MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MEC2101: FLUID MECHANICS I

CLASS NOTES

Prepared By:
Edmund Tumusiime

Course Content
 1. Properties of fluids
2. Fluid Statics
i. Pressure and Head
ii. Pressure measurement
iii. Static forces on surfaces
iv. Buoyancy
3. Fluids in motion
i. Mass and energy conservation
ii. Momentum equation
iii. Application of basic equations
iv. Steady flow in pipes
v. Losses in pipes and fittings
vi. Unsteady flow in closed conduits
4. Dimensional analysis
5. Laboratories

Assessment
1. Course Work-----------40%
a. Test(s)
b. Assignment(s)
c. Practical
2. Written Examination----------60%

Reference Text Books

John F. Douglas, Fluid Mechanics
Bernard Massey, Mechanics of Fluids
John F. Douglas, Solving Problems in Fluid Mechanics: Vol. 1
Ranald V. Giles, Theory and Problems in Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics
J A Fox, An Introduction to Engineering Fluid Mechanics
And Many Others……………
 MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MEC2101: FLUID MECHANICS I

CHAPTER ONE

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

CLASS NOTES

Prepared By:
Edmund Tumusiime

Introduction
Fluid mechanics is a branch of applied mechanics that deals with the
Statics and Dynamics of liquids and gasses. The analysis of the behaviour
of fluids is based upon the fundamental laws of applied mechanics that
relate to the conservation of mass, energy and the force-momentum
equation, together with other concepts and equations that we are already
familiar with.

The word Fluid includes both liquids and gasses, but our major concern
is liquids which are generally incompressible. The branch of fluid
mechanics which deals with liquids or incompressible fluids is called
‘Hydro-mechanics’

Hydro-mechanics is further sub-divided the following categories:

 Hydro-statics: Deals with the study of liquids under conditions of
absolute and relative rest.

 Hydro-kinematics: Deals with the study of liquids in motion. This

does not include the study of forces causing motion and flow-
patterns.

 Hydro-dynamics: Deals with the study of velocity, acceleration of all

the ideal and practical liquids in motion, and the forces which cause
these velocities and accelerations.

Hydro-mechanics when applied to engineering problems is known as

‘Hydraulics’. It deals mostly with water being the practical liquid.

1.1 Fluids
Consider three states of matter: solids, liquids and gases. Liquids and
gases are called Fluids, and have common characteristics in which they
defer from solids: they lack the ability to offer permanent resistance to
shear forces. Fluids flow under the action of such forces, deforming
continuously for as long as the force is applied. A fluid, unlike a solid
takes the shape of the body with which it comes into contact.

Deformation is caused by shearing forces, i.e. forces such as F (Fig 1.1),

which act tangentially to the surface of the fluid to which they are
applied and cause the material originally occupying the space ABCD to
deform to AB’C’D.

B B’ C C’
x F
y
E
 Distance from
y the Boundary

F Velocity, u
A D
Fig. 1.1 Deformation caused by shearing forces Fig. 1.2 Velocity profile.

A fluid therefore is a substance which deforms continuously under the

action of shearing forces, however small they may be.

Note: Fluids can be classified as being ideal or practical. During flow of

an ideal fluid, no particle of it experiences any resistance. An ideal fluid
is incompressible and non-viscous. However, no ideal fluid exists in
practice. Fluids like water which encounter very little frictional and shear
resistances are called practical fluids.

1.2 Shear Stress in a Moving Fluid

When particles of the fluid move relative to each other, they move at
different velocities causing the original shape of the fluid to be distorted.
This is as a result of the Shear Stress setup when the fluid is in motion. If
the velocity of the fluid is the same at every point, no shear stress will be
produced since the fluid particles are at rest relative to each other.
Consider the flow past a solid boundary. The fluid in contact with the
boundary adheres to it and will, therefore, have the same velocity as the
boundary. And for the successive layers parallel to the boundary (Fig
1.2), the velocity of the fluid varies from layer to layer as the distance y
increases from the boundary.

Consider an element of fluid ABCD with thickness S perpendicular to BC.

The force F acts over the area a  BCxS . The force per unit area F is
a
called the Shear stress  and the deformation  (Shear strain) is
proportional to the shear stress.

Suppose that in a time ‘t’ a particle P moves through a distance ‘x’ from
say E and a distance ‘y’ from AD, then for small angles,

x x y xt u
Shear strain   and Rate of shear strain = = =
y t y y
Where ‘u’ is the velocity of the particle at E

Assuming experimental results, the shear stress is proportional to the

shear strain.
u
Thus,   k ……………………………………………………(1.1)
y
where k is a constant known as ‘Dynamic viscosity  ’ of the fluid.
u
is equivalent to the change in velocity with ‘y’ and may be written as
y
du
dy
du
Thus from equation (1.1),   ………………………(1.2)
dy

The above Equation Defines ‘Newton’s law of viscosity’

1.3 Density
Quantity of matter contained in a unit volume of the substance
Mass density  : Mass per unit volume (kg/m3)
Specific weight   g : Weight per unit volume (N/m3)
Specific gravity OR Relative density S: Ratio of weight of a substance to
weight of an equal volume of water at ToC

1.4 Viscosity
Although all real fluids resist any force tending to cause any layer of the
fluid to move over another, the resistance is offered only when the fluid is
in motion. This resistance to movement of one layer of fluid over an
adjoining one is determined by the ‘Viscosity’ of the fluid.

Coefficient of dynamic viscosity  : The shear force per unit area

required to drag one layer of fluid with unit velocity past another layer a
unit distance away from it (Units: kg/ms or Ns/m2).

Kinematic viscosity : Is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density


i.e.   (Units: m2/s)


Variation of viscosity with temperature

The viscosity  of liquids decreases with increase in temperature while
viscosity of gases increase with increase in temperature.

0
For liquids,  T 
(1  A1T  B1T 2 )
Where  T is the viscosity at T0C,  0 is the viscosity at 00C and A1 and B1
are constants depending upon the liquid.
1.5 Surface Tension
Within the body of a liquid, a molecule is attracted equally in all
directions by other molecules surrounding it but at the surface between
the liquid and air, the upward and downward attractions are
unbalanced. The liquid surface then behaves as if it were an elastic
membrane under tension. This tension is the same at every point on the
surface.

Definition: Surface tension is thus the force per unit length acting in the
surface at right angles to one side of a line drawn in the surface. It is the
cause of a drop of a liquid taking up a spherical shape, and also so
responsible for capillary action which causes the liquid to rise in a tube.

Capillarity
When a tube of small diameter open to the atmosphere is inserted in a
liquid, the liquid is seen to either rise or fall (Fig 1.3).
P T

Fig. 1.3 Capillarity

In the case of water, the rise is as a result of adhesion. Adhesion is a

property of the liquid by the virtue of which its molecule are attracted by
the molecules of another liquid or a solid. The formation of concave
meniscus is due to a fall in pressure on the underside of the meniscus,
due to surface tension ‘T’

Let h = height of the capillary rise

θ = angle of contact of the meniscus at the perimeter
d = diameter of the tube
 T = surface tension
Then resolving vertically, we have

(Weight of liquid raised) = (Upward pull due to surface tension T)

 2
h * d = d *T cos
4
4T cos 
Giving h …………………………………………….(1.3)
wd

1.6 Compressibility
All materials including liquids and gasses are compressible. The volume
V of a given mass will reduce to V  V when a force is exacted uniformly
all over its surface. The relationship between the change of pressure and
change of volume is given by the Bulk modulus ‘K’ of the material.

Change in pressure intensity

Where Bulk modulus = Volumetric strain

dp
Thus K  V ………………………………………………………..(1.4)
dV

Questions
1. The weight of 500 cm3 of oil is 3.924N. Calculate the specific
gravity of the oil.

2. Find the weight of 5 litres of oil of specific gravity 0.85

3. A cylinder of 0.12 m radius rotates concentrically inside a fixed

cylinder of 0.13m radius. Both cylinders are 0.3m long. Determine
the viscosity of the liquid which fills the space between the
cylinders if a torque of 0.880 Nm is required to maintain an
angular velocity of 2 rad/s
MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MEC2101: FLUID MECHANICS I

CHAPTER TWO

STATIC PRESSURE AND HEAD

CLASS NOTES

Prepared By:
Edmund Tumusiime
2.1 Statics of fluid systems

From the definition of a fluid, there won’t be shearing forces acting when
the body is at rest, and therefore all forces exerted between the fluid and
the solid boundary must act perpendicular (Fig 2.1 (a)).
F
Fluid Fluid
Imaginary plane
Solid Fluid
R

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.1 Forces in a fluid at rest

If the boundary is curved, it ca be considered to be composed of a series

of chords on each of which a force F1, F2, ………, Fn acts perpendicular to
the surface at the section concerned. Similarly, considering any plane
drawn through a body of fluid at rest (Fig 2.1 (b)), the force exerted by
one portion of the fluid on the other acts at right angles to this plane.

Equilibrium:
Considering an element of fluid defined by solid boundaries or imaginary
planes, a free-body diagram can be drawn for the element showing all
forces acting on it. Since the fluid is at rest, the element will be in
equilibrium, and therefore;
 The sum of component forces acting in any direction must be zero
 The sum of moments about any point must be zero

Three possible conditions for equilibrium exist. They are defined based
on the effect of displacement from the equilibrium position.

Stable equilibrium: A small displacement from the equilibrium position

generates a force producing a righting moment, which tends to restore a
body to its equilibrium position.

Unstable equilibrium: A small displacement produces an overturning

moment, which tends to displace the body further from its equilibrium
position.
Neutral equilibrium: The body remains at rest in any position it is
displaced to.

2.2 Pressure
Pressure is defined as force exerted per unit area. If the force exerted on
each unit area of the boundary is the same, the pressure is said to be
uniform.
Force exerted F
Pressure = Area of boundary i.e. P 
A

For pressure changing from point to point, we consider the element of

force ‘ F ’ normal to a small area ‘ A ’ surrounding the point under
consideration.
F
 Mean pressure =
A

F
In the limit, As A  0 , P  lim
A 0 A

dF
Such that P  (N/m2) or bar
dA

2.3 Pascal’s law for pressure at a point

Considering the equilibrium of a small fluid element in form of a
triangular prism surrounding a point in a fluid, a relationship can be
established between the pressure ‘Px’ in the x-direction, ‘Py’ in the y-
direction and ‘Ps’ in the s-direction normal to any plane inclined at angle
‘θ’ to the horizontal at this point (Fig 2.2)
 B Ps

A
C
Px F
θ
E D

Py Fig 2.2 Pascal’s law

There are no shearing forces hence no acceleration. The sum of forces in

any direction is zero for equilibrium.

X-direction:
Force due to Px = Px (Area ABFE) = Px ( AE )( AB)

Component of force due to Ps = -Ps (Area of ABCD)sin θ

AE
=  Ps ( BC )( AB)
BC
AE
For equilibrium, Px ( AE )( AB) - Ps ( BC )( AB) = 0
BC
Such that Px  Ps ………………………………………………………………..(2.1)

Y-direction:
Force due to Py  Py ( ED)( EF )

Component of force due to Ps   Ps ( AB)( BC ) cos

ED
  Ps ( AB)( BC )
BC
1 
Weight of element =  g  ( ED)( EA)( AB) 
2 
ED 1 
For equilibrium, Py ( ED)( EF )  Ps ( AB)( BC )  g  ( ED)( EA)( AB)  = 0
BC 2 
Since AB, AE, and ED are very small quantities, their product is
negligible. Hence the above equation reduces to
 Py  Ps ……………………………………………………….…….(2.2)

Combining equations (2.1) and (2.2) gives Pascal’s law as

Px  Py  Ps ………………………………………………...……….(2.3)

Pascal’s law thus states that: The pressure intensity of fluid, when at
rest, is the same in all directions and acts normal to the surface at each
point.

2.4 General equation for the variation of pressure due to gravity

from point to point in a static fluid

Let ‘P’ be the pressure acting at the end ‘O’ of the fluid body shown (Fig
2.3) of constant X-sectional area ‘A’ and ‘ P  P ’ be the pressure at the
other end ‘Q’. The axis of the fluid is inclined at angle ‘  ’ to the vertical,
the height of P above datum being Z and that of Q being ‘ Z  Z ’

( P  P ) A

s Q

 Fig 2.3 Variation of pressure

in a stationary fluid
mg
Area ‘A’
O Z  z

PA
Z
Datum

The forces acting are:

 PA, at right angle on the face end ‘O’ along the axis
 ( P  P ) A, acting at ‘Q’ along the axis in the opposite direction
 mg, the weight of the element acting vertically downward
Resolving forces along the axis OQ, we have

PA - ( P  P ) A - mg cos = 0

Substituting for mg = gAs and simplifying gives,

P
  g cos  ………………………………………………….…(2.4)
S

Considering the general three dimensional case, ‘S’ is a vector with

components in the x, y, and z directions. Taking the x-y plane as the
horizontal, if the axis of the element is also horizontal,   90 0 , and

 P  P P
     0 …………………………………………………..(2.5)
 S   90 x y
If the axis of the element is in the vertical z-direction i.e.   0 0 , then

 P  P
     g
 S   0 z
P P
And from equation (2.5), since  0 and also  0 , then the partial
x y
P dP
derivative can be repressed by the total differential
z dz
dP
Giving   g ………………………………………………….(2.6)
dz

Thus, the conditions of equilibrium under gravity are:

The pressure at all points on a horizontal plane must be the same
The density all points on a horizontal plane must be the same
The change of pressure with elevation is given by equation (2.6)

The actual pressure variation with elevation is then given by:

z2

dP   gdz or P2  P1    gdz
z1
2.5 Variation of pressure with altitude in a gas at constant
temperature
P
For a perfect gas,  RT

P
And for Isothermal conditions,  ………………………..(2.7)
RT

Substituting equation (2.7) into equation (2.6), gives

dP Pg
  g  
dz RT
P2 z2
dP g
Integrating, P P =   RT dz
1 z1

P2  g
Simplifying gives,  exp  Z 2  Z1 
P1  RT 

Question: 4
11000m is the altitude at which the atmospheric temperature is -56.60C
and the pressure is 22.4kNm-2. Assuming that the temperature remains
the same at higher altitudes, calculate the density of air at an altitude of
15000m. Take the gas constant as 287Jkg-1 K-1
2.6 PRESSURE AND HEAD
When a vessel contains any liquid with its free surface, the liquid is
subjected to pressure by virtue of its own weight. And since the weight of
the liquid increases with increase in depth, the pressure also will
increase with depth.

dP
From equation (2.6) i.e.   g
dz

Integrating gives P   gz + Constant……………………………(2.8)

Patm

Liquid of
h density  Fig.2.4 Pressure and Head

But in a liquid, and considering any point in the liquid, pressure is

measured downwards from the free surface so that z   h . Also since the
pressure at the free surface will normally be atmospheric pressure Patm
(i.e. Constant), then

Equation (2.8) becomes

P  gh  Patm …………………………………. (2.9)

The pressure therefore increases linearly with depth, whatever the shape
of any solid boundaries.

Since the atmospheric pressure is taken as a datum or reference for

pressure measurement, then Patm is normally taken to be zero gauge
pressure

Equation (2.9) thus becomes

P  gh …………………………………. (2.10)

This can also be expressed in terms of Pressure Head for a fluid of

constant density as
 P
Head h  (meters)…………………………….. (2.11)
g

Very useful is the concept of pressure head that it is employed whether

or not an actual free surface exists above the point in question. For a
P
liquid without free surface, as for example in a closed pipe,
g
corresponds to the height above the pipe to which a free surface would
rise if a small vertical tube of sufficient length and open to atmosphere –
known as a Piezometer tube – were connected to the pipe (Fig.2.5)

P
h
g

Horizontal datum

Fig. 2.5 Piezometer tube

Rewriting equation (2.8) and dividing by g , an equation can be written

for the above piezometric tube as

p
 z = Constant. That is, the sum of the pressure head and the
g
elevation above the chosen horizontal datum plane is constant. This
constant is known as Piezometric head and corresponds to the height of the
free surface above the datum plane. The quantity P  gz is termed as
Piezometric pressure
2.6.1 The measurement of Pressure
In practice, pressure is always measured by the determination of
pressure difference.

Absolute pressure of a fluid: Pressure difference between the fluid in

question and the vacuum.

Gauge pressure: Difference between pressure of the fluid concerned and the
pressure of the surrounding atmosphere. This is the difference normally
recorded by pressure gauges.

If the pressure of the fluid is below that of the atmosphere, it is termed

Vacuum or suction pressure:

Gauge Pressure

Atmospheric pressure

Vacuum = Negative gauge

Absolute pressure A
pressure

Absolute pressure B

Absolute zero pressure line

2.6.2 Pressure gauges

Used for measuring pressure of a fluid.

 The Barometer
This uses mercury as the test fluid, and the instrument is a pipe closed
at the end (Fig.2.6).
 h A
B

Fig 2.6 The Barometer

Pa  Pv  gh ; Pa is atmospheric pressure, since pressure at B = pressure

at A (i.e. they are at the same level). Pv is mercury vapour pressure which
is always small compared to Pa

Pa
Thus, Pa  gh and h
g

Pa 10 5 N / m 2
h  = 0.752 m
 
g 13560kg / m 3 9.81N / kg 

 Manometers
These are devices in which columns of a suitable liquid are used to
measure differences in pressure between two points neither of which is
necessarily at atmospheric, or between certain point and atmosphere.

U-tube Manometer
This can be used to measure pressure of the liquid or gas. The bottom of
the U-tube (Fig.2.7) is filled with the manometric liquid which of greater
density  man, and is immiscible with the fluid P (liquid or gas), of density
 whose pressure is to be measured.
 Liquid P,
density  D

A Manometric liquid
density  man
h2
h1

B C
Fig.2.7 U-tube Manometer

If B is the level of the interface in the left-hand limb and C is the point at
the same level in the right hand limb, then

Pressure PB at B = Pressure PC at C

PA  gh1   man gh2  Patm

But Patm  Zero gauge pressure

Thus, PA   man gh2  gh1 ……………………………………………...(2.12)

A U-tube gauge can also be arranged to measure pressure difference

between two points in a pipeline (Fig. 2.8)

Fig. 2.8 Measurement of pressure

difference

Same principle: PC  PD
i.e. PA  ga  PB  g b  h    man gh

giving,

Pressure difference = PA  PB  g b  a   hg   man    …………………...(2.13)

Inverted U-tube manometer

The inverted U-tube is used to measure pressure differences in liquids.
The top is filled with a fluid, frequently air, which is less dense than that
connected to the instrument (Fig.2.9).

Pressure at level X-X is the same

Left-hand limb, Pxx  PA  ga   man gh

Right-hand limb, Pxx  PB  g b  h 

Equating gives,

PB  PA  g b  a   gh   man 

Fig.2.9 Inverted U-tube manometer

U-tube with enlarged ends

The sensitivity of the U-tube is increased by enlarging the ends
(Fig.2.10). This is done for purposes of measuring very small pressure
differences
 A

P1 P2

a
a
y y
A A

Fluid, density  2 (less dense)

h1 h2

X X
y
Y Y

Area, a Fluid, density 1

Fig.2.10 Manometer with enlarged ends

Case I: P1  P2
Suppose the surface of separation between fluids 1 and 2 is at level X-X
and that the height of fluid 2 is h2. Then

For Right-hand limb, PXX   2 gh2

For left-hand limb, PXX  1 gh1

 2 h2
Equating gives, h1  …………………………………………………..(2.14)
1

Case II: P2  P1
The interface between fluids 1 and 2 moves down a distance ‘y’ to level Y-
Y. The volume of fluid 2 withdrawn from the R.H limb enlarged end is
a
equal to ‘ ya ’. And the fall in level in the R.H limb enlarged end = y
A
Volume of fluid 1 displaced in L.H limb to enlarged end = ya
a
The rise in the L.H limb enlarged end = y
A
  a
Now, for the R.H.L, PYY  P2   2 g  h2  y  y  ………………………(2.15)
 A
 a
For the L.H.L, PYY  P1  1 g  h1  y  y  ………………………………(2.16)
 A

Combining equations (2.14), (2.15) and (2.16) and simplifying, give,

  a  a 
P2  P1  gy  1 1     2 1   ………………………………(2.17)
  A  A 

2.7 Relative Equilibrium

A fluid contained in a vessel which is at rest, or moving with constant
linear velocity, is not affected by the motion of the vessel; but if the
container is given a continuous acceleration, this will be transmitted to
the fluid and affect the pressure distribution in it.

Since the fluid remains at rest relative to the container, there is no

relative motion of the particles of the fluid and, therefore, no shear
stresses, fluid pressure being everywhere normal to the surface on which
it acts. Under these conditions, the fluid is said to be in ‘Relative
equilibrium’

2.7.1 General expression for the pressure in a fluid in Relative

Equilibrium
p p p
If , and are the rates of change of pressure p in the x, y, and z
x y z
directions (Fig. 2.11) and a x , a y and a z the accelerations,

 p 
Force in x direction, Fx  pyz   p  x yz
 x 
p
=  xyz
x

By Newton’s second law, Fx  ( xyz ) * a x

 p
Thus,   a x ………………………………………………….(2.18)
x

Similarly, in the y direction,

p
  a y ……………………………………………………(2.19)
y

z az

ax
z ay

y
x Fig.2.11 Relative equilibrium: the
general case
y

In the vertical z-direction, the weight of the element gxyz must be

considered:

 p 
Fz  pxy   p  z xy  gxyz
 z 
p
=  xyz  gxyz
z

From Newton’s second law,

Fz  ( xyz ) * a z
therefore,
p
    g  a z  ………………………………………………..(2.20)
z

Consider an acceleration ‘ a s ’ in any direction in the x-z plane making an

angle ‘  ’ with the horizontal. The components of the acceleration are:

a x  a s cos  and a z  a s sin 

 dp pdx pdz
Also   ……………………………………….. (2.21)
ds xds zds

dp
For the free surface and all other planes of constant pressure,  0.
ds
And if ‘  ’ is the inclination of the planes of constant pressure to the
dz
horizontal, then tan  
dx

Substituting into equation (2.21)and simplifying, gives

pdx pdz
 0
xds zds
dz p p
and  tan   
dx x z

Substituting from equations (2.18) and (2.20) gives

ax
tan    …………………………………………………….(2.22)
g  a z 

a s cos
Or in terms of a s , tan    ………………………(2.23)
g  a s sin  
For horizontal acceleration,   0 .
as
Thus, tan   
g

p p
Since for the two-dimensional case dp 
dx  dz , the pressure at a
x z
particular point in a fluid is found by integration:

p p
p   dp   dx   dz
x z

Substituting from (2.18) and (2.20) and integrating, gives

p     xa s cos   gz  za s sin    cons tan t

x
Or since tan   , the
z
 p   z a s tan  cos  g  a s sin    cons tan t …………………………(2.24)

Where z is positive measured upwards from a horizontal datum fixed

relative to the fluid.

Questions

5 The hydrogen filled balloon is to expand to a sphere 20m in diameter

at a height of 30km where the absolute pressure is1100 Pa and the
temperature -400C. If there is to be no stress in the fabric of the
balloon, what volume of hydrogen must be added at ground level
where the absolute pressure is 101.3 kPa and the temperature 150C?

6 A manometer consists of two tubes A and B with vertical axes and

uniform X-sectional areas 500mm2 and 800mm2 respectively
connected by a U-tube C of uniform X-sectional area 70mm2. Tube A
contains a liquid of relative density 0.8 and B contains another liquid
of relative density 0.9. The surface of separation of the two liquids is
in the vertical side of C connected to tube A. What additional
pressure, applied to tube B would cause the surface of separation to
rise 60mm in tube C?

7 A hydraulic ram 200mm in diameter and 1.2m long moves wholly

within a concentric cylinder 200.2mm in diameter, and the annular
clearance is filled with oil of relative density 0.85 and kinematic
viscosity 400mm2/s. What is the viscous force resisting the motion
when the ram moves at 120mm/s?

Exercise
The space between two large flat and parallel walls 25mm apart is filled
with a liquid of absolute viscosity 0.7 Pas. Within this space a thin flat
plate 250mm x 250mm is towed at a velocity of 150mm/s at a distance
of 6mm from one wall, the plate and its movement being parallel to the
walls. Assuming linear variation of velocity between the plate and the
walls, determine the force exerted by the liquid on the plate.
MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MEC2101: FLUID MECHANICS I

CHAPTER THREE

STATIC FORCES ON SURFACES AND BUOYANCY

CLASS NOTES

Prepared By:
Edmund Tumusiime
3.1 Action of fluid pressure on a surface
When pressure ‘p’ acts on a solid boundary or across any plane in the
fluid, the force exerted on each small element of area A is pA , and
since the fluid is at rest, this force will act at right angles to the
boundary or plane at the point under consideration.

In the body of the fluid, the pressure may vary from point to point, and
the forces on each element of area will also vary. If the fluid pressure acts
on or across a plane surface, all the forces on the small elements swill be
parallel and can be represented by a single force, known as the ‘Resultant
force’, acting at right angles to the plane through a point called the ‘centre
of pressure’
p1A1
p1A1
p 2A2 p 2A2
p nAn

Forces on a curved surface

Fig 3.1
Forces on a plane surface

Resultant force = Sum of forces on all elements of area.

R  p1A1  p 2A2  .........................  p nAn =  pA

For a curved surface, the elementary forces will all act perpendicular to
the surface at each point and will therefore not be parallel. The resultant
of the forces can be found by resolving or by polygon of forces but will be
less than  pA
3.2 Resultant force and centre of pressure on a surface immersed
in a fluid
The position of the immersed surface can be either horizontal, vertical or
inclined.
Horizontal surface
Free water surface (FWS)

(Fig 3.2) shows a horizontal surface

x
immersed in water. Let

x = depth of surface in meters

 = specific mass of water Area = A

Since the pressure intensity at every

point on the surface will be the same Fig. 3.2 Pressure on immersed
(being at same depth), then horizontal surface

Total force o f the liquid

on the horizontal surface R = (pressure intensity) x (Area of surface)

 
R  g x A = gA x

Thus, R  gA x (Newton)………………………………………(3.1)

Question
A rectangular surface 3m by 2m is placed horizontally at a depth of 4m
below the free surface of oil of specific gravity 0.8. Find the force exerted
by the surface on oil

Vertically drowned surface

In this case, depth is not constant and hence the pressure intensity
along the surface of contact between the liquid and the solid surface.

We thus assume a small vertical strip of thickness ‘dx’ and width ‘b’ at a
depth ‘x’ from the FWS, for which it can safely be assumed that pressure
intensity remains constant.

Integrating along the whole length of the surface then gives the total
force on the surface.
 FWS
Total force
on strip = (Pressure) x (Area of strip)
x
x = gx b  dx 
dx

R G
Total force on surface R =  gbxdx
= g  bdx  x

b  bdx  x = 1st moment of area about the FWS

Fig. 3.3 Force on vertical surface = Ax

Thus, R  gA x ………………………………………………………….(3.2)

Question
A rectangular tank of size 5m x 3m has a partition wall parallel to 3m
side. On one side of the partition wall is filled on oil of specific gravity 0.8
up to the height 1.5m and on the other side is liquid of specific gravity
0.9 up to the height of 3m. Calculate the total resultant force on the
partition wall.

Inclined Surface
If the surface is inclined at angle ‘  ’ to the FWS, the procedure for
finding the resultant force is the same like for a vertically drowned
surface with the pressure intensity resolved normal to the surface.

C FWS

A
x

b dx
B

x
G

Fig3.4. Force on inclined surface

Taking a small horizontal strip of thickness ‘dx’ at a distance ‘x’ from
point C, the point of intersection of surface ‘AB’ with the free water
surface, the pressure intensity at this small strip normal to the surface is
given by
p  g  x sin 
Force on the strip = p x (Area of strip)

= g  x sin  bdx 

Total force on the whole surface R  g  bdx  x sin 

= g sin   bdx  x

Now  b  dx  x = 1st moment of area of the surface about point C

Ax
=
sin 

 Ax 
Thus, R  g   sin 
 = gA x ……………………………………(3.3)
 sin  

Question
A rectangular plate of size 30cm by 15cm is immersed in water such that
it makes an angle of 300C with the free water surface. The 15cm side is
parallel to the water surface and is 1m below it. Find the total force on
the plate.

3.3 Centre of pressure

Knowing that the pressure intensity of a liquid increases with depth, the
pressure acting on a vertically immersed surface will be greater over the
lower potion of the surface. It therefore follows that the resultant force
will act at some point towards the lower edge of the surface. This point at
which the resultant force acts is known as ‘Centre of pressure’. The centre of
pressure will always be below the centre of gravity of the immersed
surface.
Illustration
Consider a water wall having an opening as shown (Fig 3.5). The flow of
water through the opening is prevented by a gate AB which is suspended
by a cord at point C.
C FWS
The water pressure will tend to swing the
A gate AB about the point C. If force ‘F’ is to
be applied to maintain the gate in
H position, it would be equal in magnitude
G and opposite in direction to the water
pressure acting on the gate.
F
There will only be one point of application
B of the force to keep the gate perfectly
closed. This point is known as ‘Centre of
pressure’
Fig 3.5 Centre of pressure

If ‘F’ were applied below this point, the gate would open outwards at the
top and vice versa.

The position of centre of pressure can be found by taking moments of all

the forces acting on the gate about point C; where

Moment of force F Sum of all the moments of water

about point C = pressures on the gate AB about
FWS

Centre of pressure on a vertically immersed area.

Consider a vertically immersed surface (Fig 3.6) with C as a point of

application of the resultant force; i.e. centre of pressure.

FWS
H = depth of C.P below FWS
b x x = depth of centre of gravity
x
H I 0 = 2nd moment of area about FWS
dx
G Considering an elementary strip of
C width ‘b’ and thickness ‘dx’ at a
depth ‘x’ below the FWS,
Fig 3.6. Centre of pressure on a
vertically immersed surface Force on strip F = gx  bdx
Moment of force F on strip about FWS M s  gx  bdx  x = gx 2 b  dx

Total moment of force for the whole surface M T  g  bdx  x 2

2
Now  bdx  x = 2nd moment of area of the surface about the FWS
= I0

Therefore, Total moment M T  gI 0 ………………………………………(3.4)

Also, Moment of resultant force R about the FWS = RH ……………….(3.5)

For equilibrium to be assured, Equation (3.4) and (3.5) must be equal

Thus, RH  gI 0
gI 0 gI 0 I
OR H    0 ………………………………(3.6)
R gA x A x

2nd Moment of area

i.e. Depth of centre of pressure =
1st Moment of area

But from parallel axes theorem, I 0  I G  A x 2

Where I G , is the second moment of area of the surface about a horizontal

axis through the centre of gravity,

Equation (3.6) thus becomes,

H

I0  A x
2

=
IG
 x …………….(3.7)
Ax Ax

Note: It can clearly be noted from the above equation that the centre of
I
pressure is always below the centre of gravity by an amount G
Ax
Table 3.1: Geometrical properties of some common shapes

Surface Area C.G position IG

d d bd 3
G x I0 
x bd 2 12

x d
1 2d bd 3
G bd x I0 
2 3 36
b

x
d  2 d  4
d x IG  d
G 4 2 64

 2 2  4
d x d IG  d
G x 8 3 457
d

Question
An isosceles triangular plate 3m wide by 4m deep has its base at the
water surface and its top 4m below the centre of the base. Determine the
force the water exerts on the plate and hence locate the centre of
pressure.

Centre of pressure on an inclined immersed surface

The location of centre of pressure for an area inclined to the water
surface can be found by taking moments about ‘C’, the point of
intersection of the inclined area and the water surface.
 C FWS

A
x H

b dx
B

x
G
K
Fig 3.7. Centre of pressure on an
inclined surface

Considering an elementary horizontal strip of width ‘b’ and thickness ‘dx’

at a distance ‘x’ from point C, then

Pressure intensity (Normal to the surface) p  gx sin 

Force on element = p x (Area of strip)

= gx sin  b  dx 

Moment of this force about C = gx sin  b  dx   x

Total moment of all such forces about C = g sin   bdx  x 2

2
Now  bdx  x = 2nd moment of area of the surface about the FWS
= I0

Therefore, Total moment M T  gI 0 sin  …………………………………(3.8)

RH
Also, Moment of resultant force R about the FWS = ……………....(3.9)
sin 

For equilibrium to be assured, Equation (3.8) and (3.9) must be equal

RH
Thus,  gI 0 sin 
sin 
 gI 0 sin 2  gI 0 sin 2  I 0 sin 2 
OR H   …………………………(3.10)
R gA x Ax

But from parallel axes theorem, I 0  I G 

Ax 
2

sin 2 

Equation (3.10) thus becomes,



H  IG 
 2
A x  sin 2 

 sin 2
  Ax
 
OR
I G sin 2 
H  x ………………………………………………….(3.11)
Ax

Therefore in case of inclined surfaces, the centre of pressure is always

I sin 2 
below the centre of gravity by G
Ax

Question
A gate, made of rectangular plate of size 2m width and 3m deep is used
to close an opening made in the upstream face of a dam, which is
inclined at 450 to the horizontal. The 2m side of the plate is parallel to
and is 4m from the water surface. The top part of the plate is hinged,
while its bottom edge is connected to a chain. If the plate weighs 4905 N
then calculate the normal force required to open the gate with the help of
the chain.

3.4 Pressure Diagrams

The resultant force and centre of pressure can be found graphically for a
wall and other surfaces of constant vertical height for which it is
convenient to calculate the horizontal force per unit width.
Consider a vertical wall of a tank (Fig 3.8) containing a liquid. The
pressure diagram is plotted with pressure on the horizontal axis and
depth on the vertical axis.

FWS A
p  gy
y
2
H H
3
Liquid
Density  R
P
B C

Fig 3.8 Pressure diagram for a

gH
vertical wall

At the free surface ‘A’, the (gauge) pressure is zero. At depth ‘y’, p  gy .
Since the relationship between ‘p’ and ‘y’ is linear, it can be represented
by the triangle ABC whose area gives to scale the resultant force ‘R’ on
unit width of the immersed surface perpendicular to the plane of the
diagram (in Newton per metre)

1 1
Area of pressure diagram = AB  BC = H  gH
2 2

Therefore,
1
Resultant force, gH 2 (per unit width)…………………..(3.12)
2

Note: ‘R’ acts through the centroid P of the pressure diagram, which is at
2
a depth H from ‘A’
3

If the plane surface is inclined and submerged below the surface, the
pressure diagram is drawn perpendicular to the immersed surface (Fig
3.9) and will be a straight line extending from p  0 at the free surface to
p  gH at depth ‘H’.
 Question
A vertical wall 5m long divides a storage tank. On one side of the wall is
filled with oil of specific gravity 0.9 to a depth of 2m, while on the other
side is gasoline of specific gravity 0.8 up to the height of 4m. Calculate
the total force on the wall and also find the position of its centre of
pressure.

3.5 Force on curved surfaces due to hydrostatic pressure

When a curved surface is immersed in a liquid, the total pressure due to
liquid on the surface and the position of C.P can not be directly obtained
by the methods explained in the previous articles. The method adopted
for the computation of the resultant force is by drawing the force polygon
for the forces causing equilibrium.

FWS

Liquid
Density  As the immersed surface does not
H extend to the FWS, the resultant
force R is represented by the
P quardrateral shown instead of the
whole triangle, and acts through
the centroid ‘P’ of the quardrateral.
p  gH R

Fig 3.9 Pressure diagram for a

inclined submerged surface

Consider a curved surface AB (Fig 3.10). The resultant force and its point
of application can be obtained by considering the volume ABC of water
which is in equilibrium under the action of three forces, PH, PV, and R.

PV = Total vertical force on AB

PH = total horizontal force on rectangular area CB, a projection of surface
AB
 A p v  w = Weight of water of volume
C FWS
ABC acting through G, the
centre of gravity
G
F = Total reaction to water pressure
H
pH pH of Surface AB
a  b
H
3 R pv
F
B
c d
Fig 3.10 Hydrostatic force on curved surface
pv  w

As these three forces maintain the volume ABC of water in equilibrium,

they will meet at a common point ‘a’ the point of intersection of ‘PH’ and
‘PV’. from the geometry of the figure,

2 2
The resultant force R  p H  pV

p 
Acting at angle   tan 1  V 
 pH 

Note: If the water pressure acts below the curved surface AB, the weight
will be equal to the weight of the imaginary volume of water above the
surface up to the FWS

3.6 Buoyancy
The method of calculating the forces on curved surfaces applies to all
shapes and therefore to the surface of a totally submerged object. (Fig
3.11)
v

F H
G Plan

F F
B
C
A
D
Fig 3.11 Buoyancy

E v
 Considering any vertical plane ‘vv’ through the body, the projected area
of each of the two sides on this plane will be equal, and as a result, the
horizontal force ‘F’ will be equal and opposite. There is therefore no
resultant horizontal force on the body due to the pressure of the
surrounding fluid.

The only force exerted by the fluid on the body is vertical, and is called
‘Buoyancy’ or ‘Upthrust’

If ABCD is a horizontal plane,

Upward force on lower Downward force on upper

Upthrust = -
surface of ADEC surface of ABCD

Weight of volume of Weight of volume of

= -
fluid AECDGFH fluid ABCDGFH

Weight of volume of
=
fluid ABCDE

Therefore,
Upthrust = Weight of fluid displaced by the body

This will act through the centre of the volume of fluid displaced, i.e.
‘centre of buoyancy’.

This result is known as ‘Archimedes Principle’

If the body is immersed so that part of its volume V1 is immersed in fluid

of density 1 and the rest of its volume V2 in another immiscible fluid of
mass density  2 (Fig 3.12)

R1
Fluid of density 1
v1 G1
G2 v2

Fig 3.12 Body immersed in two R2 Fluid of Density 2

fluids
Upthrust on upper part R1  1 gv1 acting through G1 the centre of V1

Upthrust on lower part R2   2 gv 2 acting through G2 the centre of V2

Therefore,
Total Upthrust, R  g  1v1   2 v 2  ………………………..(3.13)

Note: The positions of G1 and G2 are not necessarily on the same vertical
line, and the centre of buoyancy of the whole body is therefore not bound
to pass through the centre of the whole body.

Question
A rectangular body has a width of 6m, length of 12m and draught of
1.5m in fresh water. Calculate the draught of the body in sea water of
density 1025kg/m3. Find also the load that can be supported by the
body in fresh water if the maximum draught permissible is 2m

Exercise
A rectangular open box, 7.6m by 3.0m in plan, 4m deep, and of mass 40
tonnes is launched in fresh water. Determine how deep the box will sink.
If the water is 4m deep, what mass of stone if placed in the box will
cause it to rest at the bottom?

3.7 Equilibrium of Floating Bodies

When a body floats in vertical equilibrium in a liquid, the forces present
are:
Upthrust ‘R’ acting through the centre of buoyancy (Fig 3.13) and
Weight of the body ‘W = mg’ acting through the centre of gravity.

For equilibrium, ‘R’ and ‘W’ must be equal and act in the same straight
line.
 W = mg The equilibrium of a body may be
stable, unstable or neutral,
FWS depending upon whether, when
G given a small displacement it tends
to return to its equilibrium position,
Volume B
displace = V move from it, or remain in the
displaced position.
R
Fig 3.13 Body floating in Note: For floating bodies, such as
equilibrium
ships, stability is of major importance

3.8 Stability of a Submerged Body

For a submerged body, what ever the orientation, the centre of buoyancy
and the centre of gravity remain in the same position relative to the body
(Fig 3.14)

A small angular displacement  from equilibrium position will generate a

moment w  BG   . If the centre of gravity ‘G’ is below the centre of
buoyancy ‘B’ (Fig 3.14 (a)), this will be a ‘righting moment’ and the body will
tend to return to its equilibrium position

However, if the centre of gravity is above the centre of buoyancy, (as in fig
(b)), an overturning moment is produced and the body is unstable

R w  mg
R
B B G G
R

G G B B w  mg
R
 
w  mg w  mg

(b) Unstable
(a) Stable
Fig 3.14 Stability of a submerged body
Note: When the body is totally immersed, the shape of the displaced fluid
is not altered when the body is tilted and so the centre of buoyancy
remains unchanged relative to the body.

3.9 Stability of Floating Bodies

Consider a body floating in equilibrium as shown in (Fig 3.15). The
weight ‘W’ acts through the centre o f gravity ‘G’ and the upthrust ‘R’ acts
through the centre of buoyancy B of the displaced fluid in the same
straight line as ‘W’

When the body is displaced through an angle  (Fig b), ‘W’ continues to
act through ‘G’ and the volume of the liquid remains unchanged since
R  W , but the shape of this volume changes and its centre of gravity,
which is the centre of buoyancy moves relative to the body from B to B1.

Since R and W are no longer in the same straight line, a turning moment
proportional to W is produced. In Fig (b), it is a righting moment and an
overturning moment in Fig (d).

w  mg
w  mg 
x
G G
B
B1
Rw
(a) (b)
Stable Rw

w  mg w  mg

G G
B B1
(c) x (d)
Rw Unstable Rw

Fig 3.15 Stability of a floating Body

If M is a point at which the line of intersection of the upthrust R cuts the
original vertical through the centre of gravity of the body G, then for
small angles,
x  GM  

Point M is called the ‘Metacentre’ and the distance GM is the ‘Metacentric

height’.

Comparison of Fig (b) and Fig (d)

If ‘M’ lies above ‘G’, a righting moment W  GM   is produced,
equilibrium is stable and ‘GM’ is regarded positive
If ‘M’ lies below ‘G’, an overturning moment W  GM   is produced,
equilibrium is unstable and ‘GM’ is regarded negative
If ‘M’ coincides with ‘G’, the body is in neutral equilibrium.