch near the cell body,
Connective Tissue cells, Fat cells, Areolar Neutrophil conveys impulses away from the
Chondrocytes (cartilage) Eusophil cell body
1. Loose Connective Tissue – Basophil Synapse – junction between two
more fluids, specialized cells  Agraneulocytes: successive neurons
Specialized Cells: Macrophage, Lymphocyte, Monocyte Neuroglia – glia cells and fibers, serve support and
Fibroblast, Neutrophil) Lymphocyte bind together the component nervous elements
2. Dense Connective Tissue – 3. Platelet – vital role in blood A. As to Function
compressed collagen fibers clotting 1. Sensory Nerve (Afferent Neuron) –
4. Plasma – liquid component of conducts impulses toward the Central
B. Bone or Osseus Tissue – blood (90% water) Nervous System
osteocytes 5. Hemoglobin – attachment of 2. Motor Nerve (Efferent Neuron) –
Haversian system – functional system of bones oxygen, red coloring for the conducts impulses away from the CNS
Canal – blood vessels blood 3. Mixed Nerve (Association/Connecting)
Lamellae – spots or interneuron – conducts impulses
Lacunae – space within the CNS
B. As to the number of cell processes
1. Unipolar – 1 dendrite, an axon
2. Bipolar – 2 dendrites, an axon
3. Multipolar – more than 2 dendrites,
an axon
Plant Tissues
I. Non-meristimatic Tissue (Permanent)
II. Meristimatic Tissue
A. Dermal Tissue (surface)
B. Fundamental (ground)
1. Parenchyma – most leaves
2. Sclerenchyma – secondary cell
wall, thicker
3. Collenchyma – thick corners
C. Vascular Tissue (Transport)
1. Xylem – roots to leaves
2. Phloem – product of
photosynthesis to roots
Classification
1. Non-vascular plants – no xylem and
phloem
- spore forming plants
2. Vascular Plants
a. Gymnosperm – naked seed
(Pinus insulatus)
b. Angiosperm – seed with coat
and protected by a fleshy fruit
i. Monocot – cotyledon
(epicotyl – future leaf,
hypocotyl – future
root)
ii. Dicot
Chapter 5: Mechanisms of Evolution and
Diversity of Life
Diversity – totality of the different species of
animals, plant, fungi, and microbial organisms
living on Earth and the variety of habitats in which
they live
Classification of Species
Classification – identifying, naming and grouping
of organisms into a formal system
Systematists – biologists who study the diversity
of organisms and their evolutionary relationship.
Carolus Linnaeus – father of taxonomy, was able
to develop hierachical classification system
Binomial System – use of terms or names from the
two smallest groups – genus and species.
Edouard Chatton – proposed rank above kingdom,
superkingdom or empire emphasizing distinction
between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Herbert Copeland – proposed a four-kingdom
system, added monera and protista
Robert H. Whittaker – proposed added a fifth
kigdom, fungi
Taxonomy
Taxonomy – science of classifying organisms
- First scientific study of plants
during Aristotle’s time
Taxonomists or systematics – arrange organisms.
Plants and animals into related groups
Taxa – different levels within the taxonomic
heirarchy (classification groups)
 Domain
 Kingdom
 Phylum
 Class
 Order
 Family
 Genus
 Species
o May have subcategories
(subphylum, subclass, etc.)
Kingdom Monera (Kingdom Prokaryotae) –
consists of simple, unicellular organisms (bacteria)
- Most are single-celled
- Prokaryotic, lack nuclear
membranes, mitochondria,
chloroplasts and other
membranous organelles
Bacteria based on their shapes:
 Coccus – round shaped
 Bacillus – rod-shaped
 Spirillum – spiral-shaped
Growth charestistic patterns (groupings):
 Diplo – denotes cells arranged in pairs
 Staphylo – bacteria arranged in clusters
like grapes
 Strepto – denotes bacteria arranged in a
chain
As to cell wall structures:
 Gram-positive bacteria – have simple cell
walls composed of only one layer of
peptidoglycan (a molecule contains chains
of a unique amino disaccharide joined by
peptide chains) before the plasma
membrane
 Gram-negative bacteria – have more
complex walls, consisting of one layer of a
lipopolysaccharide membrane and a
peptidoglycan layer, they appear red
Subkingdom Archaebacteria
Archaebacteria – live in harsh environments that
other organisms cannot tolerate
 Phylum Thermacidophiles – live in very
hot, acidic environment
 Phylum Halophiles – salt-loving
 Phylum Methanogenes – oxygen-free
environment
Subkingdom Eubacteria
Eubacteria – true bacteria, mostly heterotrophic;
the rest – autotrophic are either phototrophs or
chemotrophs
 Phylum Proteobacteria – anaerobic, can
carry out photosynthesis without water or
producing oxygen
 Phylum Rhizobacteria – nitrogen fixating
bacteria
 Phylum Cyanobacteria – consist of blue-
green bacteria that carry out
photosynthesis
 Phylum Prochlorophyta – carry out
photosynthesis with both chlorophyll a
and b
 Phylum Schizophyta – geterotrophic
eubacteria (saprobes and parasites),
cause diseases
Kingdom Protista – unicellular, colonial, and
multicellular organisms
- Cells are eukaryotic with a
membrane-bound nucleus
- May be animal-like (protozoans),
plantlike (algae) or fungus like
 Phylum Sarcodina – unicellular, animal-
like, move and capture prey by means of
pseudopods --- Ex. Amoeba, Entamoeba,
Globigerina
 Phylum Ciliphora – complex, animal-like
protists, move by means of cilia --- Ex.
Paracenium
 Phylum Zoomastigina –xooflegellates
move by means of one or more flagella ---
Ex. Trypanosoma, Trichonympha
 Phylum Sporozoa – non-motile, spore-
producing --- Ex. Plasmodium, Taxoplasma
 Phylum Euglenophyta – unicellular,
photosynthetic --- Ex. Euglena
 Phylum Chrysopota – golden algae --- Ex.
Gonyaulax, Gymnodinium
 Phylum Dinoflagellata (Pyrrophyta) –
unicellular algae with 2 flagella
 Phylum Chlorophyta – green algae, some
have flagella
 Phylum Phaeophyta – multicellular,
photosynthetic algae
 Phylum Rhodophyta – red algae
 Phylum Myxomycota – plasmodial slime
molds
 Phylum Acrasiomycota – cellular slime
molds
 Phylum Oomycota – water molds and
downy mildews
Kingdom Fungi – eukaryotic, heterotrophic,
sessile organisms that absorb nutrients from their
environment
- Multicellular, multinucleated
- body made up of masses of
threadlike filaments called hyphae
which are either septate (cross-
walls) or non-septate
- cell walls are made up of chitin
- free-living, parasitic, or symbiotic
 Phylum Zygomycota
 Phylum Ascomycota
 Phylum Basidiomycota
 Phylum Deuteromycota
Kingdom Plantae – nonvascular and vascular
plants
Division – second largest classification after
kingdom
 Division Bryophyta
Other Divisions:
 Division Psilophyta
 Division Lycophyta
 Division Sphenophyta
 Division Pterophyta
Gymnospem – plants that bear seeds not enclosed
in a fruit
 Division Coniferophyta
 Division Cycadophyta
 Division Ginkgophyta
 Division Gnetophyta
Angiosperm – flowering plants whose seeds are
enclosed in an ovary that ripens into a fruit
 Division Anthophyta
 Class Monocotyledonae
 Class Dicotyledonae
Kingdom Animalia – multicellular, heterotrophic
organisms with specialized tissues
Vertebrates – animals with a backbone
Invertebrates – without a backbone
 Phylum Porifera – sponges are sessile,
aquatic animals; most are marine
- Asymmetrical bodies have two
layers pierced with pores
- Ex. Grantia, Scyphya, Euplectella
 Phylum Coelentrata – radically
symmetrical body is sack-like and is made
up of two cell layers
- Two body forms: polyp, medusa
- All aquatic, most are marine
- Ex. Corals, Hydra, Jellyfish
 Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms) –
body flattened dorso-ventrally possess a
mouth but no arms
- Ex. Free-living flatworm (Planaria),
ectoparasite and endoparasite
flukes (Schistosoma, Fasciola
hepatica), endoparasitic
tapeworms (Taenia saginata and
Taenia solium)
 Phylum Nematoda (roundworms) –
narrow body, pointed at both ends,
rounded in cross sections
 - Contains many parasites
- Ex. Ascaris, Necature, Trichinella
 Phylum Rotifera – microsopic freshwater
organisms with highly developed organ
systems
- Presence of cilia around the head
is used for feeding
 Phylum Annelida – metametric
segmentation
- Metamerism shows itself in
constrictions (rings) between
succesive segments
- Ex. Neresis, earthworm, leech,
sandworm
 Phylum Mollusca – ventral side of body
typically has a soft muscular foot, dorsal
side is a visceral hump containing the
main digestive organs (protected by a
shell)
- Gills (et aida) for respiration,
filter-feeding located in a
chamber (muscle cavity)
- Ex. Bivalves (Mytilus, Pecten),
gastropods (Limax, Helix),
cephalopods (Octopus, Squid,
Nautilus)
 Phylum Arthropoda – animals with jointed
appendages
- Chitinous cuticle
- Muscle attached to cuticle
(function as exoskeleton)
- Cuticle shed to allow for growth
- Body cavity is a blood-filled
hemocoel (blastocoel)
- Ex. Crustaceans (lobster, crabs),
centipedes (Sclopondra),
diplopoda or millipede, insects
(ants, beetles, fleas, lice),
arachnids (scorpion)
 Phylum Echinodermata – skin contains The Root
calcerous ossicles and spines Roots – usually found underground
- No proper circulatory system - They hold the plant in the soil and
- Ex. sea urchins, sand dollars, star take in water and minerals from
fish, sea cucumber the soil
 Phylum Chordata – have notochord, - They carry the water and minerals
paired gill slits, and a dorsal, hollow nerve upward the stem and transport
cord (replaced by a vertebral column in dissolved food downward from
adults) the stem
- Ex. urochordates or tunicates (sea - Some roots are specialized for
squirt, salps), cephalochordates or food storage
lancelets (Branchiostoma) - Root system underground is as
large as the system of stem and
Taxonomy of Man branches bove the ground
Kingdom: Animalia - They grow no deeper than one
Phylum: Chordata meter into the soil
Subphylum: Vertebrata Primary Root – first structure to emerge from a
Class: Mammalia spouting seed
Subclass: Theria Secondary Roots – new branches of the primary
Infraclass: Eutheria root
Order: Primata Two common types of root system:
Suborder: Anthropoidea  Tap Root – develops when the primary
Superfamily: Hominoidea root develops rapidly and remains the
Family: Hominidae largest root at the root system, thick and
Genus: Homo fleshy
Species: sapiens Ex. Oak trees, carrots, turnips
 Fibrous Root – made up of numerous
Chapter 6: Plant Structure and Function roots, nearly in equal size
Plant – is any kind of a kingdom (Plantae) of - Seconday roots maybe large or
eukaryotes generally characterized by the ability larger than the primary root
to carry on photosynthesis in its cells (contains Ex. Sweet potato, tapioca
chloroplasts and have cellulose in cell wall,  Adventitious Root – help to brace the
including thallophytes and embryophytes) plants, climbing roots absorb moisture
directly from the air
Importance of Plants: Root tip consists of three zones:
1. Food Zone of Cell Division – roots grow in length as the
2. Raw Materials apical meristem in here produces new cells
3. Medicines Zone of Elongation – Most of the actual increase
4. Plants and the Cycle of Nature in root length
Zone of Maturation

Stem and Leaves
Stem – supports the leaves of a seed plant and
connects the parts to the roots
- Foods, minerals and water are
transported to the different parts
of the plants
- Some produce and store food (ex.
Cactus)
Two types:
 Herbaceous – found on herbaceous plants
having soft, green juicy stems
Ex. tomato, bean, corn plants
 Woody – contain woody tissues and are
not green in color
Ex. Trees and shrubs
Structure of Stems
1. The Woody Stem – external structure is
made of terminal bud
2. Vascular bundle scars – small dots within
leaf scars (xylem and phloem from the
stem to the leaf)
3. Node – point along stem where leaves
and laterals buds form
4. Lenticles – small raised openings along the
surface of the twig (pass through the cork
tissue allow the enchange of gases:
oxygen and carbon dioxide between
atmosphere and external tissues)
Leaves – specialized to capture light
photosynthesis
- Broad, flat structure of most
leaves exposes a large surface
area to the sun
Petiole – joins the leaf to the stem
Cuticle – the outermost layer of both the upper
and lower leaf surfaces, clear and waxy
- Protects the inner tissues and
slows down water loss from the
leaves
Epidermis – located beneath the cuticle, also
protects the inner tissues
- One-cell thick
Stomata – allow exchange of carbon dioxide and
oxygen
- Surrounded by a pair of
specialized epidermal cells called
guard cells (regulate the opening
and closing of stomata)
Mesophyll – layer of photosynthetic tissue
between upper and lower layer of epidermis
Contains thin-walled cells:
a) Palisade – located at upper layer; one or
several layers of elongated parenchyma
cells; tall tightly packed cells filled with
chloroplasts
b) Spongy – below the palisade layer; made
of irregular shaped cells with large air
spaces between them; have fewer
chloroplasts
Chapter 7: Plant Growth, Development and
Reproduction
Hormone – substance produced in one part of the
organism
Plant Hormones – organic molecule made in one
plant that exerts an effect in another part of the
plant and is effective in small concentration
Several types:
1. Auxin – plant hormone regulating cell
elongation; increase plant growth by
stimulating cells to length and cause cells
to different shapes
2. Cytokinin – regulation of nuclei aid and
protein metabolism; maintaining a
balance of growth, enlargement and
differentiation
3. Gibberellins – stimulating elongation of
internodes; increasing cell invasion
4. Ethylene Gas – made in small quantities
by many plant tissues; natural regulator of
growth and development
5. Abscisic Acid – potent inhibitor of seed
germination
Different Growth Reponses: Tropisms
Tropism – specialized growth responses resulting
in the movements
- Involves bending toward or away
from a directional stimulus
Positive Tropism – plant growth or movement
toward a stimulus
Negative Tropism – away from the stimulus
Phototropism – plants grow toward or away from
include light
Positive Phototroprism – stem of a plant growing
toward the light is an example
Negative Phototroprism – roots grow away from
the light source
Gravity Tropism (Geotropism) – unequal growth
response to gravity
Thigmotropism – some plant exhibits uneven Plant Mineral Nutrients Flower
growth in response to touch Mineral Elements 5 petals – dicot
Hydrotroprism – roots grow toward water Nitrogen Components of 3 petals – monocot
Solar Tracking – response to light that involves the proteins, coenzymes, 1. Non-reproductive parts
nucleic acids,
shifting of water from tissue to another (Ex. chlorophyll
a. Sepal – holds the flower (callyx)
Sunflower) Potassium Cofactor for enzymes, b. Petal – attract insects (corolla)
helps open and close 2. Reproductive part
stomata in leaves a. Male parts (Stamen)
Nastic Movements – movements in response to Magnesium Found in chlorophyll, 1. Anther (pollen; produces 2 sperm
activation of enzymes
stimulus, but not directed towards or away from cells)
Phosphorus Part of nucleic acids,
that stimulus Macronutrients coenzymes, ATP, - Consists of microsporangia
- Involve movement of leaves phospholipids 2. Filament
- Produced by changes in turgor Sulfur Found in amino acids, b. Female parts (Pistil)
pressure coenzymes, ATP 1. Stigma
Iron Found in enzymes,
Ex. Nyctinastic movement (Sleep Movement) chlorophyll, electron
2. Style
transport 3. Ovary
Water Transport Manganese Found in enzymes, 4. Ovule
Capillary Action – the tendency of liquid to rise chlorophyll synthesis, - Megasporangia (cell divisions;
inside a narrow tube coenzyme activity result in the production of spores)
Zinc Found in enzymes, role
Root Pressure – the pressure that holds up the in formation of auxin,
column of water chloroplast and starch Germination – is the growth of a plant from a
- Osmotic pressure caused by a Copper Components of seed
buildup of solutes in the xylem of enzymes Dormancy – a period during which the embryo is
roots Chlorine Acts in photosynthesis alive but not growing
Micronutrients Boron Nucleic acid synthesis,
Osmosis – diffussion of water across membranes roles in flowering,
from areas of high water concentration to areas of germination, etc. Vegetative Propagation – plant inherit genes
lower water concentration Molybdenum Used in nitrogen from only one parent and have exactly the same
Endodermis – the layer of cells that surrounds the metabolism characteristics as the parent plant (Regeneration)
root vascular cylinder; pumps solutes into the Also used in gardening in 3 methods:
vascular cylinder by active transport Reproduction and Nutrition Among Plants 1. Cuttage – use of cuttings taken from
Guttation – formation of water droplets at the Asexual Reproduction – involves division of one growing plants (most are stems); placed in
edges or tips of leaves as a result of root pressure plant inyo one or more plants that become new water or soil; garden plants/shrubs
plants 2. Grafting – also cuttings; attached to
Food Transport another plant (stock); trees Ex. Apple
Translocation – movement of dissolved food Sexual Reproduction 3. Layering
through a plant; occurs in the phloem Sporophyte – spore-bearing tiny structures
Sieve cells – conducting cells of the phloem; (spores)
stacked end-to-end Sporangia – closed capsule-like structure
From Exercise 4: The Tissues
 RBC – carry oxygen to the cells of the
body
 During a contraction, muscle filaments get
shorter.
 Internal organs are lined with smooth
muscle.
 Interneurons are found in the brain and
the spinal cord.
 The main component of lymph is plasma.
 Osteocyte is a bone cell.
 Osteocyte is not controlled by the will.
 Haversian System is the basic unit of
osseous tissue.
 Parenchyma is the fundamental tissue
responsible for photosynthesis.
 Fibers is a sclerenchyma tissue.
 Sensory neuron – carries nerve impulses
toward the CNS.
 The squeezing of cardiac muscles
surrounding a vein helps move the blood
against gravity.
 Chondrification - the process of cartilage
development.
 The epidermis of the root part forms root
hairs which absorb water and minerals.
 Phloem – the principal food-conducting
tissue of vascular plant
 The lining of the mouth is made up of
Epithelial Tissue.
 Larynx is made up of cartilages.
 Epithelial Tissue – has a basement
membrande for the attachment of cells.
 Sarcomere – functional and structural unit
of muscle contraction.
 Visceral Muscle – is a smooth muscle.
From Exercise 5: Mechanism of Evolution and
Diversity of Life
 Species – smallest taxon
 Species – the only taxon that has a clear
biological identity
 Aristotle classified plants on the basis of
differences in their stems.
 The binomial system of classification was
developed by Carolus Linnaeus.
 The binomial system includes information
about genus and species.
 Phylum – related classes of organism
 Kingdom Monera is the only prokaryotic
group among other kingdoms.
 Ascaris lumbricoides is a round worm.
 Flatworm is to Platyhelminthes.
 Segmented worm is to Annelida.
 Coelentrates is to Cnidaria.
 Sponges is to Porifera.
 Primate is to Order.
 Mammalia is to Class.
 Salmon is to Osteichthyes.
 Shark is to Chondrichthyes.
 Staphylococcus os to Monera.
 Yeast is to Fungi.
 Primate – prehensile hand or opposable
thumb
 Taenia saginata is a beef tapeworm.
 Gonyaullax catenella causes red tide
menace.
 Penicillum used in making a penicillin is a
fungi.
From Exercise 6: Plant Structure and Function
 Defining characteristics of land plants:
 A cellulose wall
 Vascular Tissue
 Being photosynthetic autotrophs
 Zone of Maturation – zone farthest from
the root cap
 Root type in the carrot is tap root.
 Root hairs are formed from extendions of
the epidermis.
 Stomata – pores on the leaf surface that
function in gas exchange
 Stomata – opening that permits gases to
enter through the leaf
 Stomata – leaf structure closely
associated with transpiration
 In dicot stems, the vascular bundles are
usually arranged in a ring.
 Transpiration – movement of water out of
the leaves of a plant
 Roots function in:
 Water and mineral absorption
 Anchoring the plant
 Storage of food
 Roots and root hairs are plant structures
that are specialized for anchorage and
absorption.
 Adventitious root – arise from the stem
 Epidermal Cells of the Root give rise to
hair.
 Mesophyll – consists of photosynthetic
tissue
 Leaves – attached to the stem at nodes
From Exercise 7: Plant Growth, Development and
Reproduction
 Pollen Grain – contains sperm
 A seed typically:
 Contains an embryo and stored food
 Germinates before it starts to grow
 Has cotyledons
 Ovule develops into a seed.
 Primary functions of flower:
 Pollen Production
 Meiosis
 Egg
 Pollen is released from the anther.
 The radicle of a plant embryo gives rise to
cotyledons.
 Flower usually contains both male and
female reproductive structures,
 Cytokinins – most useful in causing the
rooting of plant cuttings
 Gibberellins – plant hormone causing
extraordinary growth in plants
 Root pressure refers to the osmotic
pressure caused by build up of solute in
the xylem
 Pollen is produced by cell divisions inside
of the anther.
 Pistil – female reproductive system of
plant
 Cross-polination – fertilixation that occurs
when the pollen grain is transferred to the
pistil of another flower
 Cutting is used to propagate garden plants
like yellow bell and rose.