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Programmable Unijunction Transistor
(PUT)
• Programmable unijunction transistor or PUT is a
close relative of the thyristor family
• PUT is also a type of thyristor.
• It is completely different to UJT in terms of structure.
• It is only similar to UJT in terms of some oscillator
applications.
• It is similar to SCR but PUT’s VAG can be used to both
turn it on and off.
• It is a type of three-terminal thyristor that conducts
when the voltage at the anode exceeds the voltage
at the gate.
Programmable Unijunction Transistor
(PUT)
• It is called programmable because the
parameters like intrinsic standoff ratio (η),
peak voltage(Vp) etc can be programmed with
the help of two external resistors.
• In a UJT, the parameters like Vp, η etc are
fixed and we cannot change it.
Programmable Unijunction Transistor
(PUT)
• Its has a four layered construction just like
the thyristors and have three terminals
named anode(A), cathode(K) and gate(G)
again like the thyristors.
• It is called programmable UJT just because its
characteristics and parameters have much
similarity to that of the unijunction transistor.
Programmable Unijunction Transistor
(PUT)
• The main application of programmable UJT
are relaxation oscillators , thyristor
firing, pulse circuits and timing circuits.
• ON Semiconductor is a manufacturer of PUT
now. 2N6027 is the most common type
number and it is available in the TO-92 plastic
package. The internal block diagram and
circuit symbol of PUT are shown below.
• TO - Transistor Outline Package
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Programmable Unijunction Transistor Programmable Unijunction Transistor

(PUT) (PUT)
• The gate is always
• The gate is biased positive with
connected to the n respect to the cathode.
• When the anode
region adjacent to the voltage exceeds the
anode. gate voltage by
approximately 0.7 V,
• The said pn junction
the pn junction is
controls the on and off forward-biased, turning
states of the device. on the PUT.

Programmable Unijunction PUT characteristics

Transistor (PUT) • PUT characteristics is essentially a plot
• The PUT stays in between the anode voltage VA and anode
conduction until the current IA of the PUT.
anode voltage falls
back below 0.7 V,
turning off the PUT.

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PUT characteristics PUT characteristics

• Peak voltage (Vp): It is the anode to cathode
voltage after which the PUT jumps into the
negative resistance region. The peak voltage
Vp will be usually one diode drop (0.7V) plus
the gate to cathode voltage (Vg). Peak voltage
can be expressed using the equation:
• Vp = 0.7V + Vg = 0.7V + VR1 = 0.7V + ηVbb .
Where η is the intrinsic standoff ratio and
Vbb is the total voltage across the external
resistor network.

PUT characteristics Setting the Trigger Voltage

• Intrinsic standoff ratio ( η) : Intrinsic standoff
ratio of a PUT is the ratio of the external • The gate can be biased to a desired voltage
resistor R1 to the sum of R1 and R2. It helps to with an external voltage divider.
predict how much voltage will be dropped
across the gate and cathode for a given Vbb.
The intrinsic standoff ratio can be expressed
using the equation:
η = R1/(R1+R2).

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Setting the Trigger Voltage
• When the anode voltage exceeds this
“programmed” gate voltage level, the PUT
conducts.
PUT Application
• Resistors R1 and R2 set the peak voltage (Vp)
and intrinsic standoff ratio (η) of the PUT.
• Resistor Rk limits cathode current of the PUT.
• Resistor R and capacitor C sets the frequency
of the oscillator.
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PUT Application
• Since the characteristics of the PUT is similar
to that of the UJT, PUT can replace UJT in
applications such as the relaxation oscillator.
PUT Application
• When the supply voltage Vbb is applied, the
capacitor C starts charging through resistor R.
• When the voltage across the capacitor
exceeds the peak voltage (Vp) the PUT goes
into negative resistance mode and this creates
a low resistance path from anode(A) to
cathode(K).
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PUT Application PUT Application

• The capacitor discharges through this path.
When the voltage across the capacitor is
below valley point voltage (Vv) the PUT
reverts to its initial condition and there will be
no more discharge path for the capacitor.
• The capacitor starts to charge again and the
cycle is repeated. This series of charging and
discharging results in a sawtooth waveform
across the capacitor as shown in the figure
below.
• F = 1/ (RC ln(1/(1-η)).Where F is the
frequency, η is the intrinsic standoff ratio, R is
the resistance and C is the capacitance.

PUT Application PUT Application

• The gate is biased at 9 V by • When the VC reaches VG + 0.7 V, the PUT conducts
and the capacitor
the voltage divider R2 and rapidly discharges through
R 3. the PUT’s low “on”
• When there is dc supply resistance and R4.
applied, the PUT is off and • A voltage spike is
developed across R4
the capacitor charges to during the discharge.
18 V through R1.

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PUT Relaxation Oscillator

PUT Application
Waveforms
• Until the capacitor discharges, turning off the
PUT, the charging cycle repeats.

PUT Relaxation Oscillator

EXAMPLE
Waveforms 1. Determine RB1 and VBB for a silicon PUT if it is
determined that ɳ = 0.7, VP = 10.3 V, and RB2 = 5 kΩ.

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PUT Application PUT Application

• The period T required • when VP = ɳVBB
to reach the firing
potential VP is given
approximately by

PUT Application PUT Application

• The instant the voltage across the capacitor
• Charging wave for the equals VP, the device will fire and a current
capacitor C IA = IP will be established through the PUT.
• If R is too large, the current IP cannot be
established and the device will not fire. At the
point of transition,

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PUT Application PUT Application

• The subscript is included to indicate that any •
R greater than Rmax will result in a current
less than IP .
• The level of R must also be such as to ensure
it is less than IV if oscillations are to occur.
• R must be limited to the following for an
• In other words, we want the device to enter oscillatory system:
the unstable region and then return to the
“off” state.

PUT Application EXAMPLE

• Once the device fires, • For the given network, if
the capacitor will VBB = 14V, R = 20kΩ, C=
rapidly discharge 1 mF, RK = 200Ω, RB1 =
through the PUT and 10 kΩ, RB2 = 5 kΩ, IP =
RK, producing the 100 uA, VV = 1 V, and IV =
5.5 mA, determine:
drop shown.
a. VP
b. Rmax and Rmin
c. T and frequency of oscillation.
d. The waveforms of vA, vG, and vK .

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Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor

• The insulated-gate bipolar transistor is a
recent model of a power-switching device that
combines the advantages of a power BJT and
a power MOSFET.
• Both power MOSFET and IGBT are the
continuously controllable voltage-controlled
switch.

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INSULATED-GATE BIPOLAR
Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor
TRANSISTOR (IGBT):
• IGBT has both MOSFET and BJT features
making it useful in high-voltage and high-
current switching applications.
• It can replace MOSFET and BJT in the said
applications.
• It has the output conduction characteristics of
a BJT.
• It is voltage-controlled like a MOSFET.
• It is an excellent choice for many high-voltage
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• Constructional Features:
• The structure of an IGBT cell is shown in Fig.
above
• The principle behind the operation of an
• The p region acts as a substrate which forms IGBT is similar to that of a power MOSFET.
the anode region, i.e., the collector region of
• The IGBT operates in two modes:
the IGBT. Then there is a buffer layer of n
region and a bipolar-base drift region. (i) The blocking or non-conducting
mode
• The p-region contains two n regions and acts
as a MOSFET source. An inversion layer can (ii) The ON or conducting mode.
be formed by applying proper gate voltage.
• The cathode, i.e., the IGBT emitter is formed
on the n source region.

• The circuit symbol for the IGBT is shown

below
• It is similar to the symbol for an n–p–n
bipolar-junction power transistor with the
insulated-gate terminal replacing the base.
Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor
• Gate, collector, and emitter are the three
IGBT terminals.
• IGBT schematic symbol is similar to that of
BJT with an extra bar representing the gate
structure of a MOSFET rather than a base.
• It has MOSFET input characteristics.

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Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor

• It has BJT output characteristics.
• Recall that BJTs are capable of higher currents
than FETs, but MOSFETs have no gate current
because of the insulated gate structure.
• IGBTs exhibit a lower saturation voltage than
MOSFETs and have about the same saturation
voltage as BJTs.

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Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor
• They are superior to MOSFETs in some
applications because they can handle high VCE
exceeding 200 V and exhibit less saturation
voltage when they are conducting.
• They are superior to BJTs in some applications
because they can switch faster, but they are
slower than MOSFETs.
IGBT Operation
• IGBT is controlled by the gate voltage (like
MOSFETs).
• It is a voltage-controlled BJT, but with faster
switching speeds.
• It is controlled by the insulated gate voltage,
thus it has essentially no input current and
does not load the driving source.
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Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor
• In terms of features for switching applications,
the following table shows the comparison:
IGBT Simplified Equivalent Circuit
• MOSFET serves as the input
element.
• BJT is the output element.
• When VGE is less than a
threshold voltage (Vthresh), the
IGBT is off.
• On the contrary, it is on.
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IGBT Parasitic Elements IGBT Parasitic Elements

• The npnp structure • If IC max is exceeded,
of IGBT forms a QP can turn on and
parasitic transistor effectively combines
and an inherent with Q1, forming a
parasitic resistance parasitic thyristor in
within the device. which latchup
• These elements have no effect during normal condition can occur.
operation.

IGBT Latch-Up IGBT Application

• During latch-up, the IGBT will stay on and
cannot be controlled by VG.
• It can be avoided by maintaining the
operation of the IGBT within its specified
limits.
• The IGBT is mostly used in high-speed
switching devices. They have switching speeds
greater than those of bipolar power
transistors.
• The turn-on time is nearly the same as in the
case of a power MOSFET, but the turn-off
time is longer.
• Thus, the maximum converter switching
frequency of the IGBT is intermediate
between that of a bipolar power transistor
and a power MOSFET.

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Gate Turn-off Thyristors (GTOS)
• For an SCR and GTO of similar maximum rms current
ratings, the gate-triggering current of a particular
SCR is 30 uA, whereas the triggering current of the
GTO is 20 mA.
• The turn-off current of a GTO is slightly larger than
the required triggering current.
• The maximum rms current and dissipation ratings of
GTOs manufactured today are limited to about 3 A
and 20 W, respectively.
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Gate Turn-off Thyristors (GTOS)
• Three terminal, bipolar (current controlled minority
carrier) semiconductor switching device.
• As the name indicates, it has gate turn off capability.
These are capable not only to turn ON the main
current with a gate drive circuit, but also to turn it
OFF.
• A small positive gate current triggers the GTO into
conduction mode and also by a negative pulse on the
gate; it is capable of being turned off.
Gate Turn-off Thyristors (GTOS)
• A second very important characteristic of the GTO is
improved switching characteristics.
• The turn-on time is similar to that of the SCR
(typically 1 us), but the turn-off time of about the
same duration (1 us) is much smaller than the typical
turn-off time of an SCR (5 us to 30 us).
• The fact that the turn-off time is similar to the turn-
on time rather than considerably larger permits the
use of this device in high-speed applications.
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Basic Structure:
Observe that the structure of GTO is almost similar to SCR. But
there are significant differences that make GTO different than
SCR. These differences are:
1. Gate and cathodes are highly interdigited with various
geometric forms. This maximizes periphery of the cathode
and minimize gate-cathode distance.
Circuit Symbol:
• Observe that there is double
arrow on the gate.
• This indicates that bidirectional
current flows through the gate.
• The rest of the symbol is similar
to SCR.
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Basic Structure:
2. There are n+ regions at regular intervals
in the p+anode layer. This n+layer makes
direct contact with n- layer. This is called
anode short. This speeds up the turn-off
mechanism of GTO.
3. The operation of GTO can be explained
with the help of two transistor analogy.
The gain of pnp transistor is reduced. This
reduces the regenerative action. Hence
turn-off of GTO can be achieved by
negative current from gate.
Characteristics of GTO:
• The VI characteristics of GTO in
forward direction are similar to that of
SCR.
• But in reverse direction GTO has
virtually no blocking capability.
• GTO starts in reverse direction after
very small reverse (20 to 30 V) voltage.
This is because of the anode short
structure.
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Typical GTO
Operation Principles:
• The turn ON operation of GTO is similar to a conventional thyristor.

• When the anode terminal is made positive with respect to cathode by

applying a positive gate current, the hole current injection from gate
forward bias the cathode p-base junction.

• This results in the emission of electrons from the cathode towards the
anode terminal. This induces the hole injection from the anode
terminal into the base region.

• This injection of holes and electrons continuous till the GTO comes into
the conduction state.

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Operation Principles: Operation Principles:

• To turn OFF a conducting GTO, a reverse bias is applied at the gate by
making the gate negative with respect to cathode.

• A part of the holes from the P base layer is extracted through the gate
which suppress the injection of electrons from the cathode.

• In response to this, more hole current is extracted through the gate

results more suppression of electrons from the cathode.

• Eventually, the voltage drop across the p base junction causes to

reverse bias the gate cathode junction and hence the GTO is turned
OFF

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Advantages: Limitations:
1. Higher voltage blocking capability 1. GTOs require large negative gate currents for turn-
2. Gate has full control over the operation of GTO. off. Hence they are suitable for low power
3. Low on-state loss applications.
4. High ratio of peak surge to average current 2. Very small reverse voltage blocking capability.
5. High on-state gain. 3. Switching frequencies are very small.

Applications:
1. GTOs are suitable mainly for low power applications
2. Induction heating and motor drives.

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MOS Controlled Thyristors (MCTs)
• First introduced by General Electric's Power
semiconductor operations (Harris
Semiconductor, USA)
Equivalent Circuit:
• Equivalent Circuit of a P-MCT (P-
type MOS-controlled Thyristor)
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Basic Structure:
• Basic Structure of a P-MCT (P- • Basic Structure of a N-MCT (N-
type MOS-controlled Thyristor) type MOS-controlled Thyristor)
• MCT is a thyristor consists of an ON-FET, an OFF-FET and two transistors.
• It consists of one ON-FET, a p-channel MOSFET, and an OFF-FET.
• Both n-p-n and p-n-p transistors are joined together to represent the n-p-
n-p structure of MCT.
• An n-channel MOSFET is represented by drawing the arrow towards the
gate terminal.
• A p-channel MOSFET is indicated by drawing the arrow away from the
gate terminal.
• Equivalent Circuit of a N-MCT (N-
type MOS-controlled Thyristor)
• The two transistors in the equivalent circuit indicate that there is
regenerative feedback in the MCT just as it is an ordinary thyristor.
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Circuit Symbol:
• An MCT combines the feature of both
conventional four layer thyristor having
regenerative action and MOS- gate structure.

• In this device, all the gate signals are applied

with respect to anode, which is kept as the
reference.
• Circuit Symbol of a P-MCT (P-type • Circuit Symbol of a N-MCT (N-
MOS-controlled Thyristor) type MOS-controlled Thyristor)

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. MCT can be turned-on and turned-off by low gate 1. If current through MCT is greater than gate
voltages. controllable current then it cannot be turned off.
2. MCT has fast switching times (typically ton = 0.3 Then MCT has to be commutated externally like
µs and toff = 1 µs). SCR.
3. MCT has low switching losses. 2. For larger anode currents, the gate pulses of longer
4. MCT has high gate input impedance due to its duration are required.
MOS gates. 3. Gate draws peak current during turn-off.

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Characteristics of MCT:
• The VI characteristics of MCT are similar to
that of GTO.
Turning ON Process:
• With the application of this negative
voltage pulse, ON-FET gets turned ON
whereas OFF-FET is already OFF.
• With ON-FET ON, current begins to flow
from anode A, through ON-FET and then as
the base current and emitter of n-p-n
transistor and then to cathode K.
• This turns on n-p-n transistor. This causes
the collector current to flow in n-p-n
transistor.
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Turning ON Process:
• The device is turned ON by a negative
voltage pulse at the gate with respect
to the anode.
• For turning ON MCT, gate is made
negative with respect to anode by the
voltage pulse between gate and anode.
• So, MCT must be initially forward
biased, and then only a negative
voltage be applied.
Turning OFF Process:
• The device is turned OFF by applying a positive
voltage pulse at the gate.
• The positive voltage pulse causes the OFF-FET
to turn ON and ON-FET to turn OFF.
• After OFF-FET is turned ON, emitter based
terminals of p-n-p transistor are short circuited
by OFF-FET.
• So, now anode current begins to flow through
OFF-FET and thus base current of p-n-p
transistor begins to decrease.
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Summary of Device Capabilities

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Phototransistors
• The C-B pn junction is exposed to incident
light through a lens opening in the transistor
package.
• In the absence of incident light, only dark
current exists in the device, typically in the nA
range.
• Dark current is the thermally generated C-to-E
leakage current ICEO of the phototransistor in
the absence of incident light.
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Phototransistors
• It is similar to a regular BJT except that IB is
produced and controlled by light instead of a
voltage source.
• It effectively converts variations in light
energy to an electrical signal.
• IB is produced when light strikes the
photosensitive semiconductor base region.
Phototransistors
• In the presence of incident light at the C-B pn
junction, a base current, Iλ , is produced that is
directly proportional to the light intensity.
• Consequently, a collector current that
increases with Iλ is produced.
• The phototransistor behaves like a
conventional BJT though in many cases, there
is no electrical connection to the base.
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Phototransistors
• Ic = βDC Iλ
• The larger C-B region area, the more base
current is generated.
1. Three Lead Phototransistor:
Phototransistor are of two types.
1. Three Lead Phototransistor.
2. Two Lead Phototransistor.
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Phototransistors
• A typical phototransistor is designed to offer
a large area to the incident light.
In the three-lead configuration, the base lead is
brought out so that the device can be used as a
conventional BJT with or without the additional
light-sensitivity feature.
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2. Two Lead Phototransistor:
In the two-lead configuration. the base is not
electrically available, and the device can be
used only with light as the input. In many
applications, the phototransistor is used in the
two-lead version.
Usually, phototransistors
are used in the two-lead
configuration.
Phototransistors
• Bias configuration and collector characteristics:
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Phototransistors
• The next slide shows the phototransistor basic
bias circuit and collector characteristics.
• Each curve corresponds to a certain value of
light intensity (in mW/cm2).
• IC increases with light intensity.
Phototransistors
• Phototransistors are only sensitive to light
within a certain range of wavelengths.
• The figure shows the typical transistor
spectral response:
1 Angstrom = 0.1 nm or 10 -10 m
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Photodarlington

• It consists of a phototransistor
connected in darlington
arrangement with a conventional
BJT as shown.
• It has a higher current gain that
accounts for its much higher IC and
has a greater light sensitivity than
a regular phototransistor.

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Light-Activated SCR (LASCR)

• The LASCR operates essentially as the

conventional SCR, but it can also be light-
triggered.
• Most of these devices have an available gate
terminal so that the device can also be
triggered (by an electrical pulse) as a
conventional SCR.

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Light-Activated SCR (LASCR) Light-Activated SCR (LASCR)

• It is a four-layer semiconductor device

(thyristor) that conducts current in one
direction when activated by a sufficient
amount of light.
• It continues to conduct until the current falls
below a specified value.
• It is most sensitive to light when the gate
terminal is open.

Summary of Device Capabilities

Light-Activated SCR (LASCR)

• A resistor from the gate to the cathode can

be used if it is necessary to reduce the
sensitivity.

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