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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 2 - MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS ........................................................................................................................ 3
SECTION 201 - GENERAL ..................................................................................................................................................... 3
201.1 Scope ................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
SECTION 202 - DEFINITIONS............................................................................................................................................... 3
202.1 Walls .................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
SECTION 203 - COMBINATIONS OF LOADS .................................................................................................................... 4
203.1 General .............................................................................................................................................................................. 4
203.2 Notations............................................................................................................................................................................ 4
203.3 Load Combinations using Strength Design or Load and Resistance Factor Design .......................................................... 4
203.4 Load Combinations Using Allowable Stress Design ......................................................................................................... 5
203.5 Special Seismic Load Combinations ................................................................................................................................. 5
SECTION 204 - DEAD LOADS ............................................................................................................................................... 8
204.1 General .............................................................................................................................................................................. 8
204.2 Weights of Materials and Constructions ............................................................................................................................ 8
204.3 Partition Loads ................................................................................................................................................................... 8
SECTION 205 - LIVE LOADS ................................................................................................................................................ 8
205.1 General .............................................................................................................................................................................. 8
205.2 Critical Distribution of Live Loads .................................................................................................................................... 8
205.3 Floor Live Loads ............................................................................................................................................................... 8
205.4 Roof Live Loads .............................................................................................................................................................. 12
205.5 Reduction of Live Loads ................................................................................................................................................. 13
205.6 Alternate Floor Live Load Reduction .............................................................................................................................. 13
SECTION 206 - OTHER MINIMUM LOADS ..................................................................................................................... 14
206.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................ 14
206.2 Other Loads ..................................................................................................................................................................... 14
206.3 Impact Loads ................................................................................................................................................................... 14
206.4 Anchorage of Concrete and Masonry Walls .................................................................................................................... 14
206.5 Interior Wall Loads .......................................................................................................................................................... 14
206.6 Retaining Walls ............................................................................................................................................................... 14
206.7 Water Accumulation ........................................................................................................................................................ 14
206.8 Uplift on Floors and Foundations .................................................................................................................................... 14
206.9 Crane Loads ..................................................................................................................................................................... 15
206.10 Heliport and Helistop Landing Areas ............................................................................................................................ 15
SECTION 207 - WIND LOADS ............................................................................................................................................. 16
207.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................ 16
207.2 Definitions ....................................................................................................................................................................... 16
207.3 Symbols and Notation...................................................................................................................................................... 19
207.4 Method 1 – Simplified Procedure .................................................................................................................................... 19
207.5 Method 2 – Analytical Procedure .................................................................................................................................... 20
207.6 Method 3 – Wind Tunnel Procedure................................................................................................................................ 31
207.7 Gust Effect Factor for Other Structures ........................................................................................................................... 31
207.8 Estimates of Dynamic Properties ..................................................................................................................................... 32
207.9 Consensus Standards and Other Referenced Documents................................................................................................. 33
SECTION 208 - EARTHQUAKE LOADS ........................................................................................................................... 70
208.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................ 70
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National Structural Code of the Philippines 6 Edition Volume 1
2-2 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN is a method of LOADS are forces or other actions that result from the
proportioning and designing structural members such that weight of all building materials, occupants and their
elastically computed stresses produced in the members by possessions, environmental effects, differential
nominal loads do not exceed specified allowable stresses movements, and restrained dimensional changes.
(also called working stress design). Permanent loads are those loads in which variations over
time are rare or of small magnitude. All other loads are
ASSEMBLY BUILDING is a building or portion of a variable loads.
building for the gathering together of 50 or more persons
for such purposes as deliberation, education, instruction, LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN
worship, entertainment, amusement, drinking or dining, or (LRFD) METHOD is a method of proportioning and
awaiting transportation. designing structural elements using load and resistance
factors such that no applicable limit state is reached when
AWNING is an architectural projection that provides the structure is subjected to all appropriate load
weather protection, identity or decoration and is wholly combinations. The term "LRFD" is used in the design of
supported by the building to which it is attached. steel structures.
BALCONY, EXTERIOR, is an exterior floor system MARQUEE is a permanent roofed structure attached to
projecting from and supported by a structure without and supported by the building and projecting over public
additional independent supports. right-of-way.
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National Structural Code of the Philippines 6 Edition Volume 1
2-4 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
BEARING WALL is any wall meeting either of the The most critical effect can occur when one or more of
following classifications: the contributing loads are not acting. All applicable loads
shall be considered, including both earthquake and wind,
1. Any metal or wood stud wall that supports more than
in accordance with the specified load combinations.
1.45 kN/m of vertical load in addition to its own
weight.
203.2 Symbols and Notations
2. Any masonry or concrete wall that supports more
than 2.90 kN/m of vertical load in addition to its own D = dead load
weight. E = earthquake load set forth in Section 208.5.1.1
Em = estimated maximum earthquake force that can be
EXTERIOR WALL is any wall or element of a wall, or developed in the structure as set forth in Section
any member or group of members, that defines the 208.5.1.1
exterior boundaries or courts of a building and that has a F = load due to fluids with well-defined pressures and
slope of 60 degrees or greater with the horizontal plane. maximum heights
H = load due to lateral pressure of soil and water in
NONBEARING WALL is any wall that is not a bearing soil
wall. L = live load, except roof live load, including any
permitted live load reduction
PARAPET WALL is that part of any wall entirely above Lr = roof live load, including any permitted live load
the roof line. reduction
P = ponding load
RETAINING WALL is a wall designed to resist the R = rain load on the undeflected roof
lateral displacement of soil or other materials. T = self-straining force and effects arising from
contraction or expansion resulting from
temperature change, shrinkage, moisture change,
creep in component materials, movement due to
differential settlement, or combinations thereof
W = load due to wind pressure
where:
f1 = 1.0 for floors in places of public assembly, for live
loads in excess of 4.8 kPa, and for garage live load.
= 0.5 for other live loads
Em = The maximum effect of horizontal and vertical
forces as set forth in Section 208.5.1.1
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National Structural Code of the Philippines 6 Edition Volume 1
2-6 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
Table 204-1 Minimum Densities for Design Loads from Materials (kN/m3)
Table 204-2 Minimum Design Dead Loads (kPa) (Use actual loads when available)
Provision shall be made in areas where vehicles are used concentrated or uniform live load, combined in
or stored for concentrated loads, L, consisting of two or accordance with Section 203.3 or 203.4 as appropriate,
more loads spaced 1.5 m nominally on center without producing the greatest stresses shall govern.
uniform live loads. Each load shall be 40 percent of the
gross weight of the maximum size vehicle to be
accommodated. Parking garages for the storage of private 205.3.4 Special Loads
or pleasure-type motor vehicles with no repair or Provision shall be made for the special vertical and lateral
refueling shall have a floor system designed for a loads as set forth in Table 205-2.
concentrated load of not less than 9 kN acting on an area
of 0.015 m2 without uniform live loads. The condition of
Table 205-1 – Minimum Uniform and Concentrated Live Loads
Concentrated
Use or Occupancy Uniform Load 1
Load
Category Description kPa kN
Office use 2.4 9.0 2
1. Access floor systems
Computer use 4.8 9.0 2
2. Armories -- 7.2 0
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National Structural Code of the Philippines 6 Edition, Volume I
2-10 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
See See
10. Handrails
Note 10 Note 10
See
Over 2.4 m Total
11. Storage racks Table
high loads11
208-12
1.1 kN plus
12. Fire sprinkler See
weight of
structural - Table
water-filled
support 208-12
pipe12
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National Structural Code of the Philippines 6 Edition, Volume I
2-12 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
205.4.3 Unbalanced Loading The live load reduction shall not exceed 40 percent in
Unbalanced loads shall be used where such loading will garages for the storage of private pleasure cars having a
result in larger members or connections. Trusses and capacity of not more than nine passengers per vehicle.
arches shall be designed to resist the stresses caused by
unit live loads on one half of the span if such loading 205.6 Alternate Floor Live Load Reduction
results in reverse stresses, or stresses greater in any
portion than the stresses produced by the required unit As an alternate to Equation (205-1), the unit live loads set
forth in Table 205-1 may be reduced in accordance with
live load on the entire span. For roofs whose structures
are composed of a stressed shell, framed or solid, wherein Equation 205-3 on any member, including flat slabs,
stresses caused by any point loading are distributed having an influence area of 40 m2 or more.
throughout the area of the shell, the requirements for 1
unbalanced unit live load design may be reduced 50 L Lo 0.25 4.57 (205-3)
percent. A
I
where:
205.4.4 Special Roof Loads
AI = influence area, m2
Roofs to be used for special purposes shall be designed
L = reduced design live load per square meter of area
for appropriate loads as approved by the building official. supported by the member
Greenhouse roof bars, purlins and rafters shall be Lo = unreduced design live load per square meter of area
designed to carry a 0.45 kN concentrated load, Lr, in supported by the member (Table 205-1)
addition to the uniform live load
The influence area AI is four times the tributary area for a
205.5 Reduction of Live Loads column, two times the tributary area for a beam, equal to
The design live load determined using the unit live loads the panel area for a two-way slab, and equal to the
as set forth in Table 205-1 for floors and Table 205-3, product of the span and the full flange width for a precast
Method 2, for roofs may be reduced on any member T-beam
supporting more than 15 m2, including flat slabs, except
for floors in places of public assembly and for live loads The reduced live load shall not be less than 50 percent of
greater than 4.8 kPa, in accordance with the following the unit live load Lo for members receiving load from one
equation: level only, nor less than 40 percent of the unit live load Lo
for other members.
R r ( A 15) (205-1)
where:
A = area of floor or roof supported by the member,
square meter, m2
D = dead load per square meter of area supported by
the member, kPa
L = unit live load per square meter of area supported by
the member, kPa
R = reduction in percentage, %.
r = rate of reduction equal to 0.08 for floors. See Table
205-3 for roofs
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
2-14 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
the underside of the construction. Any other upward 206.9.5 Longitudinal Forces
loads shall be included in the design. The longitudinal force on crane runway beams, except for
bridge cranes with hand-geared bridges, shall be
Where expansive soils are present under foundations or calculated as 10% of the maximum wheel loads of the
slabs-on-ground, the foundations, slabs, and other crane. The longitudinal force shall be assumed to act
components shall be designed to tolerate the movement or horizontally at the traction surface of a runway beam, in
resist the upward loads caused by the expansive soils, or either direction parallel to the beam.
the expansive soil shall be removed or stabilized around
and beneath the structure.
206.10 Heliport and Helistop Landing Areas
In addition to other design requirements of this chapter,
206.9 Crane Loads
heliport and helistop landing or touchdown areas shall be
designed for the following loads, combined in accordance
206.9.1 General with Section 203.3 or 203.4:
The crane load shall be the rated capacity of the crane. 1. Dead load plus actual weight of the helicopter.
Design loads for the runway beams, including
connections and support brackets, of moving bridge 2. Dead load plus a single concentrated impact load, L,
cranes and monorail cranes shall include the maximum covering 0.1 m2 of 0.75 times the fully loaded weight
wheel loads of the crane and the vertical impact, lateral, of the helicopter if it is equipped with hydraulic-type
and longitudinal forces induced by the moving crane. shock absorbers, or 1.5 times the fully loaded weight
of the helicopter if it is equipped with a rigid or skid-
type landing gear.
206.9.2 Maximum Wheel Load
The maximum wheel loads shall be the wheel loads The dead load plus a uniform live load, L, of 4.8 kPa. The
produced by the weight of the bridge, as applicable, plus required live load may be reduced in accordance with
the sum of the rated capacity and the weight of the trolley Section 205.5 or 205.6.
with the trolley positioned on its runway where the
resulting load effect is maximum.
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
2-16 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
207.1.3 Wind Pressures Acting on Opposite Faces of BUILDING, LOW-RISE: Enclosed or partially enclosed
Each Building Surface building that comply with the following conditions:
In the calculation of design wind loads for the MWFRS 1. Mean roof height h less than or equal to 18 m.
and for components and cladding for buildings, the
algebraic sum of the pressures acting on opposite faces of 2. Mean roof height h does not exceed least horizontal
each building surface shall be taken into account. dimension.
These conditions are expressed by the following GLAZING: Glass or transparent or translucent plastic
equations: sheet used in windows, doors, skylights, or curtain walls.
1. Ao > 1.10 Aoi
GLAZING, IMPACT RESISTANT: Glazing that has
2. Ao > smaller of (0.5m² or 0.01 Ag) and been shown by testing in accordance with ASTM E1886
Aoi /Agi 0.20 and ASTM E1996 or other approved test methods to
withstand the impact of wind-borne missiles likely to be
BUILDING OR OTHER STRUCTURE, REGULAR- generated in wind-borne debris regions during design
SHAPED: A building or other structure having no winds.
unusual geometrical irregularity in spatial form.
HILL: With respect to topographic effects in Section
BUILDING RIGID: A building or other structure whose 207.5.7, a land surface characterized by strong relief in
fundamental frequency is greater than or equal to 1 Hz. any horizontal direction (Figure 207-4)
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
2-18 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
WIND-BORNE DEBRIS REGIONS: Areas within G = gust effect factor for rigid buildings; also called
typhoon prone regions located: “simplified dynamic response factor” and is
equivalent to Gf with R (resonant response factor)
1. Within 1.6 km of the coastal mean high water line
assumed as zero
where the basic wind speed is equal to or greater than
Gf = gust effect factor for MWFRS of flexible buildings
180 kph.
and other structures, including poles, masts,
2. In areas where the basic wind speed is equal to or billboards, and trussed towers; also called
greater than 190 kph. “dynamic response factor”
GCpn= combined net pressure coefficient for a parapet
GCp = product of external pressure coefficient and gust
207.3 Symbols and Notations effect factor to be used in the determination of
The following symbols and notation apply only to the wind loads for buildings
provisions of Section 207: GCpf = product of equivalent external pressure
A = effective wind area, m2 coefficient and gust effect factor to be used in the
Aa = amplitude factor for estimation of n1 for other determination of wind loads for MWFRS of low-
structures. rise buildings
Af = area of open buildings and other structures either GCpi = product of internal pressure coefficient and gust
normal to the wind direction or projected on a effect factor to be used in the determination of
plane normal to the wind direction, m2 wind loads for buildings
Ag = the gross area of that wall in which Ao is identified, gQ = peak factor for background response in Eqs. 207-4
m2 and 207-8
Agi = the sum of the gross surface areas of the building gR = peak factor for resonant response in Eq. 207-8
envelope (walls and roof) not including Ag, m2 gr = peak factor for wind response in Eqs. 207-4 and
Ao = total area of openings in a wall that receives 207-8
positive external pressure, m2 H = height of hill or escarpment in Figure 207-4, m
Aoi = the sum of the areas of openings in the building h = mean roof height of a building or height of other
envelope (walls and roof) not including Ao, m2 structure, except that eave height shall be used for
Aog = total area of openings in the building envelope, m2 roof angle of less than or equal to 10º, m
As = gross area of the solid freestanding wall or solid he = roof eave height at a particular wall, or the average
sign, m2 height if the eave varies along the wall
a = width of pressure coefficient zone, m Iw = importance factor
B = horizontal dimension of a building, tower or other Iz = intensity of turbulence from Eq. 207-5
structure measured normal to wind direction, m km = weight distribution factor for estimation of n1 for
B0 = horizontal dimension at the base of a structure, m other structures
Bh = horizontal dimension at the top of a structure, m K1, K2, K3 = multipliers in Figure 207-4 to obtain Kzt
B0h = average horizontal dimension of a structure, or Kd = wind directionality factor in Table 207-2
taken as average of B0 and Bh, m Kh = velocity pressure exposure coefficient evaluated at
height z = h
b = mean hourly wind speed factor in Eq. 207-14 from Kz = velocity pressure exposure coefficient evaluated at
Table 207-5 height z
b̂ = 3-second gust speed factor from Table 207-5 Kzt = topographic factor as defined in Section 207.5.7
Cf = force coefficient to be used in the determination of L = horizontal dimension of a building measured
wind loads for other structures parallel to the wind direction, m
CN = net pressure coefficient to be used in determination Lh = distance upwind of crest of hill or escarpment in
of wind loads for open buildings Fig 207-4 to where the difference in ground
Cp = external pressure coefficient to be used in the elevation is half the height of hill or escarpment, m
determination of wind loads for buildings L z = integral length scale of turbulence, m.
c = turbulence intensity factor in Eq. 207-5 from Table Lr = horizontal dimension of return corner for a solid
207-5 freestanding wall or solid sign from Figure 207-20,
D = diameter of a circular structure or member, m m
D’ = depth of protruding elements such as ribs and ℓ = integral length scale factor from Table 207-5, m
spoilers, m mr = mass ratio, or the ratio of attached masses (e.g.
D0 = surface drag coefficient antennas, cables, lighting, and other appurtenances)
F = design wind force for other structures, kN at the top 5% of the tower or other vertical
structure to the total mass of the tower or other
structure alone; for attached masses at lower levels zg = nominal height of the atmospheric boundary layer
of the tower, an equivalent mass ratio shall be used in this standard Values appear in Table 207-5
taken zmin = exposure constant from Table 207-5
Ma = mass factor for estimation of n1 for other structures α = 3-second gust-speed power law exponent from
N1 = reduced frequency from Eq. 207-12 Table 207-5
n1 = building natural frequency, Hz â = reciprocal of α from Table 207-5
p = design pressure to be used in the determination of ā = mean hourly wind-speed power law exponent in
wind loads for buildings, kPa Eq. 207-14 from Table 207-5
pL = wind pressure acting on leeward face in Figure β = damping ratio, percent critical for buildings or
207-9, kPa other structures
pnet = net design wind pressure from Eq. 207-2, kPa βs = structural damping ratio, percent critical for other
pnet9 = net design wind pressure for Exposure B at h = 9 m structures
and Iw = 1.0 from Figure 207-3, kPa Βa = aerodynamic damping ratio, percent critical for
pp = combined net pressure on a parapet from other structures
Eq. 207-20, kPa = ratio of solid area to gross area for open sign, face
ps = simplified design wind pressure from Eq. 207-1, or a trussed tower, or lattice structure
kPa adjustment factor for building height and exposure
ps9 = simplified design wind pressure for Exposure B at from Figures 207-2A and 207-3
h = 9 m and Iw = 1.0 from Figure 207-3, kPa = integral length scale power law exponent in Eq.
pW = wind pressure acting on windward face in Figure 207.7 from Table 207-5
207-9, kPa η = value used in Eq. 207.13 (see Section 207.5.8.2)
Pa = plan-shape factor for estimation of n1 for other = roughness factor
structures = angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees
Q = background response factor from Eq. 207-6 = height-to-width ratio for solid sign
q = velocity pressure, kPa
qh = velocity pressure evaluated at height z = h, kPa
qi = velocity pressure for internal pressure 207.4 Method 1 – Simplified Procedure
determination, kPa
qp = velocity pressure at top of parapet, kPa
207.4.1 Scope
qz = velocity pressure evaluated at height z above
ground, kPa A building whose design wind loads are determined in
R = resonant response factor from Eq. 207-10 accordance with this section shall meet all the conditions
Ra0 = aspect ratio factor for estimation of n1, for other of Sections 207.4.1.1 or 207.4.1.2. If a building qualifies
structures, evaluated at the base width, B0 only under Section 207.4.1.2 for design of its components
RB, Rh, RL = values from Eq. 207-13 and cladding, then its MWFRS shall be designed by
Ri = reduction factor from Eq. 207-16 Method 2 or Method 3.
Rn = value from Eq. 207-11
s = vertical dimension of the solid freestanding wall or 207.4.1.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting Systems
solid sign from Figure 207-20, m.
r = rise-to-span ratio for arched roofs. For the design of MWFRSs the building must meet all of
V = basic wind speed obtained from Table 207-1, kph. the following conditions:
The basic wind speed corresponds to a 3-second 1. The building is a simple diaphragm building as
gust speed at 10 m above ground in exposure defined in Section 207.2.
category C
Vi = unpartitioned internal volume, m³ 2. The building is a low-rise building as defined in
Vz = mean hourly wind speed at height z, kph Section 207.2.
W = width of a building in Figures 207-12 and 207-14A 3. The building is enclosed as defined in Section 207.2
and B and width of span in Figures 207-13 and and conforms to the wind-borne debris provisions of
207-15, m Section 207.5.9.3.
X = distance to center of pressure from windward edge
in Figure 207-18, m 4. The building is a regular-shaped building or structure
x = distance upwind or downwind of crest in Figure as defined in Section 207.2.
207-4, m 5. The building is not classified as a flexible building as
z = height above ground level, m defined in Section 207.2
z = equivalent height of structure, m
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
2-20 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
6. The building does not have response characteristics pressures (sum of internal and external) to be applied to
making it subject to across wind loading, vortex the horizontal and vertical projections of building surfaces
shedding, instability due to galloping or flutter; and as shown in Figures 207-1 and 207-2. For the horizontal
does not have a site location for which channeling pressures (zones A, B, C, D), ps is the combination of the
effects or buffeting in the wake of upwind windward and leeward net pressures, ps shall be
obstructions warrant special consideration. determined by the following equation:
7. The building has and approximately symmetrical ps K zt I w ps 9 (207-1)
cross-section in each direction with either a flat roof
or a gable or hip roof with θ ≤ 45°.
207.4.2.1 .1 Minimum Pressures
8. The building is exempted from torsional load cases as
The load effects of the design wind pressures from
indicated in Note 5 of Figure 207-10, or the torsional
Section 207.4.2.1 shall not be less than the minimum load
load cases defined in Note 5 do not control the design
case from Section 207.1.4.1 assuming the pressures, ps,
of any of the MWFRSs of the building.
for zones A, B, C, and D all equal to +0.50 kPa, while
assuming zones E, F, G, and H all equal to 0 kPa.
207.4.1.2 Components and Cladding
For the design of components and cladding the building 207.4.2.2 Components and Cladding
must meet all the conditions:
Net design wind pressures, pnet, for the components and
1. The mean roof height h must be less than or equal cladding of buildings designed using Method 1 represent
to 18 m. the net pressures (sum of internal and external) to be
applied normal to each building surface as shown in Fig.
2. The building is enclosed as defined in Section 207.2
207-3. pnet shall be determined by the following equation:
and conforms to the wind-borne debris provisions of
Section 207.5.9.3. pnet K zt I w pnet 9 (207-2)
3. The building is a regular-shaped building or structure
as defined in Section 207.2. 207.4.2.2.1 Minimum Pressures
4. The building does not have response characteristics The positive design wind pressures, pnet, from Section
making it subject to across wind loading, vortex 207.4.2.2 shall not be less than +0.50 kPa, and the
shedding, instability due to galloping or flutter; and negative design wind pressures, pnet, from Section
does not have a site location for which channeling 207.4.2.2 shall not be less than -0.50 kPa.
effects or buffeting in the wake of upwind
obstructions warrant special consideration.
207.4.3 Air Permeable Cladding
5. The building has either a flat roof, a gable roof with θ Design wind loads determined from Figure 207.3 shall be
< 45°, or a hip roof w/ θ ≤ 27°. used for all air permeable cladding unless approved test
data or the recognized literature demonstrate lower loads
207.4.2 Design Procedure for the type of air permeable cladding being considered.
1. The basic wind speed V shall be determined in
accordance with Section 207.5.4. The wind shall be 207.5 Method 2 – Analytical Procedure
assumed to come from any horizontal direction.
2. An importance factor Iw shall be determined in 207.5.1 Scope
accordance with Section 207.5.5. A building or other structure whose design wind loads are
3. An exposure category shall be determined in determined in accordance with this section shall meet all
accordance with Section 207.5.6. of the following conditions:
1. The building or other structure is a regular-shaped
4. A height and exposure adjustment coefficient,, shall
building or structure as defined in Section 207.2.
be determined from Figures 207-2 and 207-3.
2. The building or other structure does not have
response wind loading, vortex shedding, instability
207.4.2.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting System
due to galloping or flutter; or does not have a site
Simplified design wind pressures, ps, for the MWFRSs of location for which channeling effect or buffeting in
low-rise simple diaphragm buildings represent the net
the wake of upwind obstructions warrant special 9. Velocity pressure qz or qh, as applicable, shall be
consideration. determined in accordance with Section 207.5.10.
10. Design wind load p or F shall be determined in
207.5.2 Limitations accordance with Sections 207.5.12, 207.5.13,
The provision of Section 207.5 take into consideration the 207.5.14, and 207.5.15, as applicable.
load magnification effect caused by gusts in resonance
with along-wind vibrations of flexible building or other 207.5.4 Basic Wind Speed
structures. Buildings or other structures not meeting the
The basic wind speed, V, used in the determination of
requirements of Section 207.5.1, or having unusual shapes
design wind loads on buildings and other structures shall
or response characteristics shall be designed using
be as given in Table 207-1 except as provided in Sections
recognized literature documenting such wind load effects
207.5.4.1 and 207.5.4.2. The wind shall be assumed to
or shall use the wind tunnel procedure specified in
come from any horizontal direction.
Section 207.6.
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
2-22 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
207.5.6 Exposure
207.5.6.3 Exposure Categories
For each wind direction considered, the upwind exposure
category shall be based on ground surface roughness that Exposure B: Exposure B shall apply where the ground
is determined from natural topography, vegetation, and surface roughness condition, as defined by Surface
constructed facilities. Roughness B, prevails in the upwind direction for a
distance of at least 800 m or 20 times the height of the
Table 207-3 Importance Factor, Iw (Wind Loads) building, whichever is greater.
Occupancy Exception:
Category 1
Description Iw
For buildings whose mean roof height is less than or
I Essential 1.15 equal to 10 m, the upwind distance may be reduced to 450
m.
II Hazardous 1.15
Special Exposure C: Exposure C shall apply for all cases where
III Occupancy
1.15 Exposure B or D do not apply.
Standard
IV 1.00
Occupancy Exposure D: Exposure D shall apply where the ground
surface roughness, as defined by Surface Roughness D,
V Miscellaneous 0.87
prevails in the upwind direction for a distance greater than
1
see Table 103-1 for types of occupancy under each 1.5 km or 20 times the building height, which is greater.
category. Exposure D shall extend into downwind areas of Surface
Roughness B or C for a distance of 180m or 20 times the
height of the building, whichever is greater.
207.5.6.1 Wind Directions and Sectors
For each selected wind direction at which the wind loads For a site located in the transition zone between exposure
are to be evaluated, the exposure of the building or categories, the category resulting in the largest wind
structure shall be determined for the two upwind sectors forces shall be used.
extending 45° either side of the selected wind direction.
The exposures in these two sectors shall be determined in Exception:
accordance with Sections 207.5.6.2 and 207.5.6.3 and the An intermediate exposure between the preceding
exposure resulting in the highest wind loads shall be used categories is permitted in a transition zone provided that
to represent the winds from that direction. it is determined by a rational analysis method defined in
the recognized literature.
207.5.6.2 Surface Roughness Categories
A ground surface roughness within each 45° sector shall 207.5.6.4 Exposure Category for Main Wind-Force
be determined for a distance upwind of the site as defined Resisting System
in Section 207.5.6.3 from the categories defined in the
following text, for the purpose of assigning an exposure
207.5.6.4.1 Buildings and Other Structures
category as defined in Section 207.5.6.3.
For each wind direction considered wind loads for the
Surface Roughness B: Urban and suburban areas, design of the MWFRS determined from Figure 207-6
wooded areas, or other terrain with numerous closely shall be based on the exposure categories defined in
spaced obstructions having the size of single-family Section 207.5.6.3.
dwellings or larger.
207.5.6.4.2 Low-Rise Buildings
Surface Roughness C: Open terrain with scattered
Wind loads for the design of the MWFRSs for low-rise
obstructions having heights generally less than 9m. This
buildings shall be determined using a velocity pressure qh
category includes flat open country, grasslands, and all
based on the exposure resulting in the highest wind loads
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
2-24 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
for any wind direction at the site where external pressure Notes:
coefficients GCpf given in Fig. 207-10 are used. 1. Case 1: a. All components and cladding.
b. Main wind force resisting system in low-rise buildings
designed using Figure 207-10.
207.5.6.5 Exposure Category for Components and Case 2: a. All main wind force resisting systems in buildings except
Cladding those in low-rise buildings designed using Figure 207-10.
b. All main wind force resisting systems in other structures.
Components and cladding design pressures for all 2. The velocity pressure exposure coefficient Kz may be determined from
buildings and other structures shall be based on the the following formula:
exposure resulting in the highest wind loads for any For 4.5 m ≤ z ≤ zg For z < 4.5 m
Kz = 2.01 (z/zg)2/α Kz = 2.01 (4.5/zg)2/α
direction at the site. Note: z shall not be taken less than 9.0 m for Case 1 in exposure B.
3. α and zg are tabulated in Table 207-5.
4. Linear interpolation for intermediate values of height z is acceptable.
207.5.6.6 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient 5. Exposure categories are defined in Section 207.5.6.
Based on the exposure category determined in Section
207.5.6.3, a velocity pressure exposure coefficient Kz or
207.5.7 Topographic Effects
Kh, as applicable, shall be determined from Table 207-4.
For a site located in a transition zone between exposure
categories, that is, near to a change in ground surface 207.5.7.1 Wind Speed-Up Over Hills, Ridges, and
roughness, intermediate values of Kz or Kh, between those Escarpments
shown in Table 207-4, are permitted, provided that they Wind speed-up effects at isolated hills, ridges, and
are determined by a rational analysis method defined in escarpments constituting abrupt changes in the general
the recognized literature. topography, located in any exposure category, shall be
Table 207-4 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficients 1, Kh included in the design when buildings and other site
and Kz conditions and locations of structures meet all of the
Height Exposure (Note 1) following conditions:
above B C D 1. The hill, ridge, or escarpment is isolated and
Ground
level, z Cases Cases unobstructed upwind by other similar topographic
Case 1 Case 2
(m)
1&2 1&2 features of comparable height for 100 times the
0 - 4.5 0.70 0.57 0.85 1.03
height of the topographic feature (100H) or 3.2 km
whichever is less. This distance shall be measured
6 0.70 0.62 0.90 1.08 horizontally from the point at which the height H of
7.5 0.70 0.66 0.94 1.12 the hill, ridge, or escarpment is determined.
9 0.70 0.70 0.98 1.16
2. The hill, ridge, or escarpment protrudes above the
12 0.76 0.76 1.04 1.22
height of upwind terrain features within a 3.2 km
15 0.81 0.81 1.09 1.27 radius in any quadrant by a factor of two or more.
18 0.85 0.85 1.13 1.31
21 0.89 0.89 1.17 1.34
3. The structure is located as shown in Figure 207-4 in
the upper one-half of a hill or ridge or near the crest
24 0.93 0.93 1.21 1.38
of an escarpment.
27 0.96 0.96 1.24 1.40
30 0.99 0.99 1.26 1.43 4. H/Lh ≥ 0.2.
36 1.04 1.04 1.31 1.48 5. H is greater than or equal to 4.5m for Exposures C
42 1.09 1.09 1.36 1.52 and D and 18m for Exposure B.
48 1.13 1.13 1.39 1.55
54 1.17 1.17 1.43 1.58 207.5.7.2 Topographic Factor
60 1.20 1.20 1.46 1.61 The wind speed-up effect shall be included in the
75 1.28 1.28 1.53 1.68 calculation of design wind loads by using the factor Kzt:
90 1.35 1.35 1.59 1.73
105 1.41 1.41 1.64 1.78 K zt (1 K 1K 2 K 3 ) 2 (207-3)
120 1.47 1.47 1.69 1.82 where K1, K2 and K3 are given in Figure 207-4.
135 1.52 1.52 1.73 1.86
If site conditions and locations of structures do not meet
150 1.56 1.56 1.77 1.89
all the conditions specified in Section 207.5.7.1 the Kzt =
1.0.
where 1 1
R (1 e 2 ) for η > 0 (207-13a)
16 2 2
10
I z c (207-5)
z R 1 for η = 0 (207-13b)
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
2-26 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
cable above ground, or 0.6h for buildings and other structures. For h ≤ 1. Glazing in category I, II, or III buildings located over
zmin, z shall be taken as zmin.
18m above the ground and over 9m above aggregate
surface roofs located within 458m of the building
207.5.8.3 Rational Analysis shall be permitted to be unprotected.
In lieu of the procedure defined in Sections 207.5.8.1 and 2. Glazing in category IV buildings shall be permitted
207.5.8.2, determination of the gust-effect factor by any to be unprotected.
rational analysis defined in the recognized literature is
permitted.
207.5.9.4 Multiple Classifications
If a building by definition complies with both the “open”
207.5.8.4 Limitations and “partially enclosed” definitions, it shall be classified
Where combined gust-effect factors and pressure as an “open” building. A building that does not comply
coefficients (GCp, GCpi, and GCpf) are given in figures with either the “open” or “partially enclosed” definitions
and tables, the gust-effect factor shall not be determined shall be classified as an “enclosed” building.
separately.
207.5.10 Velocity Pressure
207.5.8.5 Other Structures Velocity pressure, qz, evaluated at height z shall be
Procedures for calculation of the gust effect factor for calculated by the following equation:
other structures shall be taken from Section 207.7.
q z 47.3 10 6 K z K zt K d V 2 I w (207-15)
207.5.8.6 Dynamic Properties where Kd is the wind directionality factor defined in
Values of natural frequency and damping ratio when used Section 207.5.4.4, Kz is the velocity pressure exposure
as input parameters in calculations of the gust effect coefficient defined in Section 207.5.6.6, Kzt is the
factor shall be obtained from full-scale measurements of topographic factor defined in Section 207.5.7.2, and qh is
the actual structure, from computer simulation, or from the velocity pressure calculated using Eq. 207-15 at mean
the estimation formulas given in Section 207.8. roof height h.
207.5.11.5 Parapets
1
Ri 0.51 1.0 (207-16) 207.5.11.5.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting System
Vi
1 The pressure coefficients for the effect of parapets on the
6,952 Aog
MWFRS loads are given in Section 207.5.12.2.4.
where
207.5.11.5.2 Components and Cladding
Aog = total area of openings in the building envelope
(walls and roof, in m²) The pressure coefficients for the design of parapet
Vi = unpartitioned internal volume, m³ component and cladding elements are taken from the wall
and roof pressure coefficients as specified in Section
207.5.12.4.4.
207.5.11.2 External Pressure Coefficients
207.5.12 Design Wind Loads on Enclosed and
207.5.11.2.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting Systems Partially Enclosed Buildings
External pressure coefficients for MWFRSs Cp are given
in Figures 207-6, 207-7, and 207-8. Combined gust effect 207.5.12.1 General
factor and external pressure coefficients, GCpf, are given
in Figure 207-10 for low-rise buildings. The pressure
coefficient values and gust effect factor in Figure 207-10 207.5.12.1.1 Sign Convention
shall not be separated. Positive pressure acts toward the surface and negative
pressure acts away from the surface.
207.5.11.2.2 Components and Cladding
Combined gust-effect factor and external pressure 207.5.12.1.2 Critical Load Condition
coefficients for components and cladding GCp are given Values of external and internal pressures shall be
in Figures 207-11 through 207-17. The pressure combined algebraically to determine the most critical
coefficient values and gust-effect factor shall not be load.
separated.
207.5.12.1.3 Tributary Areas Greater than 65 m²
207.5.11.3 Force Coefficients Component and cladding elements with tributary areas
Force coefficients Cf are given in Figures 207-20 through greater than 65 m² shall be permitted to be designed using
207-23. the provisions for MWFRS.
207.5.11.4.1 Main Wind-Force Resisting System 207.5.12.2.1 Rigid Buildings of All Heights
Roof overhangs shall be designed for a positive pressure Design wind pressures for the MWFRS of buildings of all
on the bottom surface of windward roof overhangs heights shall be determined by the following equation:
corresponding to Cp = 0.8 in combination with the
pressures determined from using Figures 207-6 and 207- p qGC p qi GC pi (207-17)
10.
where
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
2-28 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
207.5.12.4 Components and Cladding 207.5.12.4.3 Alternative Design Wind Pressures for
Components and Cladding in Buildings with 18m < h
< 27m
207.5.12.4.1 Low-Rise Buildings and Buildings with h
≤ 18 m Alternative to the requirements of Section 207.5.12.4.2,
the design of components and cladding for buildings with
Design wind pressures on component and cladding a mean roof height greater than 18m and less than 27m
elements of low-rise buildings with h ≤ 18 m shall be values from Figures 207-11 through 207-17 shall be used
determined from the following equation: only if the height to width ratio is one or less (except as
p qh (GC p ) (GC pi ) (207-22) permitted by Note 6 of Figure 207-17) and Eq. 207-22 is
used.
where
qh = velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof
207.5.12.4.4 Parapets
height h using exposure defined in Section
207.5.6.3 The design wind pressure on the components and
(GCp) = external pressure coefficients given in Figure cladding elements of parapets shall be designed by the
207-11 through 207-16 following equation:
(GCpi) = internal pressure coefficient given in Figure p q p (GC p ) (GC pi ) (207-24)
207-5
where
207.5.12.4.2 Buildings with h 18 m qp = velocity pressure evaluated at the top of the
Design wind pressures on components and cladding for parapet
all buildings with h 18m shall be determined from the GCp = external pressure coefficients from Figures
following equation: 207-11 through 207-17
GCpi = internal pressure coefficient from Figures 207-
p q (GC p ) qi (GC pi ) (207-23) 5, based on the porosity of the parapet
envelope
where
q = qz for windward walls calculated at height z Two load cases shall be considered. Load Case A shall
above the ground consist of applying the applicable positive wall pressure
q = qh for leeward walls, side walls, and roofs, from Figure 207-11A or Figure 207-17 to the front
evaluated at height h surface of the parapet while applying the applicable
qi = qh for windward walls, side walls, leeward walls, negative edge or corner zone roof pressure from Figures
and roofs of enclosed buildings and for negative 207-11 through 207-17 to the back surface. Load Case B
internal pressure evaluation in partially enclosed shall consist of applying the applicable positive wall
buildings. pressure from Figure 207-11A or Figure 207-17 to the
qi = qz for positive internal pressure evaluation in back of the parapet surface, and applying the applicable
partially enclosed buildings where height z is negative wall pressure from Figure 207-11A or Figure
defined as the level of the highest opening in the 207-17 to the front surface. Edge and corner zones shall
building that could affect the positive internal be arranged as shown in Figures 207-11 through 207-17.
pressure. For buildings sited in wind-borne GCp shall be determined for appropriate roof angle and
debris regions, glazing that is not impact effective wind area from Figures 207-11 through 207-17.
resistant or protected with an impact-resistant If internal pressure is present, both load cases should be
covering, shall be treated as an opening in evaluated under positive and negative internal pressure.
accordance with Section 207.5.9.3. For positive
internal pressure evaluation, qi may 207.5.13 Design Wind Loads on Open Buildings
conservatively be evaluated at height h (qi = qh) with Monoslope, Pitched, or Troughed Roofs
(GCp) = external pressure coefficient from Figure 207-17
(GCpi) = internal pressure coefficient given in Figure 207-
5. 207.5.13.1 General
q and qi shall be evaluated using exposure defined in
Section 207.5.6.3. 207.13.1.1 Sign Convention
Plus and minus signs signify pressure acting toward and
away from the top surface of the roof, respectively.
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2-30 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
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207.8.1 Approximate Fundamental Frequency 207.8.1.3 Poles, Masts, Solid Signs, Guyed Structures,
Cables, and Other Structures
207.8.1.1 Buildings For poles, masts, solid signs, guyed structures, cables, and
For buildings, the natural frequency n1 may be estimated other structures, the natural frequency may be estimated
using the following general formulas: from full-scale measurements or computer simulation
taking into account the effect of tension-only element
Type Service-level Strength-level properties and other attachments.
Concrete 67/h 56/h
Steel 50/h 42/h 207.8.2 Approximate Damping Ratio
0.23 (207-39)
s 0.004
h
0.007 (207-40)
a 0.007
n1
0.011
a 0.007 for Wind Zone 1 or 2,
n1
or for V > 162 kph, (207-41)
0.009 for Wind Zone 3,
a 0.007
n1
or for V ≤ 162 kph (207-42)
where n1 is the strength-level natural frequency.
ASTM
ASTM International
100 Barr Harbor Drive
West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
2-34 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
Notes:
1. Pressures shown are applied to the horizontal and vertical projections, for exposure B, at h= 9 m, Iw=1.0, and Kzt = 1.0. Adjust
to other conditions using Equation 207-1.
2. The load patterns shown shall be applied to each corner of the building in turn as the reference corner. (See Figure 207-10).
3. For the design of the longitudinal MWFRS use θ = 0°, and locate the zone E/F, G/H boundary at the mid-length of the building.
4. Load cases 1 and 2 must be checked for 25° < θ ≤ 45°. Load case 2 at 25° is provided only for interpolation between 25° to 30°.
5. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the projected surfaces, respectively.
6. For roof slopes other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted.
7. The total horizontal load shall not be less than that determined by assuming pS = 0 in zones B & D.
8. The zone pressures represent the following:
Horizontal pressure zones – Sum of the windward and leeward net (sum of internal and external) pressures on vertical
projection of:
A – End zone of wall C – Interior zone of wall
B – End zone of roof D – Interior zone of roof
Vertical pressure zones – Net (sum of internal and external) pressures on horizontal projection of:
E – End zone of windward roof G – Interior zone of windward roof
F – End zone of leeward roof H – Interior zone of leeward roof
9. Where zone E or G falls on a roof overhang on the windward side of the building, use EOH and GOH for the pressure on the
horizontal projection of the overhang. Overhangs on the leeward and side edges shall have the basic zone pressure applied.
10. Notation:
a : 10percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4 h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4% of least horizontal
dimension or 0.9 m.
h : Mean roof height, m, except that eave height shall be used for roof angles < 10°.
θ : Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
Adjustment Factor
for Building Height and Exposure
Mean roof Exposure
height (m) B C D
4.5 1.00 1.21 1.47
6 1.00 1.29 1.55
7.5 1.00 1.35 1.61
9 1.00 1.40 1.66
11 1.05 1.45 1.70
12 1.09 1.49 1.74
13.7 1.12 1.53 1.78
15.2 1.16 1.56 1.81
16.8 1.19 1.59 1.84
18 1.22 1.62 1.87
WALLS AND ROOFS
Basic Roof Load
Horizontal Pressures, kPa Vertical Pressures, kPa Overhangs
Wind Angle Case
Speed (Degrees) A B C D E F G H Eoh Goh
150 kph 0 to 5 1 0.66 -0.34 0.44 -0.21 -0.79 -0.45 -0.55 -0.35 -1.11 -0.87
10 1 0.75 -0.31 0.50 -0.18 -0.79 -0.48 -0.55 -0.37 -1.11 -0.87
15 1 0.83 -0.28 0.55 -0.16 -0.79 -0.52 -0.55 -0.40 -1.11 -0.87
20 1 0.92 -0.24 0.61 -0.13 -0.79 -0.55 -0.55 -0.42 -1.11 -0.87
1 0.83 0.13 0.60 0.14 -0.37 -0.50 -0.27 -0.40 -0.69 -0.59
25 2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 -0.14 -0.27 -0.04 -0.18 0.00 0.00
1 0.74 0.51 0.59 0.41 0.06 -0.45 0.02 -0.39 -0.26 -0.30
30 to 45 2 0.74 -0.08 0.59 0.41 0.29 -0.22 0.25 -0.16 -0.26 -0.30
200 kph 0 to 5 1 1.18 -0.62 0.79 -0.36 -1.42 -0.81 -0.99 -0.63 -2.00 -1.57
10 1 1.34 -0.56 0.89 -0.32 -1.42 -0.87 -0.99 -0.67 -2.00 -1.57
15 1 1.49 -0.49 0.99 -0.28 -1.42 -0.93 -0.99 -0.71 -2.00 -1.57
20 1 1.64 -0.43 1.10 -0.24 -1.42 -0.99 -0.99 -0.75 -2.00 -1.57
1 1.48 0.24 1.08 0.24 -0.66 -0.90 -0.48 -0.72 -1.23 -1.05
25 2 - - - - -0.25 -0.49 -0.07 -0.31 - -
1 1.34 0.91 1.06 0.73 0.11 -0.81 0.04 -0.69 -0.47 -0.54
30 to 45 2 1.34 0.91 1.06 0.73 0.51 -0.40 0.45 -0.29 -0.47 -0.54
250 kph 0 to 5 1 1.84 -0.95 1.22 -0.57 -2.21 -1.26 -1.54 -0.97 -3.09 -2.42
10 1 2.07 -0.86 1.38 -0.50 -2.21 -1.35 -1.54 -1.04 -3.09 -2.42
15 1 2.31 -0.77 1.54 -0.44 -2.21 -1.44 -1.54 -1.10 -3.09 -2.42
20 1 2.54 -0.67 1.70 -0.37 -2.21 -1.54 -1.54 -1.17 -3.09 -2.42
1 2.31 0.37 1.67 0.38 -1.03 -1.40 -0.74 -1.12 -1.91 -1.63
25 2 - - - - -0.39 -0.76 -0.11 -0.49 - -
1 2.07 1.41 1.65 1.13 0.16 -1.26 0.05 -1.08 -0.73 -0.83
30 to 45 2 2.07 1.41 1.65 1.13 0.79 -0.62 0.69 -0.44 -0.73 -0.83
Figure 207-2 Design Wind Pressures on
Walls and Roofs of Enclosed Buildings with h ≤ 18m,
Main Wind-Force Resisting System – Method 1
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
2-36 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
Notes:
1. Pressure shown are applied normal to the surface, for exposure B, at h = 9 m, Iw = 1.0, and Kzt = 1.0. Adjust to other conditions using
Equation 207-2.
2. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
3. For hip roofs with θ ≤ 25°, Zone 3 shall be treated as Zone 2.
4. For effective wind areas between those given, value may be interpolated, otherwise use the value associated with the lower effective wind
area.
5. Notation:
a : 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4 h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4% of least horizontal dimension or
0.9m.
h : Mean roof height, in m, except that eave height shall be used for roof angles < 10°.
ɵ : Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
Net Design Wind Pressure, pnet, kPa (Exposure B at h=10m with I = 1.0 and Kd = 1.0)
Roof Effective
wind
Angle Zone area Basic Wind Speed V (kph)
(deg) (sq.m.) 150 200 250
1 1.0 0.30 -0.75 0.55 0.55 0.85 -2.09
1 2.0 0.29 -0.73 0.51 0.51 0.79 -2.03
1 4.5 0.26 -0.71 0.47 0.47 0.73 -1.96
0 to 7 1 9.5 0.24 -0.69 0.44 0.44 0.67 -1.91
2 1.0 0.30 -1.26 0.55 0.55 0.85 -3.50
2 2.0 0.29 -1.12 0.51 0.51 0.79 -3.13
2 4.5 0.26 -0.95 0.47 0.47 0.73 -2.64
2 9.5 0.24 -0.81 0.44 0.44 0.67 -2.26
3 1.0 0.30 -1.90 0.55 0.55 0.85 -5.27
3 2.0 0.29 -1.57 0.51 0.51 0.79 -4.37
3 4.5 0.26 -1.14 0.47 0.47 0.73 -3.17
3 9.5 0.24 -0.81 0.44 0.44 0.67 -2.26
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
2-38 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
con’t…Net Design Wind Pressures, pnet, kPa (Exposure B at h=10m, with I=1.0 and Kd=1.0)
Roof Effective
wind
Angle Zone area Basic Wind Speed V (kph)
(deg) (sq.m.) 150 200 250
1 1.0 0.43 -0.69 0.78 0.78 1.20 -1.91
1 2.0 0.40 -0.67 0.71 0.71 1.10 -1.86
1 4.5 0.34 -0.64 0.62 0.62 0.95 -1.78
θ>7
to 1 9.5 0.30 -0.62 0.55 0.55 0.85 -1.73
27 2 1.0 0.43 -1.20 0.78 0.78 1.20 -3.33
2 2.0 0.40 -1.10 0.71 0.71 1.10 -3.06
2 4.5 0.34 -0.97 0.62 0.62 0.95 -2.71
2 9.5 0.30 -0.88 0.55 0.55 0.85 -2.44
3 1.0 0.43 -1.77 0.78 0.78 1.20 -4.92
3 2.0 0.40 -1.65 0.71 0.71 1.10 -4.60
3 4.5 0.34 -1.50 0.62 0.62 0.95 -4.18
3 9.5 0.30 -1.39 0.55 0.55 0.85 -3.86
1 1.0 0.69 -0.75 1.23 1.23 1.91 -2.09
1 2.0 0.67 -0.71 1.20 1.20 1.86 -1.98
1 4.5 0.64 -0.66 1.15 1.15 1.78 -1.84
θ>27
to 1 9.5 0.62 -0.62 1.12 1.12 1.73 -1.73
45 2 1.0 0.69 -0.88 1.23 1.23 1.91 -2.44
2 2.0 0.67 -0.84 1.20 1.20 1.86 -2.33
2 4.5 0.64 -0.79 1.15 1.15 1.78 -2.19
2 9.5 0.62 -0.75 1.11 1.11 1.73 -2.09
3 1.0 0.69 -0.88 1.23 1.23 1.91 -2.44
3 2.0 0.67 -0.84 1.20 1.20 1.86 -2.33
3 4.5 0.64 -0.79 1.15 1.15 1.78 -2.19
3 9.5 0.62 -0.75 1.12 1.12 1.73 -2.09
4 1.0 0.75 -0.81 1.35 1.35 2.09 -2.26
4 2.0 0.72 -0.78 1.28 1.28 1.99 -2.17
4 4.5 0.67 -0.74 1.21 1.21 1.87 -2.05
4 9.5 0.64 -0.70 1.14 1.14 1.77 -1.95
Wall 4 46.5 0.56 -0.62 1.01 1.01 1.56 -1.73
5 1.0 0.75 -0.26 1.35 1.35 2.09 -2.79
5 2.0 0.72 -0.24 1.28 1.28 1.99 -2.60
5 4.5 0.67 -0.22 1.21 1.21 1.87 -2.36
5 9.5 0.64 -0.20 1.14 1.14 1.77 -2.17
5 46.5 0.56 -0.62 1.01 1.01 1.56 -1.73
Notes:
1. For values H/Lh and z/Lh other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted.
2. For H/Lh 0.5, assume H/Lh = 0.5 for evaluating K1 and substitute 2H for Lh for evaluating K2 and K3.
3. Multipliers are based on the assumption that approaches the hill or escarpment along the direction of maximum slope.
4. Notation:
H : Height of hill or escarpment relative to the upwind terrain, in m.
Lh : Distance upwind of crest to where the difference in ground elevation is half the height of hill or escarpment, in m.
K1 : Factor to account for shape of topographic feature and maximum speed-up effect.
K2 : Factor to account for reduction in speed-up with distance upwind or downwind of crest.
K3 : Factor to account for reduction in speed-up with height above local terrain.
x : Distance (upwind or downwind) from the crest to the building site, in m.
z : Height above local ground level, in m.
µ : Horizontal attenuation factor.
γ : Height attenuation factor.
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
2-40 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
Equations:
K zt (1 K1K 2 K 3 ) 2
K 3 e z / Lh
Notes:
1. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the internal surfaces,
respectively.
2. Values of GCpi shall be used with qz or qh as specified in Section 207.5.12.
3. Two cases shall be considered to determine the critical load requirements for the appropriate
condition:
(i) a positive value of GCpi applied to all internal surfaces
(ii) a negative value of GCpi applied to all internal surfaces
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
2-42 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
Notes:
1. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
2. Linear interpolation is permitted for values of L/B; h/L and θ other than shown. Interpolation shall only be carried out between values of the same sign.
Where no value of the same sign is given, assume 0.0 for interpolation purposes.
3. Where two values of Cp are listed, this indicates that the windward roof slope is subjected to either positive or negative pressures and the roof structure
shall be designed for both conditions. Interpolation for intermediate ratios of h/L in this case shall only be carried out between Cp values of like sign.
4. For monoslope roofs, entire roof surface is either a windward or leeward surface.
5. For flexible buildings use appropriate Gf as determined by Section 207.5.8.
6. Refer to Figure 207-7 for domes and Figure 207-8 for arched roofs.
7. Notation:
B : Horizontal dimension of building, in m, measured normal to wind direction.
L : Horizontal dimension of building, in m, measured parallel to wind direction.
h : Mean roof height in meters, except that eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 10 degrees.
z : Height above ground, in m.
G : Gust effect factor.
qz,qh : Velocity pressure, N/m², evaluated at respective height.
θ : Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
8. For mansard roofs, the top horizontal surface and leeward inclined surface shall be treated as leeward surfaces from the table.
9. Excepts for MWFRS’s at the roof consisting of moment resisting frames, the total horizontal shear shall not be less than that determined by neglecting
wind forces on roof surfaces.
#For roof slopes greater than 80°, use Cp = 0.8
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
2-44 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
Notes:
1. Two load cases shall be considered:
Case A. Cp values between A and B and between B and C shall be determined by linear interpolation along arcs on the dome parallel to the
wind direction;
Case B. Cp shall be the constant value of A for θ ≤ 25 degrees, and shall be determined by linear interpolation from 25 degrees to B and
from B to C.
2. Values denote Cp to be used with q( h f ) where hD + f is the height at the top of the dome.
D
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
4. Cp is constant on the dome surface for arcs of circles perpendicular to the wind direction; for example, the arc passing through B-B-B and all
arcs parallel to B-B-B.
5. For values of hp/D between those listed on the graph curves, linear interpolation shall be permitted.
6. θ = 0 degrees on dome springline, θ = 90 degrees at dome center top point, f is measured from springline to top.
7. The total horizontal shear shall not be less than that determined by neglecting wind forces on roof surfaces.
8. For f/D values less than 0.05, use Figure 207-6.
ARCHED ROOFS
Cp
Rise-to-span
Conditions Windward Center half Leeward
ratio, r
quarter quarter
0 < r < 0.2 -0.9 -0.7 - r -0.5
Roof on elevated structure 0.2 ≤ r < 0.3* 1.5r – 0.3 -0.7 - r -0.5
0.3 ≤ r ≤ 0.6 2.75r – 0.7 -0.7 - r -0.5
Roof springing from ground
0 < r ≤ 0.6 1.4r -0.7 - r -0.5
level
When the rise-to-span ratio is 0.2 ≤ r ≤ 0.3, alternate coefficients given by 6r-2.1 shall also be used for the windward quarter.
Notes:
1. Values listed are for the determination of average loads on main wind force resisting systems.
2. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
3. For wind directed parallel to the axis of the arch, use pressure coefficients from Figure 207-6 with wind directed parallel to ridge.
4. For components and cladding: (1) At roof perimeter, use the external pressure coefficients in Figure 207-11 with θ based on spring-line
slope and (2) for remaining roof areas, use external pressure coefficients of this table multiplied by 0.87.
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
2-46 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
Case 1. Full design wind pressure acting on the projected area perpendicular to each principal axis of the structure, considered separately along
each principal axis.
Case 2. Three quarters of the design wind pressure acting on the projected area perpendicular to each principal axis of the structure in conjunction
with a torsional moment as shown, considered separately for each principal axis.
Case 3. Wind loading as defined in Case 1, but considered to act simultaneously at 75% of the specified value.
Case 4. Wind loading as defined in Case 2, but considered to act simultaneously at 75% of the specified value.
Notes:
1. Design wind pressures for windward and leeward faces shall be determined in accordance with the provisions of Sects. 207.5.12.2.1 and
207.5.12.2.3 as applicable for buildings of all heights.
2. Diagrams show plan views of building.
3. Notation:
PWX, PWY : Windward face design pressure acting in the x, y principal axis, respectively.
PLX, PLY : Leeward face design pressure acting in the x, y principal axis, respectively.
e (eX,eY) : Eccentricity for the x, y principal axis of the structure, respectively.
Mɼ : Torsional moment per unit height acting about a vertical axis of the building.
Figure 207-10 External Pressure Coefficients, GCpf on Low-Rise Walls & Roofs
of Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings with h ≤ 18 m,
Main Wind-Force Resisting System – Method 2
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
2-48 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
Notes:
1. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
2. For values of θ other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted.
3. The building must be designed for all wind directions using the 8 loading patterns shown. The load patterns are applied to each building
corner in turns as the Reference Corner.
4. Combinations of external and internal pressures (see Figure 207-5) shall be evaluated as required to obtain the most severe loadings.
5. For the torsional load cases shown below, the pressures in zones designated with a “I” (1T, 2T, 3T, 4T) shall be 25% of the full design wind
pressures (zone 1,2,3,4).
6. Exception: One storey buildings with less than or equal to 10 m buildings two stories or less framed with light frame construction, and
buildings two stories or less designated with flexible diaphragms need not be designed for the torsional load cases.
7. Torsional loading shall apply to all eight basic load patterns using the figures below applied at each reference corner.
8. Except for moment-resisting frames, the total horizontal shear shall not be less than that determined by neglecting wind forces on roof
surfaces.
9. For the design of the MWFRS providing lateral resistance in a direction parallel to a ridge line or for flat roofs, use θ = 0° and locate the
zone 2/3 boundary at the mid-length of the building.
10. The roof pressure coefficient GCpf, when negative in Zone 2 or 2E, shall be applied in Zone 2/2 E, for a distance from the edge of roof equal
to 0.5 times the horizontal dimension of the building parallel to the direction of the MWFRS being designed or 2.5 times the eave height, he,
at the windward wall, whichever is less; the remainder of Zone 2/2 E, extending to the ridge line shall use the pressure coefficient GCpf for
Zone 3/3 E.
11. Notation:
a : 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4% of least horizontal dimension or
0.9 m
h : Mean roof height, m, except that eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 10°
θ : Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees
Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCp to be used with qh.
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area, m2.
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
4. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative pressures.
5. Values of GCp for walls shall be reduced by 10% when 10º
6. Notation:
a : 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4% of least horizontal
dimension or 0.9 m
h : Mean roof height,m, except that eave height shall be used for10º
: Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
2-50 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
GABLE ROOF θ ≤ 7°
Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCp to be used with qh.
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area A,m2.
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
4. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative pressures.
5. For º, values of GCp from Figure 207-5B shall be used.
6. For buildings sited within Exposure B, calculated pressures shall be multiplied by 0.85.
7. Notation:
a : 10% of least horizontal dimension of a single-span module or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4 percent of
least horizontal dimension of a single-span module or 1 m
h : Eve height shall be used for θ ≤ 10º
W : Building width, m
: Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees
Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCp to be used with qh.
Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area, in square meters, m².
2. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
3. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative pressures.
4. Values of GCp for roof overhangs include pressure contributions from both upper and lower surfaces.
5. For hip roofs with 7° < θ ≤ 27°, edge / ridge strips and pressure coefficients for ridges of gabled roofs shall apply on each hip.
6. For hip roofs with θ ≤ 25°, Zone 3 shall be treated as Zone 2.
7. Notations:
a : 10 percent of least horizontal dimensions or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4% of least horizontal dimension or
0.9 m
h : Mean roof height, m, except that eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 10°
θ : Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
2-52 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCp to be used with qh.
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area, in square meters, m².
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
4. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative pressures.
5. Values of GCp for roof overhangs include pressure contributions from both upper and lower surfaces.
6. Notations:
a : 10 percent of least horizontal dimensions or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4% of least horizontal dimension or
0.9 m.
h : Mean roof height, m.
θ : Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
Notes:
1. On the lower level of flat, stepped roofs shown in Figure 207-12, the zone designations and pressure coefficients shown in Figure 207-11B
shall apply, except that at the roof-upper wall intersection(s), Zone 3 shall be treated as Zone 2 and Zone 2 shall be treated as Zone 1. Positive
values of GCp equal to those for walls in Figure 207-11A shall apply on the cross-hatched areas shown in Figure 207-12.
2. Notations:
b : 1.5h1 in Figure 207-12, but not greater than 30 m
h : Mean roof height, m
h1 : h1 or h2 in Figure 207-12; h = h1 + h2; h1 ≥ 3 m; h1 / h = 0.3 to 0.7
W : Building width in Figure 207-12
W1 : W1 or W2 or W3 in Figure 207.12. W = W1 + W2 or W1 + W2 + W3; W1/W = 0.25 to 0.75
θ : Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
2-54 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCp to be used with qh.
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area, m2.
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
4. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative pressures.
5. For θ ≤ 10°, values of GCp from Figure 207-11 shall be used.
6. Notations:
a : 10 percent of least horizontal dimensions of a single-span module or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4 percent
of least horizontal dimension of a single-span module or 0.9 m
h : Mean roof height, m, except that eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 10°
W : Building module width, m
θ : Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees
Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCp to be used with qh.
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area A, m2.
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
4. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative pressures.
5. For θ ≤ 3°, values of GCp from Figure 207-11B shall be used.
6. Notations:
a : 10 percent of least horizontal dimensions or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4 percent of least horizontal
dimension or 0.9 m
h : Eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 10°
W : Building module width, m
ɵ : Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees
Figure 207-14A External Pressure Coefficients, GCp on Monoslope Roofs 3° < θ ≤ 10°
of Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings with h ≤ 18 m
Components and Cladding – Method 2
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
2-56 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCp to be used with qh.
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area A, m2.
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
4. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative pressures.
5. For θ ≤ 10°, values of GCp from Figure 207-11 shall be used.
6. Notations:
a : 10 percent of least horizontal dimensions or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than either 4 percent of least horizontal
dimension or 0.9m
h : Mean roof height, m, except that eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 10°
W : Building module width, m
θ : Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees
Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCp to be used with q (hD f ) where (hD f ) is the height at the top of the dome.
2. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
3. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative pressures.
4. Values apply to 0 ≤ hD/D ≤ 0.5, 0.2 ≤ f/D ≤ 0.5.
5. θ = 0 degrees on dome springline, θ = 90 degrees at dome center top point, f is measured from springline to top.
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2-58 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
Notes:
1. Vertical scale denotes GCp to be used with qz or qh
2. Horizontal scale denotes effective wind area A, m2.
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
4. Use qz with positive values of GCp and qh with negative values of GCp.
5. Each component shall be designed for maximum positive and negative pressures.
6. Coefficients are for roofs with angle θ ≤ 10°. For other roof angles and geometry, use GCp values from Figure 207-11 and attendant qh based
on exposure defined in Section 207.5.6.
7. If a parapet equal to or higher than 0.9 m is provided around the perimeter of the roof with θ ≤ 10°, Zone 3 shall be treated as Zone 2.
8. Notations:
a : 10 percent of least horizontal dimensions, but not less than 0.9 m
h : Mean roof height, m, except that eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 10°
z : Height above ground, m
θ : Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees
Notes:
1. CNW and CNL denote net pressures (contributions from top and bottom surfaces) for windward and leeward half of roof surfaces, respectively.
2. Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or equal to 50%. Obstructed wind flow denotes objects below
roof inhibiting wind flow (>50% blockage).
3. For values of θ between 7.5° and 45°, linear interpolation is permitted. For values of θ less than 7.5°, use monoslope roof load coefficients.
4. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting towards and away from the top roof surface, respectively.
5. All load cases shown for each roof angle shall be investigated.
6. Notations:
L : horizontal dimensions of roof, measured in the along wind direction, m
h : mean roof height, m
γ : direction of wind, degrees
θ : angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
2-60 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
Notes:
1. CNW and CNL denote net pressures (contributions from top and bottom surfaces) for windward and leeward half of roof surfaces, respectively.
2. Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or equal to 50%. Obstructed wind flow denotes objects below
roof inhibiting wind flow (>50% blockage).
3. For values of θ between 7.5° and 45°, linear interpolation is permitted. For values of θ less than 7.5°, use monoslope roof load coefficients.
4. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting towards and away from the top roof surface, respectively.
5. All load cases shown for each roof angle shall be investigated.
6. Notations:
L : horizontal dimensions of roof, measured in the along wind direction, m
h : mean roof height, m
γ : direction of wind, degrees
θ : angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees
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National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume I, 6 Edition
2-62 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
Obstructed Wind
Clear Wind Flow
Horizontal Flow
Distance from Roof Angle θ Load Case
Windward Edge
CN CN
A -0.6 -0.9
All Shapes
> h, ≤ 2h
θ ≤ 45°
B 0.5 0.5
A -0.3 -0.6
All Shapes
> 2h
θ ≤ 45°
B 0.3 0.3
Roof CN
Effective
Angle Clear Wind Flow Obstructed Wind Flow
Wind Area
θ Zone 3 Zone 2 Zone 1 Zone 3 Zone 2 Zone 1
≤ a² 2.4 -3.3 1.8 -1.7 1.2 -1.1 1 -3.6 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
θ° >a², ≤ 4a² 1.8 -1.7 1.8 -1.7 1.2 -1.1 0.8 -1.8 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
> 4a² 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2
≤a² 3.2 -4.2 2.4 -2.1 1.6 -1.4 1.6 -5.1 1.2 -2.6 0.8 -1.7
7.5° >a², ≤ 4a² 2.4 -2.1 2.4 -2.1 1.6 -1.4 1.2 -2.6 1.2 -2.6 0.8 -1.7
>4a² 1.6 -1.4 1.6 -1.4 1.6 -1.4 0.8 -1.7 0.8 -1.7 0.8 -1.7
≤a² 3.6 -3.8 2.7 -2.9 1.8 -1.9 2.4 -4.2 1.8 -3.2 1.2 -2.1
15° >a², ≤ 4a² 2.7 -2.9 2.7 -2.9 1.8 -1.9 1.8 -3.2 1.8 -3.2 1.2 -2.1
> 4a² 1.8 -1.9 1.8 -1.9 1.8 -1.9 1.2 -2.1 1.2 -2.1 1.2 -2.1
≤ a² 5.2 -5 3.9 -3.8 2.6 -2.5 3.2 -4.6 2.4 -3.5 1.6 -2.3
30° >a², ≤ 4a² 3.9 -3.8 3.9 -3.8 2.6 -2.5 2.4 -3.5 2.4 -3.5 1.6 -2.3
> 4a² 2.6 -2.5 2.6 -2.5 2.6 -2.5 1.6 -2.3 1.6 -2.3 1.6 -2.3
≤ a² 5.2 -4.6 3.9 -3.5 2.6 -2.3 4.2 -3.8 3.2 -2.9 2.1 -1.9
45° >a², ≤ 4a² 3.9 -3.5 3.9 -3.5 2.6 -2.3 3.2 -2.9 3.2 -2.9 2.1 -1.9
>4a² 2.6 -2.3 2.6 -2.3 2.6 -2.3 2.1 -1.9 2.1 -1.9 2.1 -1.9
Notes:
1. CN denote net pressures (contributions from top and bottom surfaces)
2. Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or equal to 50%. Obstructed wind flow denotes objects
below roof inhibiting wind flow (>50% blockage).
3. For values of θ other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted.
4. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting towards and away from the top roof surface, respectively.
5. Components and cladding elements shall be designed for positive and negative pressure coefficients shown.
6. Notations:
a : 10% of least horizontal dimensions or 0.4h, whichever is smaller but not less than 4% of least horizontal dimensions or 0.9 m
h : mean roof height, m
L : horizontal dimension of building measured in along wind direction, m
θ : angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees
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2-64 CHAPTER 2 – Minimum Design Loads
Roof CN
Effective
Angle Clear Wind Flow Obstructed Wind Flow
Wind Area
θ Zone 3 Zone 2 Zone 1 Zone 3 Zone 2 Zone 1
≤ a² 2.4 -3.3 1.8 -1.7 1.2 -1.1 1 -3.6 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
θ° >a², ≤ 4a² 1.8 -1.7 1.8 -1.7 1.2 -1.1 0.8 -1.8 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
> 4a² 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2
≤a² 2.2 -4.2 2.4 -2.1 1.6 -1.4 1.6 -5.1 1.2 -2.6 0.8 -1.7
7.5° >a², ≤ 4a² 1.7 -2.1 2.4 -2.1 1.6 -1.4 1.2 -2.6 1.2 -2.6 0.8 -1.7
>4a² 1.1 -1.4 1.6 -1.4 1.6 -1.4 0.8 -1.7 0.8 -1.7 0.8 -1.7
≤a² 2.2 -3.8 2.7 -2.9 1.8 -1.9 2.4 -4.2 1.8 -3.2 1.2 -2.1
15° >a², ≤ 4a² 1.7 2.9 -2.7 -2.9 1.8 -1.9 1.8 -3.2 1.8 -3.2 1.2 -2.1
> 4a² 1.1 -1.9 1.8 -1.9 1.8 -1.9 1.2 -2.1 1.2 -2.1 1.2 -2.1
≤ a² 2.6 -5 3.9 -3.8 2.6 -2.5 3.2 -4.6 2.4 -3.5 1.6 -2.3
30° >a², ≤ 4a² 2.0 -3.8 3.9 -3.8 2.6 -2.5 2.4 -3.5 2.4 -3.5 1.6 -2.3
> 4a² 1.3 -2.5 2.6 -2.5 2.6 -2.5 1.6 -2.3 1.6 -2.3 1.6 -2.3
≤ a² 2.2 -4.6 3.9 -3.5 2.6 -2.3 4.2 -3.8 3.2 -2.9 2.1 -1.9
45° >a², ≤ 4a² 1.7 -3.5 3.9 -3.5 2.6 -2.3 3.2 -2.9 3.2 -2.9 2.1 -1.9
>4a² 1.1 -2.3 2.6 -2.3 2.6 -2.3 2.1 -1.9 2.1 -1.9 2.1 -1.9
Notes:
1. CN denote net pressures (contributions from top and bottom surfaces)
2. Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or equal to 50%. Obstructed wind flow denotes objects
below roof inhibiting wind flow (>50% blockage).
3. For values of θ other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted.
4. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting towards and away from the top roof surface, respectively.
5. Components and cladding elements shall be designed for positive and negative pressure coefficients shown.
6. Notations:
a : 10% of least horizontal dimensions or 0.4h, whichever is smaller but not less than 4% of least horizontal dimensions or 0.9 m
h : mean roof height, m
L : horizontal dimension of building measured in along wind direction, m
θ : angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees
Roof CN
Effective
Angle Clear Wind Flow Obstructed Wind Flow
Wind Area
θ Zone 3 Zone 2 Zone 1 Zone 3 Zone 2 Zone 1
≤ a² 2.4 -3.3 1.8 -1.7 1.2 -1.1 1 -3.6 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
θ° >a², ≤ 4a² 1.8 -1.7 1.8 -1.7 1.2 -1.1 0.8 -1.8 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
> 4a² 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2
≤a² 2.4 -3.3 1.8 -1.7 1.2 -1.1 1 -4.8 0.8 -2.4 0.5 -1.6
7.5° >a², ≤ 4a² 1.8 -1.7 1.8 -1.7 1.2 -1.1 0.8 -2.4 0.8 -2.4 0.5 -1.6
>4a² 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 1.2 -1.1 0.5 -1.6 0.5 -1.6 0.5 -1.6
≤a² 2.2 -2.2 1.7 -1.7 1.1 -1.1 1 -2.4 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
15° >a², ≤ 4a² 1.7 -1.7 1.7 -1.7 1.1 -1.1 0.8 -1.8 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
> 4a² 1.1 -1.1 1.1 -1.1 1.1 -1.1 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2
≤ a² 1.8 -2.6 1.4 -2 0.9 -1.3 1 -2.8 0.8 -2.1 0.5 -1.4
30° >a², ≤ 4a² 1.4 -2 1.4 -2 0.9 -1.3 0.8 -2.1 0.8 -2.1 0.5 -1.4
> 4a² 0.9 -1.3 1.9 -1.3 0.9 -1.3 0.5 -1.4 0.5 -1.4 0.5 -1.4
≤ a² 1.6 -2.2 1.2 -1.7 0.8 -1.1 1 -2.4 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
45° >a², ≤ 4a² 1.2 -1.7 1.2 -1.7 0.8 -1.1 0.8 -1.8 0.8 -1.8 0.5 -1.2
>4a² 0.8 -1.1 1.8 -1.1 0.8 -1.1 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2 0.5 -1.2
Notes:
1. CN denote net pressures (contributions from top and bottom surfaces)
2. Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or equal to 50%. Obstructed wind flow denotes objects
below roof inhibiting wind flow (>50% blockage).
3. For values of θ other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted.
4. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting towards and away from the top roof surface, respectively.
5. Components and cladding elements shall be designed for positive and negative pressure coefficients shown.
6. Notations:
a : 10% of least horizontal dimensions or 0.4h, whichever is smaller but not less than 4% of least horizontal dimensions or 0.9 m
h : mean roof height, m
L : horizontal dimension of building measured in along wind direction, m
θ : angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees
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Notes:
Figure 207-20 Force Coefficients, Cf on Solid Freestanding Walls & Solid Signs
of all Heights Other Structures – Method 2
(D qz >5.3, D in m, qz in kPa
All 0.7 0.8 1.2
Notes:
1. The design wind force shall be calculated based on the area of the structure projected on a plane normal to the wind direction. The force shall
be assumed to act parallel to the wind direction.
2. Linear interpolation is permitted for h/D values other than shown.
3. Notation:
D : diameter of circular cross-section and least horizontal dimensions of square, hexagonal or octagonal cross-sections at elevation
under consideration, m;
D : depth of protruding elements such as ribs and spoilers, m;
h : height of structure, m; and
qz : velocity pressure evaluated at height z above ground, KPa.
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Rounded Members
Flat- Sided D q z 2.5 D qz >2.5
ε
Members
D q z 5.3 D qz >5.3
< 0.1 2.0 1.2 0.8
Notes:
1. Signs with openings comprising 30% or more of the gross area are classified as open signs.
2. The calculation of the design wind forces shall be based on the area of all exposed members and elements projected on a plane normal to the
wind direction. Forces shall be assumed to act parallel to the wind direction.
3. The area Af consistent with these force coefficients is the solid area projected normal to the wind direction.
4. Notation:
ε : ratio of solid area to gross area
D : diameter of a typical round member, m
qz : velocity pressure evaluated at height z above ground, kPa
Notes:
1. For all wind directions considered, the area Af consistent with the specified force coefficients shall be the solid area of a tower face projected
on the plane of that face for the tower segment under consideration.
2. The specified force coefficients are for towers with structural angles or similar flat-sided members.
3. For towers containing rounded members, it is acceptable to multiply the specified force coefficients by the following factor when determining
wind forces on such members:
0.51 ε² + 0.57, but not > 1.0
4. Wind forces shall be applied in the directions resulting in maximum member forces and reactions. For towers with square cross-sections, wind
forces shall be multiplied by the following factor when the wind is directed along a tower diagonal:
1 + 0.75 ε, but not > 1.2
5. Wind forces on tower appurtenances such as ladders, conduits, lights, elevators, etc., shall be calculated using appropriate force coefficients
for these elements.
6. Notation:
ε : ratio of solid area to gross area of one tower face for the segment under consideration.
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DRIFT. See "story drift." ORTHOGONAL EFFECTS are the earthquake load
effects on structural elements common to the lateral-
DUAL SYSTEM is a combination of moment-resisting force-resisting systems along two orthogonal axes.
frames and shear walls or braced frames designed in
accordance with the criteria of Section 208.4.6.4. OVERSTRENGTH is a characteristic of structures
where the actual strength is larger than the design
ECCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAME (EBF) is a strength. The degree of overstrength is material-and
steel-braced frame designed in conformance with Section system-dependent.
528.
P EFFECT is the secondary effect on shears, axial
ELASTIC RESPONSE PARAMETERS are forces and forces and moments of frame members due to the action
deformations determined from an elastic dynamic analysis of the vertical loads induced by horizontal displacement
using an unreduced ground motion representation, in of the structure resulting from various loading.
accordance with Section 208.6.
SHEAR WALL is a wall designed to resist lateral forces
ESSENTIAL FACILITIES are those structures that are parallel to the plane of the wall (sometimes referred to as
necessary for emergency operations subsequent to a vertical diaphragm or structural wall).
natural disaster.
SHEAR WALL-FRAME INTERACTIVE SYSTEM
FLEXIBLE ELEMENT or system is one whose uses combinations of shear walls and frames designed to
deformation under lateral load is significantly larger than resist lateral forces in proportion to their relative
adjoining parts of the system. Limiting ratios for defining rigidities, considering interaction between shear walls and
specific flexible elements are set forth in Section 208.5.6. frames on all levels.
HORIZONTAL BRACING SYSTEM is a horizontal SOFT STORY is one in which the lateral stiffness is less
truss system that serves the same function as a diaphragm. than 70 percent of the stiffness of the story above. See
Table 208-9.
INTERMEDIATE MOMENT RESISTING FRAME
(IMRF) is a concrete frame designed in accordance with SPACE FRAME is a three-dimensional structural
Section 412. system, without bearing walls, composed of members
interconnected so as to function as a complete self-
LATERAL-FORCE-RESISTING SYSTEM is that part contained unit with or without the aid of horizontal
of the structural system designed to resist the Design diaphragms or floor-bracing systems.
Seismic Forces.
SPECIAL CONCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAME
(SCBF) is a steel-braced frame designed in conformance
with the provisions of Section 526.
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2
The limitation of Ip for panel connections in Section 208.8.2.3 shall Very
be 1.0 for the entire connector.
Dense
3
Structural observation requirements are given in Section 107.9. 360 to
SC Soil ad > 50 > 100
4
For anchorage of machinery and equipment required for life-safety 760
systems, the value of IP shall be taken as 1.5. Soft
Rock
Stiff Soil 180 to 15 to 50 to
208.4.3 Site Geology and Soil Characteristics SD
Profile 360 50 100
Each site shall be assigned a soil profile type based on Soft Soil
SE1 < 180 < 15 < 50
properly substantiated geotechnical data using the site Profile
categorization procedure set forth in Section 208.10 and Soil Requiring Site-specific Evaluation.
SF
Table 208-2. See Section 208.4.3.1
1
Soil Profile Type SE also includes any soil profile with more than
Exception 3.0 m of soft clay defined as a soil with plasticity index, PI > 20,
When the soil properties are not known in sufficient detail to wmc 40 percent and su < 24 kPa. The Plasticity Index, PI, and
the moisture content, wmc, shall be determined in accordance with
determine the soil profile type, Type SD shall be used. Soil
approved national standards.
Profile Type SE or SF need not be assumed unless the building
official determines that Type SE or SF may be present at the site
or in the event that Type SE or SF is established by geotechnical 208.4.4 Site Seismic Hazard Characteristics
data.
Seismic hazard characteristics for the site shall be
established based on the seismic zone and proximity of
208.4.3.1 Soil Profile Type the site to active seismic sources, site soil profile
Soil Profile Types SA, SB, SC, SD and SE are defined in characteristics and the structure's importance factor.
Table 208-2 and Soil Profile Type SF is defined as soils
requiring site-specific evaluation as follows: 208.4.4.1 Seismic Zone
1. Soils vulnerable to potential failure or collapse under The Philippine archipelago is divided into two seismic
seismic loading, such as liquefiable soils, quick and zones only. Zone 2 covers the provinces of Palawan and
highly sensitive clays, and collapsible weakly Tawi-tawi while the rest of the country is under Zone 4 as
cemented soils. shown in Figure 208-1. Each structure shall be assigned a
2. Peats and/or highly organic clays, where the seismic zone factor Z, in accordance with Table 208-3.
thickness of peat or highly organic clay exceeds 3.0 Table 208-3 Seismic Zone Factor Z
m.
ZONE 2 4
3. Very high plasticity clays with a plasticity index, PI Z 0.20 0.40
> 75, where the depth of clay exceeds 7.5 m.
4. Very thick soft/medium stiff clays, where the depth 208.4.4.2 Seismic Zone 4 Near-Source Factor
of clay exceeds 35 m.
In Seismic Zone 4, each site shall be assigned near-source
The criteria set forth in the definition for Soil Profile Type factors in accordance with Tables 208-4 and 208-5 based
SF requiring site-specific evaluation shall be considered. on the Seismic Source Type as set forth in Section
If the site corresponds to these criteria, the site shall be 208.4.4.4.
classified as Soil Profile Type SF and a site-specific
evaluation shall be conducted. The value of Na used to determine Ca need not exceed 1.1
for structures complying with all the following
Table 208-2 - Soil Profile Types conditions:
Soil Average Soil Properties for Top 1. The soil profile type is SA, SB, SC or SD.
Soil
Profile Profile 30 m of Soil Profile
Name / Shear Undrained 2. = 1.0.
SPT, N
Generic Wave Shear
(blows/ Strength, 3. Except in single-story structures, residential building
Type Description Velocity, Vs
300 mm) SU (kPa) accommodating 10 or fewer persons, private garages,
(m/s)
Hard carports, sheds and agricultural buildings, moment
SA > 1500 frame systems designated as part of the lateral-force-
Rock
760 to resisting system shall be special moment-resisting
SB Rock frames.
1500
4. The exceptions to Section 515.6.5 shall not apply, Table 208-6 - Seismic Source Types 1
except for columns in one-story buildings or columns
at the top story of multistory buildings. Seismic Source
Seismic
Seismic Source Definition
5. None of the following structural irregularities is Source
Description Maximum Moment
present: Type 1, 4 or 5 of Table 208-9, and Type 1 or Type
Magnitude, M
4 of Table 208-10. Faults that are
capable of
208.4.4.3 Seismic Response Coefficients producing large
A magnitude events M ≥ 7.0
Each structure shall be assigned a seismic coefficient, Ca, and that have a
in accordance with Table 208-7 and a seismic coefficient, high rate of seismic
Cv, in accordance with Table 208-8. activity.
All faults other
208.4.4.4 Seismic Source Types B than Types A and 6.5 ≤ M < 7.0
Table 208-6 defines the types of seismic sources. The C.
location and type of seismic sources to be used for design Faults that are not
shall be established based on approved geological data; capable of
see Figure 208-2A. Type A sources shall be determined producing large
from Figures 208-2B, C, D, E or the most recent mapping magnitude
C M < 6.5
of active faults by the Philippine Institute of Volcanology earthquakes and
and Seismology (PHIVOLCS). that have a
relatively low rate
Table 208-4 Near-Source Factor Na 1 of seismic activity.
1
Seismic Closest Distance To Subduction sources shall be evaluated on a site-specific basis.
Source Known Seismic Source2 Table 208-7 - Seismic Coefficient, Ca
Type 5 km 10 km
Soil Profile Seismic Zone Z
A 1.2 1.0
Type Z = 0.2 Z = 0.4
B 1.0 1.0
C 1.0 1.0 SA 0.16 0.32Na
1 SB 0.20 0.40Na
Table 208-5 Near-Source Factor, Nv
SC 0.24 0.40Na
Seismic Closest Distance To
SD 0.28 0.44Na
Source Known Seismic Source2
Type 5 km 10 km 15 km
SE 0.34 0.44Na
SF See Footnote 1 of Table 208-8
A 1.6 1.2 1.0
Table 208-8 - Seismic Coefficient, Cv
B 1.2 1.0 1.0
Soil Profile Seismic Zone Z
C 1.0 1.0 1.0 Type Z=0.2 Z=0.4
Notes for Tables 208.4 and 208.5: SA 0.16 0.32NV
1
The Near-Source Factor may be based on the linear interpolation SB 0.20 0.40NV
of values for distances other than those shown in the table. 0.32 0.56NV
2
SC
The closest distance to seismic source shall be taken as the
minimum distance between the site and the area described by the
SD 0.40 0.64NV
vertical projection of the source on the surface (i.e., surface SE 0.64 0.96NV
projection of fault plane). The surface projection need not include SF See Footnote 1 of Table 208-8
portions of the source at depths of 10 km or greater. The largest 1
value of the Near-Source Factor considering all sources shall be Site-specific geotechnical investigation and dynamic site response
used for design. analysis shall be performed to determine seismic coefficients.
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approved by the building official and when special For any given Story Level i, the element-story shear ratio
detailing is used to provide results equivalent to those is denoted as ri. The maximum element-story shear ratio
obtained by the use of conventional structural systems. rmax is defined as the largest of the element story shear
ratios, ri, which occurs in any of the story levels at or
below the two-thirds height level of the building.
208.5 Minimum Design Lateral Forces and Related
Effects
For braced frames, the value of ri is equal to the
maximum horizontal force component in a single brace
208.5.1 Earthquake Loads and Modeling element divided by the total story shear.
Requirements
For moment frames, ri shall be taken as the maximum of
the sum of the shears in any two adjacent columns in a
208.5.1.1 Earthquake Loads moment frame bay divided by the story shear. For
Structures shall be designed for ground motion producing columns common to two bays with moment-resisting
structural response and seismic forces in any horizontal connections on opposite sides at Level i in the direction
direction. The following earthquake loads shall be used in under consideration, 70 percent of the shear in that
the load combinations set forth in Section 203: column may be used in the column shear summation.
E Eh Ev (208-1)
For shear walls, ri shall be taken as the maximum value of
Em o Eh (208-2) the product of the wall shear multiplied by 3 / l w and
divided by the total story shear, where lw is the length of
where: the wall in meter.
E = the earthquake load on an element of the structure
resulting from the combination of the horizontal For dual systems, ri shall be taken as the maximum value
component, Eh, and the vertical component, Ev. of ri as defined above considering all lateral-load-resisting
Eh = the earthquake load due to the base shear, V, as set elements. The lateral loads shall be distributed to
forth in Section 208.5.2 or the design lateral force, elements based on relative rigidities considering the
Fp, as set forth in Section 208.7. interaction of the dual system. For dual systems, the value
Em = the estimated maximum earthquake force that can of need not exceed 80 percent of the value calculated
be developed in the structure as set forth in Section above.
208.5.1.1, and used in the design of specific
elements of the structure, as specifically identified shall not be taken less than 1.0 and need not be greater
in this code. than 1.5. For special moment-resisting frames, except
Ev = the load effect resulting from the vertical when used in dual systems, shall not exceed 1.25. The
component of the earthquake ground motion and is number of bays of special moment-resisting frames shall
equal to an addition of 0.5Ca ID to the dead load be increased to reduce r, such that is less than or equal
effect, D, for Strength Design, and may be taken as to 1.25.
zero for Allowable Stress Design. Exception:
o = the seismic force amplification factor that is
AB may be taken as the average floor area in the upper
required to account for structural overstrength, as
setback portion of the building where a larger base area
set forth in Section 208.5.3.1.
exists at the ground floor.
ρ = Reliability/Redundancy Factor as given by the
following equation:
When calculating drift, or when the structure is located in
6.1 Seismic Zone 2, shall be taken equal to 1.0.
2 (208-3)
rmax AB
The ground motion producing lateral response and design
where: seismic forces may be assumed to act non-concurrently in
rmax = the maximum element-story shear ratio. For a the direction of each principal axis of the structure, except
given direction of loading, the element-story shear as required by Section 208.8.1.
ratio is the ratio of the design story shear in the
most heavily loaded single element divided by the Seismic dead load, W, is the total dead load and
total design story shear. applicable portions of other loads listed below.
1. In storage and warehouse occupancies, a minimum of
25 percent of the floor live load shall be applicable.
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2. Where a partition load is used in the floor design, a The total design base shear shall not be less than the
load of not less than 0.5 kN/m2 shall be included. following:
3. Total weight of permanent equipment shall be V 0.11C a I W (208-6)
included.
In addition, for Seismic Zone 4, the total base shear shall
208.5.1.2 Modeling Requirements also not be less than the following:
The mathematical model of the physical structure shall 0.8ZN v I
include all elements of the lateral-force-resisting system. V W (208-7)
R
The model shall also include the stiffness and strength of
elements, which are significant to the distribution of
forces, and shall represent the spatial distribution of the 208.5.2.2 Structure Period
mass and stiffness of the structure. In addition, the model The value of T shall be determined from one of the
shall comply with the following: following methods:
1. Stiffness properties of reinforced concrete and
masonry elements shall consider the effects of 1. Method A:
cracked sections. For all buildings, the value T may be approximated from
2. For steel moment frame systems, the contribution of the following equation:
panel zone deformations to overall story drift shall be
included. T Ct (hn ) 3 / 4 (208-8)
where:
208.5.1.3 P Effects Ct = 0.0853 for steel moment-resisting frames.
The resulting member forces and moments and the story Ct = 0.0731 for reinforced concrete moment-
drifts induced by P effects shall be considered in the resisting frames and eccentrically braced frames.
evaluation of overall structural frame stability and shall be Ct = 0.0488 for all other buildings.
evaluated using the forces producing the displacements of
S. Pneed not be considered when the ratio of Alternatively, the value of Ct for structures with concrete
secondary moment to primary moment does not exceed or masonry shear walls may be taken as 0.0743 / Ac .
0.10; the ratio may be evaluated for any story as the
product of the total dead and floor live loads, as required
in Section 203, above the story times the seismic drift in The value of Ac shall be determined from the following
that story divided by the product of the seismic shear in equation:
that story times the height of that story. In Seismic Zone Ac Ae 0.2 ( De / hn ) 2 (208-9)
4, Pneed not be considered when the story drift ratio
does not exceed 0.02 / R.
The value of De / hn used in Equation (208-9) shall not
exceed 0.9.
208.5.2 Static Force Procedure
2. Method B:
208.5.2.1 Design Base Shear The fundamental period T may be calculated using the
The total design base shear in a given direction shall be structural properties and deformational characteristics of
determined from the following equation: the resisting elements in a properly substantiated analysis.
The analysis shall be in accordance with the requirements
C I of Section 208.5.1.2. The value of T from Method B shall
V v W (208-4)
RT not exceed a value 30 percent greater than the value of T
obtained from Method A in Seismic Zone 4, and 40
The total design base shear need not exceed the percent in Seismic Zone 2.
following:
2.5C a I
V W (208-5)
R
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The fundamental period T may be computed by using the where the value of Ca shall be based on Table 208-7 for
following equation: the soil profile type. When the soil properties are not
known in sufficient detail to determine the soil profile
n type, Type SD shall be used in Seismic Zone 4, and Type
wi i2
T 2 i 1 (208-10) SE shall be used in Seismic Zone 2. In Seismic Zone 4,
n the Near-Source Factor, Na, need not be greater than 1.2 if
g
f i i
none of the following structural irregularities are present:
i 1
1. Type 1, 4 or 5 of Table 208-9, or
The values of fi represent any lateral force distributed 2. Type 1 or 4 of Table 208-10.
approximately in accordance with the principles of
Equations (208-13), (208-14) and (208-15) or any other
208.5.2.3.2 Vertical Distribution
rational distribution. The elastic deflections, i, shall be
calculated using the applied lateral forces, fi. The forces at each level shall be calculated using the
following equation:
Structures may be designed using the procedures of this The concentrated force Ft at the top, which is in addition
section under the following conditions: to Fn, shall be determined from the equation:
The entire structure is designed using the lowest R of the Ft 0.07TV (208-14)
lateral force-resisting systems used, or
The value of T used for the purpose of calculating Ft shall
be the period that corresponds with the design base shear
as computed using Equation (208-4). Ft need not exceed
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Where diaphragms are not flexible, the mass at each level where:
shall be assumed to be displaced from the calculated
center of mass in each direction a distance equal to 5
avg = the average of the displacements at the extreme
points of the structure at Level x, mm
percent of the building dimension at that level
perpendicular to the direction of the force under max = the maximum displacement at Level x, mm
consideration. The effect of this displacement on the
story shear distribution shall be considered. The value of Ax need not exceed 3.0
5.
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Exception:
Alternatively, M may be computed by nonlinear time In addition to all other applicable load combinations,
history analysis in accordance with Section 208.6.6. horizontal prestressed components shall be designed using
not more than 50 percent of the dead load for the gravity
The analysis used to determine the Maximum Inelastic load, alone or in combination with the lateral force
Response Displacement M shall consider P effects. effects.
4.2 Possible amplification of building response due Response Parameters may be reduced in accordance with
to the effects of soil-structure interaction and Section 208.6.5.4.
lengthening of building period caused by
inelastic behavior shall be considered. The base shear for a given direction, determined using
dynamic analysis must not be less than the value obtained
5. The vertical component of ground motion may be
by the equivalent lateral force method of Section 208.5.2.
defined by scaling corresponding horizontal
In this case, all corresponding response parameters are
accelerations by a factor of two- thirds. Alternative
adjusted proportionately.
factors may be used when substantiated by site-
specific data. Where the Near Source Factor, Na, is
greater than 1.0, site-specific vertical response 208.6.5.2 Number of Modes
spectra shall be used in lieu of the factor of two- The requirement of Section 208.6.4.1 that all significant
thirds. modes be included may be satisfied by demonstrating that
for the modes considered, at least 90 percent of the
208.6.3 Mathematical Model participating mass of the structure is included in the
calculation of response for each principal horizontal
A mathematical model of the physical structure shall
direction.
represent the spatial distribution of the mass and stiffness
of the structure to an extent that is adequate for the
calculation of the significant features of its dynamic 208.6.5.3 Combining Modes
response. A three-dimensional model shall be used for The peak member forces, displacements, story forces,
the dynamic analysis of structures with highly irregular story shears and base reactions for each mode shall be
plan configurations such as those having a plan combined by recognized methods. When three-
irregularity defined in Table 208-10 and having a rigid or dimensional models are used for analysis, modal
semirigid diaphragm. The stiffness properties used in the interaction effects shall be considered when combining
analysis and general mathematical modeling shall be in modal maxima.
accordance with Section 208.5.1.2.
208.6.5.5 Directional Effects The parameter of interest shall be calculated for each
Directional effects for horizontal ground motion shall time- history analysis. If three time-history analyses are
conform to the requirements of Section 208.5.1. The performed, then the maximum response of the parameter
effects of vertical ground motions on horizontal of interest shall be used for design. If seven or more time-
cantilevers and prestressed elements shall be considered history analyses are performed, then the average value of
in accordance with Section 208.5.11. Alternately, vertical the response parameter of interest may be used for design.
seismic response may be determined by dynamic response
methods; in no case shall the response used for design be 208.6.6.2 Elastic Time History Analysis
less than that obtained by the static method.
Elastic time history shall conform to Sections 208.6.1,
208.6.2, 208.6.3, 208.6.5.2, 208.6.5.4, 208.6.5.5,
208.6.5.6 Torsion 208.6.5.6, 208.6.5.7 and 208.6.6.1. Response parameters
The analysis shall account for torsional effects, including from elastic time-history analysis shall be denoted as
accidental torsional effects as prescribed in Section Elastic Response Parameters. All elements shall be
208.5.7. Where three-dimensional models are used for designed using Strength Design. Elastic Response
analysis, effects of accidental torsion shall be accounted Parameters may be scaled in accordance with Section
for by appropriate adjustments in the model such as 208.6.5.4.
adjustment of mass locations, or by equivalent static
procedures such as provided in Section 208.5.6. 208.6.6.3 Nonlinear Time History Analysis
Alternatively, Fp may be calculated using the following For applicable forces and Component Response
equation: Modification Factors in connectors for exterior panels and
diaphragms, refer to Sections 208.8.2.3, 208.8.2.7, and
a p Ca I p h 208.8.2.8.
Fp 1 3 x W p (208-19)
R p hr
Forces shall be applied in the horizontal directions, which
Except that Fp shall not be less than 0.7Ca I pW p and need result in the most critical loadings for design.
not be more than 4Ca I pW p .
208.7.3 Specifying Lateral Forces
Design specifications for equipment shall either specify
the design lateral forces prescribed herein or reference
these provisions.
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1. Tanks and vessels (include contents), including support systems. 1.0 3.0
2. Electrical, mechanical and plumbing equipment and associated 5, 10, 11, 12,
1.0 3.0
conduit and ductwork and piping. 13, 14, 15, 16
3. Any flexible equipment laterally braced or anchored to the 5, 10, 14,
2.5 3.0
structural frame at a point below their center of mass 15, 16
3. Equipment
4. Anchorage of emergency power supply systems and essential
communications equipment. Anchorage and support systems for
1.0 3.0 17, 18
battery racks and fuel tanks necessary for operation of emergency
equipment. See also Section 208.7.2
5. Temporary containers with flammable or hazardous materials. 1.0 3.0 19
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elements not part of the lateral-force-resisting system movement by bending of steel, or other connections
shall be neglected. providing equivalent sliding and ductility capacity.
3. Bodies of connections shall have sufficient ductility
For elements not part of the lateral-force-resisting system,
and rotation capacity to preclude fracture of the
the forces inducted by the expected deformation may be
concrete or brittle failures at or near welds.
considered as ultimate or factored forces. When
computing the forces induced by expected deformations, 4. The body of the connection shall be designed for the
the restraining effect of adjoining rigid structures and force determined by Equation (208-19), where Rp =
nonstructural elements shall be considered and a rational 3.0 and ap = 1.0.
value of member and restraint stiffness shall be used.
5. All fasteners in the connecting system, such as bolts,
Inelastic deformations of members and connections may
inserts, welds and dowels, shall be designed for the
be considered in the evaluation, provided the assumed
forces determined by Equation (208-19), where Rp =
calculated capacities are consistent with member and
1.0 and ap = 1.0.
connection design and detailing.
6. Fasteners embedded in concrete shall be attached to,
For concrete and masonry elements that are part of the or hooked around, reinforcing steel or otherwise
lateral- force-resisting system, the assumed flexural and terminated to effectively transfer forces to the
shear stiffness properties shall not exceed one half of the reinforcing steel.
gross section properties unless a rational cracked-section
analysis is performed. Additional deformations that may
result from foundation flexibility and diaphragm 208.8.2.3 Ties and Continuity
deflections shall be considered. For concrete elements not All parts of a structure shall be interconnected and the
part of the lateral-force-resisting system, see Section connections shall be capable of transmitting the seismic
421.9. force induced by the parts being connected. As a
minimum, any smaller portion of the building shall be tied
to the remainder of the building with elements having at
208.8.2.3.1 Adjoining Rigid Elements least a strength to resist 0.5 CaI times the weight of the
Moment-resisting frames and shear walls may be smaller portion.
enclosed by or adjoined by more rigid elements, provided
it can be shown that the participation or failure of the A positive connection for resisting horizontal force acting
more rigid elements will not impair the vertical and parallel to the member shall be provided for each beam,
lateral- load-resisting ability of the gravity load and girder or truss. This force shall not be less than 0.3 CaI
lateral-force-resisting systems. The effects of adjoining times the dead plus live load.
rigid elements shall be considered when assessing
whether a structure shall be designated regular or irregular
in Section 208.4.5. 208.8.2.4 Collector Elements
Collector elements shall be provided that are capable of
transferring the seismic forces originating in other
208.8.2.3.2 Exterior Elements portions of the structure to the element providing the
Exterior non-bearing, non-shear wall panels or elements resistance to those forces.
that are attached to or enclose the exterior shall be
designed to resist the forces per Equation (208-18) or Collector elements, splices and their connections to
(208-19) and shall accommodate movements of the resisting elements shall resist the forces determined in
structure based on M and temperature changes. Such accordance with Equation (208-20). In addition, collector
elements shall be supported by means of cast-in-place elements, splices, and their connections to resisting
concrete or by mechanical connections and fasteners in elements shall have the design strength to resist the
accordance with the following provisions: combined loads resulting from the special seismic load of
Section 203.5.
1. Connections and panel joints shall allow for a relative
movement between stories of not less than two times
story drift caused by wind, the calculated story drift
based on M or 12.7 mm, whichever is greater.
2. Connections to permit movement in the plane of the
panel for story drift shall be sliding connections using
slotted or oversize holes, connections that permit
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Diaphragms
This section shall apply in Seismic Zone 4 where flexible The force Fpx determined from Equation (208-20) need
diaphragms, as defined in Section 208.5.6, provide lateral not exceed 1.0CaIwpx, but shall not be less than 0.5CaIwpx.
support for walls.
When the diaphragm is required to transfer design seismic
forces from the vertical-resisting elements above the
diaphragm to other vertical-resisting elements below the
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208.10.2.1 vs, Average Shear Wave Velocity 208.10.2.4 Soft Clay Profile, SE
vs shall be determined in accordance with the following The existence of a total thickness of soft clay greater than
equation: 3 meters shall be investigated where a soft clay layer is
n
defined by su < 24 kPa, wmc.>40 percent and PI > 20. If
di these criteria are met, the site shall be classified as Soil
vs i 1 (208-25) Profile Type SE.
n d
i
i 1vsi 208.10.2.5 Soil Profiles SC, SD and SE
where: Sites with Soil Profile Types SC, SD and SE shall be
classified by using one of the following three methods
di = thickness of Layer i in meter. with vs , N and su computed in all cases as specified in
vsi = shear wave velocity in Layer i in m/sec. Section 208.10.2.
1. vs for the top 30 meters (vs method).
208.10.2.2 N, Average Field Standard Penetration
Resistance and Nch, Average Standard Penetration 2. N for the top 30 meters (N method).
Resistance for Cohesionless Soil Layers 3. NCH for cohesionless soil layers (PI < 20) in the top
N and NCH shall be determined in accordance with the 30 meters and average su for cohesive soil layers (PI
following equation: > 20) in the top 30 meters (su method).
n
di
i 1
N n d
(208-26)
i
i 1 Ni
ds
N CH (208-27)
n d
i
i 1 N i
SECTION 209
208.10.2.6 Rock Profiles, SA and SB SOIL LATERAL LOADS
The shear wave velocity for rock, Soil Profile Type SB,
shall be either measured on site or estimated by a
209.1 General
geotechnical engineer, engineering geologist or
seismologist for competent rock with moderate fracturing Basement, foundation and retaining walls shall be
and weathering. Softer and more highly fractured and designed to resist lateral soil loads. Soil loads specified in
weathered rock shall either be measured on site for shear Table 209-1 shall be used as the minimum design lateral
wave velocity or classified as Soil Profile Type SC. soil loads unless specified otherwise in a soil investigation
report approved by the building official. Basement walls
The hard rock, Soil Profile Type SA, category shall be and other walls in which horizontal movement is
supported by shear wave velocity measurement either on restricted at the top shall be designed for at-rest pressure.
site or on profiles of the same rock type in the same Retaining walls free to move and rotate at the top are
formation with an equal or greater degree of weathering permitted to be designed for active pressure. Design
and fracturing. Where hard rock conditions are known to lateral pressure from surcharge loads shall be added to the
be continuous to a depth of 30 m, surficial shear wave lateral earth pressure load. Design lateral pressure shall be
velocity measurements may be extrapolated to assess vs. increased if soils with expansion potential are present at
The rock categories, Soil Profile Types SA and SB, shall the site.
not be used if there is more than 3 meters of soil between Exception:
the rock surface and the bottom of the spread footing or
mat foundation. Basement walls extending not more than 2400 mm below
grade and supporting flexible floor systems shall be
The definitions presented herein shall apply to the upper permitted to be designed for active pressure.
30 meters of the site profile. Profiles containing distinctly
different soil layers shall be subdivided into those layers
designated by a number from 1 to n at the bottom, where
there are a total of n distinct layers in the upper 30 meters.
The symbol i then refer to any one of the layers between 1
and n.
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Control Periods
2.5Ca
Ts = Cv / 2.5Ca
To = 0.2Ts
Cv /T
Ca
0
0 0.2 1 2 3 4 5
T o /T s Period ( T/T S )
Figure 208-3 - Design Response Spectra
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