Resources, Conservation and Recycling 51 (2007) 284–293

Sustainable urban sewerage system and

its application in China
Zhang Jie, Cao Xiang-Sheng ∗ , Meng Xue-Zheng
Key Laboratory of Beijing for Water Quality Science and Water Environment Restoration Engineering,
School of Civil Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100022, China

Received 4 August 2006; received in revised form 30 September 2006; accepted 4 October 2006
Available online 1 March 2007

Abstract

China is facing water crisis. More than 400 cities are lacking enough water resources and more than
half rivers are polluted. To realize sustainable development in the 21st century, we should first provide
enough water resources to every person and keep a friendly, leisurely water environment. Under the
idea of sustainability, a concept for a sustainable urban sewerage system (SUSS) is put forward in
this article. An urban sewerage system cannot only be a basic facility for draining rainwater and
wastewater to protect the urban environment and public water bodies, but must also contribute to the
restoration of the water environment in order to maintain a healthy social water cycle. A SUSS should
be the basis for urban water reuse and recycling as well as the focus of water resource regeneration
in a watershed and the centre of the recycling of nutrients. SUSS practices in the Shenzhen Special
Economic Zone and the Beijing region in China are introduced.
© 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Water; Resources; Wastewater; Reuse; Sustainability; China

1. Introduction

Water resources in China are scarce. According to China Bulletin of Water Resources
published by China Ministry of Water Resources, in 2004, the total amount of water

∗ Corresponding author at: No. 100, Pingleyuan, Chaoyang District, College of Civil Engineering, Beijing

University of Technology, Beijing 100022, China. Tel.: +86 10 67392579; fax: +86 10 67392579.
E-mail address: cao0531@bjut.edu.cn (X.-S. Cao).

0921-3449/$ – see front matter © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2006.10.001
 J. Zhang et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 51 (2007) 284–293 285

resources in China is 2.413 × 1013 m3 . It is equal to 1856 m3 per capita per year. Among
these, 23%, that is 5.548 × 1012 m3 , was used for agricultural, industry and domestic activ-
ities. At the same time, 6930 × 108 m3 wastewater was discharged from Chinese cities. No
more than half amounts were subject to the secondary treatment. More than half rivers in
China are terribly polluted (Gao et al., 2006).
To tackle the water crisis, the government of China had published a lot of regulations;
researches had suggested a lot of strategies; engineers had planned and constructed many
water supplies and wastewater treatment projects (Bai et al., 2006; He and Xing, 2006; Pan
et al., 2006). But with the development of Chinese economics, water resources is becoming
increasing deficient and the quality of environment constantly becoming worse in most
regions of China.
A new water use and treatment strategy must be established to tackle the water problems
of China and to realize the sustainable development. The functioning of urban sewerage
systems based on traditional concepts is not sustainable; it needs to be changed. An urban
sewerage system cannot only be a basic facility for draining rainwater and wastewater to
protect the urban environment and public water bodies, but must also contribute to the
restoration of the water environment in order to maintain a healthy social water cycle. A
social water cycle is defined as a system that includes drawing water from natural bodies,
utilizing it and discharging it back to the water bodies (Zhang, 2001). A healthy social water
cycle means that we should draw water moderately, use water carefully, purify and reuse
wastewater deliberately. We should ensure that the water utilization in the upper reaches of
the rivers does not affect the function of water bodies in the lower reaches of the rivers. The
ultimate aim is to restore or maintain a healthy water environment for a city or river basin
and eventually achieve the sustainable utilization of water resources. A healthy social water
cycle is also an essential component of establishing a city that recycles (Guan et al., 2004).
The aim of this article is to discuss function and design considerations for a sustainable
urban sewerage system using concepts associated with a healthy water cycle. In this paper
we will introduce some urban planning suggestions to promote such a healthy water cycle.

2. The development of sustainable urban sewerage systems

2.1. History of urban sewerage system

The earliest urban sewerage systems were constructed to only transport excess overland
rainwater as quickly as possible from a city to rivers that were downstream from the city
(Aminuddin et al., 2000; Angelakis et al., 2005). The flush toilet was invented in the 18th
century and became widespread throughout the cities of Europe in the 19th century. The
widespread use of flush toilets improved the sanitation conditions of urban residents, but
the amount of water supply and sewerage required as a result increased dramatically. At this
time, the sewer and run-off sewerage systems were constructed as a combined sewerage sys-
tem. The function of the urban sewerage system changed to this combined system to protect
the inhabitants from bacterial infection as the major component of sanitary engineering.
However, rivers and lakes near cities became terribly polluted during this period because
of large amount of untreated wastewater containing feces and urine. The pollution of the
286 J. Zhang et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 51 (2007) 284–293

Rhine River in the 20th century is a typical illustration (Carel, 1998). The improvements
in living conditions of city inhabitants were obtained at the price of pollution of the water
environment.
Research and practices of wastewater treatment technology began in the early 20th cen-
tury with a starting condition in which the rivers and lakes were badly polluted. During
the past century, the technologies associated with wastewater treatment advanced dramati-
cally with the removal of pollutants, including suspended solids and organics, subsequently
nitrogen and phosphates and finally micropollutants, such as disinfection byproducts and
hormone-like substances (Henze, 1997). Currently, the functions of urban sewerage systems
are as follows: (1) transport rainwater and wastewater outside a city as soon as possible to
protect against floods and prevent the spread of epidemics; (2) treat municipal wastewater
to reach or exceed the standards of state or local regulations.

2.2. The pattern of sustainable urban sewerage systems in the 21st century

The above-mentioned functions of urban sewerage systems were formed under the
hypothesis that water resources were abundant enough to splurge and that the rivers or lakes
that wastewater was dumped into had enough capacity for self-purification. This hypoth-
esis was supported when populations were not very large or centralized and industries
were underdeveloped. As industries developed, people became increasingly centralized
and metropolitan areas emerged. At this time traditional urban sewerage systems could
only protect the area within cities. The regions around the cities were badly polluted by
wastewater and other wastes produced by the townspeople.
From the perspective of the restoration of entire watersheds, urban sewerage systems are
part of the overall hydrological cycle. The function of urban sewerage systems should be
reevaluated and new missions should be espoused. Urban sewerage systems should play an
important role in a healthy water cycle and in sustainable urban construction. If we compare a
city to a human body, water can be thought of as blood. The water supply system is analogous
to the arteries and the wastewater system is analogous to the veins. A wastewater treatment
plant could be considered as analogous to the liver because of the plant’s role in purifying
urban wastewater. Urban sewerage systems are of necessity responsible for wastewater
collection, transportation, purification and reclamation. An urban sewerage system is the
key factor for closing the urban water cycle.
The function of an urban sewerage system in the 21st century should shift from tradi-
tional waterlogging prevention to the establishment of wastewater recycling, sustainable
utilization of water resources and watershed restoration. This new urban sewerage system
is called a sustainable urban sewerage system (SUSS) in this article and a sketch of its key
features is shown in Fig. 1.
A typical SUSS has four modern features described as follows:
(1) It is the basis for urban water reuse and recycling. A SUSS has the duty of pro-
ducing reclaimed wastewater as a steady secondary urban water resource. Reclaimed
wastewater can be used as cooling water for industry, irrigation water for landscaping,
flowing water for rivulet regeneration and for any other application where non-potable
water may be used. A large volume of reclaimed wastewater could reduce fresh water
exploitation, and thus promote a healthy water cycle.
 J. Zhang et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 51 (2007) 284–293 287

Fig. 1. Sketch of a sustainable urban sewerage system.

(2) Water resource regeneration in a watershed hinges on SUSS. In a watershed, wastewater

drained from upriver cities flows into downriver cities. Outflow of upriver SUSS would
be a part of the water resource of downriver cities throughout an entire watershed. Each
SUSS should have this water resource regeneration capacity.
(3) SUSS is central to nutrient recycling. As a product of wastewater treatment, sludge
should be treated properly and returned to farmland as fertilizer. Nitrogen and phos-
phates in wastewater should be recovered as fertilizer during the wastewater collection,
transportation and treatment process. SUSS plays an important role in the reparation
of natural nutrient cycles. Note: Chinese law states that industrial wastewater must be
pretreated for the removal of heavy metals before being released into the municipal
wastewater stream.
(4) SUSS is the basis for scarce resource recovery and energy recovery. Most metabolic
products of city dwellers are discharged into urban sewerage pipeline systems and
are transported to the wastewater treatment plant. This kind of wastewater contains
much energy. Anaerobic treatment of wastewater or sludge could potentially produce
methane, which can be used as fuel (Chan et al., 1999). The energy contained in wastew-
ater could also be extracted by heat pump technology (Baek et al., 2005). Certain
valuable metals or other scarce resources are also found in wastewater, particularly in
industrial sewerage pipelines. Recycling of valuable substances in industrial wastewater
may be an important part of an industrial circular economy.

2.3. Comparison between sustainable and traditional urban sewerage systems

2.3.1. Principles of an urban sewerage system plan

In sustainable urban sewerage system planning, convenience both for municipal
wastewater reclamation and for rainwater utilization should be emphasized. This is the
288 J. Zhang et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 51 (2007) 284–293

fundamental difference between a conventional urban sewerage system and SUSS (Zhang,
2001).
The aim of treatment of wastewater in a SUSS is to produce reclaimed wastewater in what
are called reclaimed wastewater production plants (RWPPs). There are distinct differences
between RWPPs and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in a traditional urban sewerage
system. As key components of SUSS, rainwater sewers and treatment facilities are important
to realize the sustainability of the urban sewerage system. Rainwater is the most important
source of surface flow and underground flow and should not drain down from the city as
quickly as possible, as it does in a traditional urban sewerage system. In a SUSS rainwater
should be retained in the city as long as possible and should be treated properly in order to
be recycled within the city.

2.3.2. The scale, location and number of reclaimed wastewater production plants
According to the regulations of traditional urban sewerage system planning, reclaimed
wastewater production plants should be located in the lower reaches of the city. But this
arrangement places the sources of reclaimed wastewater far from their consumers. Thus the
investment and operational costs of reclaimed wastewater pipeline systems increase. This
would not be favourable, as consumers would need to spend more money when they use
the reclaimed wastewater. Therefore, the following should be exhaustively investigated in
making a decision as to the sewerage zone separation and the number of RWPPs: (1) the
functional separation and the terrain of the city, (2) the present wastewater and rainwater
pipeline distribution, (3) the environmental capacity of the water bodies that accept the
effluent of RWPPs and (4) the location and dimensions of present and future demands of
reclaimed wastewater.
Based on past practical experience, large-scale WWTPs are highly efficient and the cost
of running and construction per cubic meter of wastewater is lower than small WWTPs. So
in a traditional urban sewerage system, WWTPs are constructed to be as large as possible
and most cities have only one WWTP in the lower reaches of cities. But in a SUSS using
an RWPP design, this experience may not be applicable because the length of pipelines
for wastewater and reclaimed wastewater are too long so reclaimed wastewater pumping
stations must be built if only one RWPP is located in the lower reaches of cities. Therefore
decisions about the number of RWPPs cannot be limited by traditional experience. The
practical demands of reclaimed wastewater should be carefully considered. RWPPs should
not be centralized in the lower reaches of the city, as are the location of WWTPs in traditional
urban sewerage system planning. Large, moderate or small RWPPs can be located upstream
or downstream or throughout the entire city over the length of the wastewater pipeline so that
the reclaimed wastewater pipeline can be shortened and the cost of reclaimed wastewater
production reduced.

2.3.3. Wastewater treatment degree and process selection

Under the concept of a traditional urban sewerage system, many cities in China pay con-
siderable attention to the secondary treatment of wastewater in order to attain the Integrated
Wastewater Discharge Standard (GB8978-1996). But it is not sufficient in most instances to
construct a SUSS. It is necessary to increase the discharge criteria for wastewater treatment
by using advanced treatments or even super-advanced treatments in order to increase the
 J. Zhang et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 51 (2007) 284–293 289

amount of wastewater reuse and to restore the water environment downstream from the
cities. When planning an RWPP, the possibility of super-advanced treatment of wastewater
should be considered. At a minimum, sufficient space should be set aside and dedicated for
the future addition of a super-advanced treatment unit.
In China great difficulties exist in planning and constructing advanced or super-advanced
wastewater treatment plants due to the opposition of decision-making officials and the huge
cost of construction and maintenance. Environmental and civil researchers and engineers
play an important advocacy role for the concept and benefits of SUSS.
In the traditional urban sewerage systems present in most of China, advanced processes
for reclaiming wastewater have been added only after typical secondary treatment WWTPs
had already been completely built. The effluent of secondary treatment becomes the influent
of RWPPs. This pattern has made the pipelines too long and the process too complex and
the costs of reclaimed wastewater production too high when considering the entire process
from primary to advanced treatment of wastewater. In SUSS, the principles used in the
selection of the processes for traditional wastewater treatment plants are not suited for a
RWPPs plan and design. Primary, secondary and tertiary or advanced treatment units should
be regarded as parts of the whole system when it comes to the selection of processes for
wastewater treatment. Removal of carbon, nitrogen, phosphate and other pollutants should
be distributed reasonably throughout the entire treatment sequence. This is the concept
behind the Reclaimed Wastewater Production Whole Process (RWPWP), which has been
researched for about ten years in China.

3. Practices of sustainable urban sewerage systems in China

3.1. Shenzhen Special Economic Zone

Shenzhen is the first and largest special economic zone and it is also one of the seven
cities that are most deficient in water resources in China (Xiong et al., 2004). According to
an earlier plan, after the Dongshen Water Supply Project and the Eastern Water Resource
Project were completed, only 0.768 billion m3 of water per year could be provided to
Shenzhen. This translates to 374 m3 of water per capita per year for citizens of the Shenzhen
Special Economic Zone (Xiong et al., 2004). This shortage of water resources is a critical
factor restricting the development of the Shenzhen region.
Meanwhile, the water environment of Shenzhen has become terribly polluted. Although
the amount of wastewater treated by secondary treatment was 56% of the total wastewater
discharged by the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone, the quality of most of the water in rivers
which flow across the zone is Class V according to the Environmental Quality Standard
for Surface Water of China (GHZB 1-1999) (Wang and Li, 2002). That is to say, the 5-
day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) concentration exceeds 10 mg/l and the dissolved
oxygen concentration is no more than 2 mg/l in the river water. There is no life in Shenzhen
rivers, the water bodies are black in colour and there is a bad odour near the rivers.
To restore the water environment and realize sustainable utilization of water resources
for the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone, a wastewater reuse project was conducted in
2000 (Wang and Li, 2002). In 2001, the specific plan of the wastewater reuse system was
290 J. Zhang et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 51 (2007) 284–293

Fig. 2. Sketch of reclaimed wastewater system in Shenzhen City.

finished by the Chinese Northeast Municipal Engineering Institute. According to this, as

yet unrealized, plan, reclaimed wastewater pipe networks were divided into six parts as
shown in Fig. 2. The total length of pipeline will be about 130 km and the total volume of
reclaimed wastewater is projected to be 500,000 m3 per day.
The scale and location of each RWPP has been determined based on the careful consid-
eration of distribution of reclaimed wastewater consumers, the landform of the Shenzhen
region, the present wastewater pipeline locations, etc.
When all the RWPPs have been completely constructed, the pattern, in which the loca-
tions of the RWPPs were all downstream of the city, will be changed and the urban sewerage
system in Shenzhen Special Economic Zone will become a centre of water resource recy-
cling. This will then be an application of the concept of SUSS.

3.2. Beijing region

The annual precipitation of the Beijing region is 595 mm and the quantity of water
resources is no more than 300 m3 per capita per year (Wang, 2003). The quality of surface
water in the Beijing region is worse than Class V, according to the Environmental Quality
Standard for Surface Water of China (GHZB1-1999). Ground water has been seriously
exploited and the level of ground water decreased 1.29 m each year in the initial years of
the 21st century (Wang, 2003).
In 2001, the Government of Beijing and the Ministry of Water Resources of the Peo-
ple’s Republic of China authorized “the Capital Sustainable Water Resources Utilization
at the Beginning of the 21st Century (from 2001 to 2005)”. In June of the same year,
the Beijing Group of Wastewater authorized the “Outline Plan of Reclaimed Wastew-
ater in Beijing Region”. In this report the plans for RWPPs and the related reclaimed
wastewater pipelines are laid out as shown in Fig. 3. The Beijing Olympics Action Plan
promises that Beijing will attain a rate of secondary treatment of wastewater of least 90%
and endeavour to reach a recycling rate of wastewater of 50% before 2008. The name
of the RWPPs and related pipelines that are scheduled for completion before 2008 are
 J. Zhang et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 51 (2007) 284–293 291

Fig. 3. Sketch of reclaimed wastewater system in Beijing city.

shown in Table 1. All these plans mean that SUSS will be mandated for the Beijing
region.
In 2004, the writers of this paper finished an unpublished report entitled “Water Envi-
ronment Restoration Strategies for Beijing Region” supported by the Beijing Municipal

Table 1
Reclaimed wastewater system those are scheduled for completion before 2008 in Beijing region
RWPPs Scale of RWPPs (tonnes per day) Length of reclaimed wastewater pipeline (km)
Qinghe 80,000 94
Beixiaohe 60,000 36
Beiyuan 10,000 14
Jiuxianqiao 80,000 34
Dongba 10,000
Wujiacun 80,000 67
Lugouqiao 80,000 48
Xiaohongmen 70,000 72
Wulituo 6,000 6
292 J. Zhang et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 51 (2007) 284–293

Commission of Education. We suggested strategies for the Beijing region from the perspec-
tive of watershed restoration and protection, water and wastewater utilization and water
environment restoration. At the same time, a plan for changing the function of the sewerage
system in Beijing city was also put forward. According to the research results of this project,
the Beijing region has been divided into 12 wastewater reclamation and reuse areas. The
amount of reclaimed wastewater is projected to reach 0.87 billion m3 which is one-third
of the total amount of currently available fresh water in the Beijing region. In addition the
amount of water pollutants is expected to be reduced by 40% before 2010.

4. Conclusions

Sustainable Urban Sewerage Systems for the 21st century in China are the lifeline
of water environmental restoration. Their function goes beyond the traditional task of
discharging rainwater and wastewater and preventing the pollution of public water bodies.
Sustainable Urban Sewerage Systems are at the centre of realization of healthy water
recycling and are basic to resources and energy recycling. They harmoniously connect the
social water cycle of human society with the natural hydrological cycle.
The concept of sustainable urban sewerage systems is being planned in China. The
Shenzhen Special Economic Zone and the Capital of the People’s Republic of China will
probably be the first two regions to realize Sustainable Urban Sewerage Systems.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Drs. Edmund F. and Rhoda E. Perozzi, of the Beijing
University of Technology for very extensive suggestions, editing and English language
assistance. This work is financially supported by Beijing Natural Science Foundation Pro-
gram and Scientific Research Key Program of Beijing Municipal Commission of Education
(KZ200610005001).

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