CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO BRICKS

Bricks are one of the oldest knows building materials dating back to
7000BC where they were found in southern Turkey and around Jericho. The
first bricks were sun dried mud bricks. Fired bricks were found to be more
resistant to harsher weather conditions, which made them a much more reliable
brick for use in permanent buildings, where mud bricks would not have been
sufficient. Fired brick were also useful for absorbing any heat generated
throughout the day, then releasing it at night.
1.2 CLAY BRICKS
A brick is building material used to make walls, pavements and other
elements in masonry construction. Traditional term brick referred to a unit
composed of clay, but it is now used to denote any rectangular units laid in
mortar. A brick can be composed of clay-bearing soil, sand, and lime, or
concrete materials. Bricks are produced in numerous classes, types, materials,
and sizes which vary with region and time period, and are produced in bulk
quantities. Two basic categories of bricks are fired and non-fired bricks.
Block is similar term referring to a rectangular building unit composed of
similar materials, but is usually larger than a brick. Lightweight bricks (also
called as lightweight blocks) are made from expanded clay aggregate. Fired
bricks are one of the longest-lasting and strongest building materials, sometimes
referred to mas artificial stone, and have been used since circa 5000BC. Air-
dried bricks, also known as mud bricks, have a history older than fired bricks,
and have an additional ingredient of a mechanical binder such as straw.
1.3 FLYASH BRICKS
Fly ash bricks (FAB) is a building material, specifically masonry units,
containing class C fly ash and water. Compressed at 28 MPa(272 atm) and
cured for 24 hours in a 66̊ C steam bath, then toughened with an air entrainment
agent, the bricks last for more than freeze-thaw cycles. Owing to the high
concentration of calcium oxide in class C fly ash, the brick is described as “self-
cementing”. The manufacturing method save energy, reduces mercury
pollution, and costs 20% less than traditional clary brick manufacturing.
1.4 FLY ASH
Fly ash is also known as “pulverised fuel ash” in the United Kingdom, is
one of the combustion products, composed of the fine particles that are driven
out of the boiler with the flue gases. Ash that falls in the bottom of the boiler is
called bottom ash. In modern coal-fired power plants, fly mash is generally
captured by electrostatic precipitators or other particle filtration equipment
before the flue gases reach the chimneys. Together with bottom ash removed
from the bottom of the boiler, it si known as coal ash. Depending upon the
source and makeup of the coal being burned, the components of fly ash vary
considerably, but all fly ash includes substantial amounts of silicon
dioxide(SiO2) (both amorphous and crystalline), aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and
calcium oxide(CaO), the main mineral compounds in coal-bearing rock strata.
Constituents depend upon the specific coal bed, makeup but may include
one or more of the following elements or substances found in trace
concentrations: arsenic, beryllium, boron, cadmium, hexavalent chromium,
cobalt, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, selenium, strontium, thallium,
and vanadium, along with very small concentrations of dioxins and PAH
compounds.
In the past fly ash was generally released into the atmosphere, but air
pollution control standards now require that it be captured prior to release by
fitting pollution control equipment. In the US, fly ash is generally stored at coal
power plants or placed in landfills. About 43% is recycled, often used as a
pozzolan to produce hydraulic cement or hydraulic plaster and a replacement or
partial replacement for Portland cement in concrete production. Pozzolans
ensure the setting of concrete and plaster and provide concrete with more
protection from wet conditions and chemical attack.
After a long regulatory process, the EPA published a final ruling in
December 2014, which establishes that coal fly ash is regulated on the federal
level as “non-hazardous” waste according to the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRAO), Coal Combustion Residuals (CCR’s) are listed in the
subtitle D (rather than under subtitle C dealing for hazardous waste, which was
also considered).
In the case that fly or bottom ash is not produced from coal, for example
when solid waste is used to produce electricity in an incinerator (see waste-to-
energy facilities), this kind of ash may contain higher levels of contaminants
than coal ash. In that case the ash produced is often classified as hazardous
waste.
1.5 CENOSPHERE
The word Cenosphere is derived from two Greek word kens (hollow).
And spharin (sphere). Cenosphere are light weight, inert hollow sphere
compressing largely of silica & alumina and filled with air or inert gas.
Cenospheres are naturally occurring by product of the burning process of
pulverised coal fired boilers. They are formed during the modern state of ash
and attain spherical shape to have minimum surface tension. Any gas bubbles
(generally inert gases e.g.N2,CO2, urburnt coal particles etc.) flowing along the
combustion gas stream, are also trapped inside the spheres. These bubbles cause
the production of cenosphere; bubbles, may occur in multiple forms within the
frozen particles, or as single,that are nearly as great as diameter of the particle.
They are found floating on the suface of the fly ash lagoon. Cenespheres are
unique free flowing powders composed of hard shelled, hollow, minute spheres.
A small proportion of the pulverised fuel ash (PFA) produced from the
combustion of coal in power stations is formed as cenospheres. Cenospheres are
made up of silica, iron and alumina. Cenospheres have a size range of 1 to500
microns with an average compressive strength of 3000+psi. colors range from
white to dark gray. They are also referred to as microspheres, hollow spheres,
micro ceramic sphers, micro balloons, or glass beads. Cenosphere are
chemically inert & are reclaimable and labled as Environmentally sound.
Advantages The advantages of cenosphers are spherical shape, lightweight,
inert, free flowing, insulating, high melting point, hard, electrical properties,
low oil absorption & good packing factor applications cenospheres is versatile
filler with applications in a wide variety of products, both commercial and
industrial. These are as diverse as oil well cementing and PVC flooring.
However , in each case, fillite is used for its unique properties, such as strength,
low density and chemical resistance. Below are main applications areas in
which fillite is commonly used. Appplications in polyurethane, Cement, Latex,
Emulations, PVC, Epoxy Resins & Unsaturated Polyester Resins. Market
Survey Cenosphere are a by-product from coal ash. These hollow light weight
spheres are produced around the world. Most all of the Cenosphere produced
today are recovered from ash ponds or lagoons typically onsite at the coal fired
power plant. Fly ash, or the residue from coal after combustion, has been a
long-standing challenge for the Indian power sector, which is dominated by
coal. Currently, 53% of the total installed power capcity in the country is based
on coal. Given that Indian coal has avery high ash content, in the range of 35 to
45 percent, the country currently generates approximately 160 million tones of
fly ash of which only 80 million tone is being utilized. Cenospheres processing
is a 100% export oriented Unit. Improvements in durability and strength of the
manufactures end products and a reduction in the product weight enhance
marketing strategies. SSI (Sphere Services Inc) was one of the first companies
to introduce Cenosphere to the world on the internet. Since that time the
Cenosphere have become more widely used and demand has increased for the
product. Since the demand has increased supply has been coming from overseas
from other Countries. Sometimes new suppliers will have trouble developing
quality control measures for the material. Having a quality production
chemically and physically on a consistent basis critical for end use customer.
1.6 PPC (PORTLAND POZZOLANA CEMENT)
PPC is the common material used in the concrete, mortar and other
building works. Its produced from organic lime stone. The kiln is a heating
place where the clinker becomes cement the material easily available in market
but the ingredients in cement causes some unusual environment effects. Like
crystalline silica, Hexavalent chromium. It also leads the air pollution, by
release of green house gases (Eg:CO2,NOx,SO2). To avoid these issues we
replace the alternate material , in steed of cement the availability and low cost
makes the usage of material economic.
1.7 QUARRY DUST
It is the residue taken from the granite quarry dur to the recent problrm. Occurs
in supply of natural river sand to construction makes the cost of sand reached
more high level, to overcome this problem we use the quarry dust in steed of
natural river sand. Quarry dust also creates the environmental effects. Recently
quarry dust is used for all type of construction like building works and highway
project also, to consider that works, we use the materials in our brick
manufacturing process. The size of used quarry dust is 4.75mm.
1.8 MATERIAL USED

Cenosphere (20%)
Quarry Dust (50%)

Cenosphere

Bricks

PPC (18%)
Silica fume (12%)

1.9 BRICK MAKE METHODOLOGY

Calculating the amount of
material requirement as per
arrival mix design

Mixing and casting of bricks

Efflorescence test Acid test

Impact Testing of brick

test

Water absorption Compressive strength

(7D, 14D, 28D) (7D,14D, 28D)

Comparison of cenosphere
bricks with fly ash bricks

Tabulation of Results and

Suggestions