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Feras Darwish
Jordan University of Science and Technology
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Abstract: In the present study, a general aviation Second, a sketch of the airplane is created along
airplane is designed and analyzed. The design with a design mission profile. By using a simple
process starts with a sketch of how the airplane cruise mission profile consisting of five
is envisioned. Weight is estimated based on the segments which are takeoff, climb, cruise, loiter
sketch and a chosen design mission profile. A and landing. A crude method of weight
more refined method is conducted based on estimation based on the sketch and mission
calculated performance parameters to achieve a profile is conducted to achieve an estimate of the
more accurate weight estimate which is used to weight of the airplane. In order to achieve a more
acquire the external geometry of the airplane. A precise estimate of the weight the wing loading
three-dimensional layout of the airplane is and thrust-to-weight ratio are estimated. These
created using RDS software based on conic along with the mission profile provided a more
lofting, then placed in a simulation environment accurate estimate of the airplane weight. The
in Matlab which proved the designs adherence to weight, which is statistically integrated into
the design goals. In addition, static stress major parts of the airplane, is used to generate a
analysis is also performed for wing design layout of the aircraft exterior geometry. Conic
purposes. Using the finite element software lofting is used to generate a three-dimensional
package COMSOL, the calculated aerodynamic layout of the airplane using the RDS software
loads are applied to the wing to check the wing [1]. The three-dimensional model is used to
reliability. It is shown that the designed wing create a simulation of the airplanes takeoff, the
could be a good candidate for similar general simulation shows the ability of the design to
aviation airplane implementation. achieve its goals. Structural analysis of the
airplane wing is conducted to define the
Keywords: Aircraft Design, Structural Analysis geometry of the wing spars and skin. The wing
section is designed to have two spars, one at a
1. Introduction quarter of the cord position and one at the three
quarters of the cord. Angled spar flanges are
The design of an aircraft is a prolonged used along with stringers to stiffen the skin. It is
process that has mainly three phases; the first is assumed that the stringers and spar flanges only
the conceptual design phase, and it is the phase carry the directs stresses while the skin and spar
employed in this paper. This phase deals with the webs carry shear stresses, this enables the
layout of the aircraft and what major idealization of the stringers and flanges areas
characteristics it must have in order to achieve its into a concentrated area named booms to carry
design goals, if the conceptual design is to be a the direct stresses along with the thin skin to
success no major changes should be carry the shear stresses. Proper stress analysis is
implemented on it in future phases. Hence, the used to calculate the area of the booms and the
conceptual design engulfs the major thickness of the skin. The finite element software
characteristic of the aircraft while delivering a COMSOL is utilized to verify the results of the
layout of its major components. The second and structural analysis by employing the finite
third phases of the design process are the element method to calculate the stresses in the
preliminary and detail design phases; these wing due to the aerodynamic loading.
phases deal with the analysis of the aircraft
components in all major aspects of aerospace 2. The Conceptual Design
such as structures, dynamics, control and others.
The conceptual design approach utilized in this 2.1 Design goals
study is based on reference [1]. The method is
highly statistical based on data of other aircraft The conceptual design is commenced by
of the same category. First, a set of design goals defining a set of design goals based on gathered
is set to provide a baseline for the design. data for several airplanes of the same category.
The goals are as follows: Single engine airplane The empty weight fraction can be expressed
with a maximum velocity greater than 250 ft/s, based on statistical data in [1]. The fuel weight
stall velocity greater than 60 ft/s, takeoff ground fraction however is calculated based on the
roll less than 1000ft, landing distance less than mission profile segments where each segment
1400 ft, range of 550 nm, service ceiling of consumes a fraction of fuel and the total fuel
13000 ft and a maximum rate of climb of 1200 weight fraction is the multiple of these fractions.
ft/min. This crude estimation method gives a takeoff
gross weight of 1670 lb for the airplane.
2.2 Mission profile and initial sketch
2.4 Weight estimation based on performance
A simple mission profile consisting of five parameters
segments was used. The takeoff, climb, cruise,
loiter and landing segments are shown in figure In order to obtain a more refined estimation
1. Figure 2 shows the initial sketch of the of the airplane weight several performance
aircraft. parameters must be estimated such as the
maximum lift-to-drag ratio, the maximum lift
coefficient, the wing loading and the thrust-to-
weight ratio. The latter two are interconnected,
this causes the need to estimate one of them, call
it X, and use that estimate to calculate the other,
call it Y . The estimate X is recalculated based
on the value Y. The maximum lift-to-drag ratio
Figure 1. Mission profile is estimated by assuming CDo and K to have
values of 0.03 and 0.05 respectively. This yields
a maximum lift-to-drag ratio of 12.9. The
maximum lift coefficient is highly dependent on
the airfoil sections of the wing. At this early
design stage two airfoils are used which are the
NACA 23018 and NACA 23012 at the root and
at the tip respectively. The value of these airfoils
maximum lift coefficients is available via lift-
curves, taking the average of these values and
introducing a factor to account for the three-
Figure 2. Initial sketch dimensional effect gives a maximum lift
coefficient of 2.34. When estimating the
2.3 Weight estimation from initial sketch horsepower-to-weight ratio and the wing
loading, the maximum horsepower-to-weight
The airplane gross takeoff weight can be ratio and minimum wing loading are selected,
divided into crew, payload, fuel and empty this is to ensure they satisfy all the mission
weight. The crew and payload weights are segments. The hp/W is estimated at different
known from the design goals. The fuel and conditions and used to estimate the wing loading.
empty weight however are unknown and are The hp/W is re-estimated using the wing loading
dependent on the takeoff gross, hence, the weight were necessary. The following final results were
estimation is an iterative process based on an found (hp/W of 0.07 and a W/S of 16 lb/ft2).
initial guess of the gross takeoff weight. Now that the required performance parameters
Equation (1.1) is used to estimate the gross are available the gross-takeoff weight is more
takeoff weight accurately estimated to be 2100 lb.
3. Takeoff Simulation
Figure 3. Wing outline
The knowledge of the external geometry of
The vertical and horizontal tails of the the airplane enables us to create a three-
airplane are seized in a similar manner however; dimensional model using the V-realm Builder
depending on the tail volume coefficients the and place it in a simulation environment, as
plan form areas of both are found to be 11 ft2 and shown in figure 5, by incorporating Matlab’s
25.3 ft2 respectively. In addition, the vertical tail simulink. The intention of the simulation is to
is found to have a span of 4.06 ft and a tip and show the designs ability to satisfy some design
root cord of 1.8 ft 3.61 ft respectively. The goals such as the takeoff distance, maximum
horizontal tail also has a span of 10 ft and tip and speed and rate of climb. The simulation is
root cord of 1.7 ft and 3.1 ft respectively. divided into three main parts; the takeoff, climb
and cruise segments of the mission profile. The
2.6 Design layout simulation is a three-degree-of-freedom one,
including translation in the X and Z direction and
The main objective of the conceptual design pitching (rotation) along the Y direction. Three
is to provide a drawing of the airplanes smooth, equations are solved to generate the simulation
producible and aerodynamically accepted
external features. The process of lofting is one
Fx
that defines the external geometry of an airplane. u Qw g sin( )
Conic lofting is a lofting technique which m
incorporates a family of second degree curves (1.2)
Fz
such as a circle, ellipse, parabola and hyperbola. w Qu g cos( )
In this study, the conic lofting technique is used m
to generate a drawing of the designed airplane M
using the RDS software [1]. Figure 4 shows an Q (1.3)
I xx
isometric and three-view layout of the airplane
developed in RDS.
Where, is the geometric angle of attack and
G
4b A sin 2 M 1
cl n
(1.7)
c
Figure 5. Simulation environment and three-
dimensional model Where c is the cord of the airfoil at a specific
span wise location calculated using Eq. (1.8)
4. Wing Stress Analysis and Design
1 ct 1
4.1 Aerodynamic loads and pitching moment c cr 1 2 y 1 2 y (1.8)
b b
The aerodynamic loads that mainly affect
aircraft wings are the lift and drag forces. The The drag coefficient is calculated from the
lifting line theory is applied in this study to drag polar equation Eq. (1.9)
achieve the span wise loading on the wing; it
assumes that the presence of a vortex generating cd cd 0 kcl 2 (1.9)
a circulation causes the load, it also assumes that
the wing is segmented into several span wise
locations were a two-dimensional flow exists. The lift and drag forces are calculated at each
After calculating the loads at the span wise span wise position by plugging their coefficients
locations separately, they are brought together in into Eq. (1.10). The lift and drag distribution
order to form the span wise load distribution. For along the span are shown in Figure 6.
this preliminary design phase, the wing is 1
L V ccl
2
assumed to have only one airfoil shape along the
2
span which is the NACA 2412. A code written in (1.10)
Mallab is developed in order to generate the span 1
D V ccd
2
2bV A sin n
n
(1.4)
n 1
Where
cos
1 2y (1.5)
b
Figure 6. Lift and drag distribution
Were V is the velocity, b is the span and y is the
location along the span. In order to determine the The pitching moment is calculated based on
Fourier coefficients An, the following lifting line the pitching moment coefficient of the airfoil
equation is solved section using Eq. (1.11)
N
sin( n ( y ))
A sin( n ( y )) nA ( y ) ( y ) (1.6)
n
sin( ( y ))
n G 0
1
V Sccm
2
n 1
Mz (1.11)
2
4.2 Shear force distribution and bending booms. Using Eq. (1.12-1.14), the areas of the
moment booms, which is imbedded in the second moment
of area, are calculated by substituting the yield
The presence of the lift and drag forces strength of the annealed steel 4140 alloy, with a
create two shear forces, Sy and Sx along with two factor of safety of 1.25, into Eq. (1.12). The area
bending moments, Mx and My. The span wise is found to be A = 0.0026 m2
distribution of the shear forces and the moments
are shown in figure 7 and figure 8 respectively.
My Mx
z x y (1.12)
Iy Ix
Mx M x I y M y I xy
2
(1.13)
Ix I x I y I xy
My M y I x M x I xy
2
(1.14)
Iy I x I y I xy
Sx S x I x S y I xy
Figure 8. Moments distribution (1.16)
Iy I x I y I xy
T 2A q i i
(1.20)
i 1
After calculating the shear flow, the Figure 9. Finite Element Mesh
thickness is computed from Eq. (1.21)
q t (1.21)
The thickness is found to be t = 0.5 mm
8. Acknowledgements
9. References