Ec Lab

G.
PULLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS): KURNOOL

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS LABORATORY- (EC (P))
TITLE: LIST OF EXPERIMENTS DATE: 28-06-2017
1. Verification of KCL & KVL through (a) Experiment (b) Simulation.
2. Verification of Maximum Power Transfer theorem through (a)
Experiment (b) Simulation.
3. Verification of Superposition and Reciprocity theorem through (a)
Experiment (b) Simulation.
4. Verification of Thevenin’s theorem through (a) Experiment (b)
Simulation.
5. Verification of Norton’s theorem through (a) Experiment (b)
Simulation.
6. Determination of Self Inductance, Mutual Inductance and coefficient
of coupling of an air core transformer.
7. Series & Parallel resonance.
8. Determination of Impedance and Admittance parameters (Z & Y).
9. Determination of Transmission line parameters (ABCD).
10.Locus diagram on RL and RC circuits.
Note: A minimum of eight experiments should be conducted.

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Prepared by Approved by Page 1 of 1

Dr B.URMILA Dr. T.Bramhananda Reddy Revision No.0
HEAD, EEE Dept.
G.PULLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS): KURNOOL
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER
TITLE: VERIFICATION OF KCL GPREC/EEE/EXPT.No. ECP-01

& KVL DATE: 28-06-2017
OBJECTIVE: Verification of Kirchhoff’s voltage and current law by

(a) Experiment (b) Simulation in PSpice software.
APPARATUS:
Sl.No. Unit Range Type No.
1 Regulated power supply (0-30)V/(0-2)A 1
2 Digital Multimeter 1
3 Ammeter (0-2)A MC 4
4 Rheostats 4
5 Connecting Wires Reqd.
KCL STATEMENT: Algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a node is equal to zero.
THEORY: KCL: This law is also called Kirchhoff's first law, Kirchhoff's point rule,
or Kirchhoff's junction rule or nodal rule.
The principle of conservation of electric charge implies that: At any node or a junction in
an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing into that node is equal to the sum of
currents flowing out of that node (OR) the algebraic sum of currents in a network of
conductors meeting at a point is zero.
Consider Fig 1(a), where the incoming or entering currents considered as ‘Positive (+)’
towards node ‘A’ while leaving or outgoing currents from ‘A’ as ‘Negative (-)’ then:
I1 + (-I2) + (-I3) + (-I4) + I5 = 0
(OR) I1 + I5 -I2 -I3 -I4 = 0
(OR) I1 + I5 = I2 + I3 + I4
i.e. Sum of Incoming or Entering Currents = Sum of leaving or Outgoing Currents
Or ΣI Entering = ΣI Leaving.
This formula is valid for complex currents also.
For instance, 6A is coming towards a point and 4A plus 2A are leaving that point in fig
1(b), therefore, I1 = I2 + I3; 6A = 4A +2A.
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

& KVL DATE: 28-06-2017
Figure 1
APPLICATIONS: 1. Matrix version of Kirchhoff's current law is the basis of most circuit
simulation software, such as PSPICE.
2. Kirchhoff's current law combined with Ohm's Law is used in nodal analysis.
3. KCL is applicable to any lumped network irrespective of the nature of the network;
whether unilateral or bilateral, active or passive, linear or non-linear.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
a. Experiment
I
A
R1 R2 R3
V
A I1 A I2 A I3
Figure 2 KCL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

& KVL DATE: 28-06-2017
b. Simulation in PSpice
-108.0W
V1 R2 R3
I I I
30Vdc R1
I 25 25 25
3.600A
0V
0
Figure 3 Simulation Model of KCL in PSpice
KVL STATEMENT: Algebraic sum of the voltages around any closed path in a
network is equal to zero.
THEORY-KVL: Kirchhoff’s second law states in any closed loop (which also known as
Mesh or loop), algebraic sum of the EMF (active elements) applied is equal to algebraic
sum of voltage drops in passive elements. Kirchhoff’s second law is also known as
Voltage Law or Mesh law.
ΣIR= ΣE
A closed circuit is shown in Fig4 which contains on two connections of batteries E1 and
E2. The overall sum of E.M.F’s of the batteries is indicated by E1-E2. The imaginary
direction of current is also shown in figure.
E1 drive the current in such a direction which is supposed to be positive while E2 interfere
in the direction of current (i.e. it is in the opposite direction of the supposed direction of
current) hence, it is taken as negative. The voltage drop in this closed circuit depends on
the product of Voltage and Current.
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

& KVL DATE: 28-06-2017
Figure 4
The voltage drop occurs in the assumed (can be clockwise or anticlockwise) direction of
current is known as Positive voltage drop while the other one is negative voltage drop.
In Fig4, I1R1 and I2R2 is positive voltage drop and I3R3 and I4R4 are negative voltage
drops. If we go around the closed circuit (or each mesh), and multiply resistance of the
conductor and flowing current in it, then sum of IR is equal to sum of applied EMF
sources connected in circuit.
The overall equation for the above circuit is:
E1-E2 = I1R1 + I2R2 – I3R3 – I4R4

If we go in the supposed direction of the current as shown in the Fig4, then product of IR
is taken as positive otherwise negative. After solving for loop currents, if we get current
value as positive, it means, the assumed direction of the current were correct. In case of
negative values, the current of the direction is reversal as compared to the assumed one
then.
APPLICATIONS OF KVL:
1. KVL is used to determine the values of unknown currents and their direction.
2. Useful to find the unknown values in complex circuits and networks (not suitable
for high frequency circuit).
3. Kirchhoff’s Laws are useful in understanding the transfer of energy through an
electric circuit.
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

& KVL DATE: 28-06-2017
a. Experiment
V1 V2 V3
R1 R2 R3
Figure 5 KVL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

b. Simulation in PSpice
R1 R2 R3
30Vdc
Figure 6 Simulation Model of KVL in PSpice

PROCEDURE:
FOR KCL & KVL:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram 2 & 3 for KCL and circuit
diagram5 & 6 for KVL.
2. Varying the input voltage note down all meter readings.
3. Verify KCL and KVL.
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

& KVL DATE: 28-06-2017
TABULAR COLUMN:
FOR KCL:
Sl.no. I I1 I2 I3 I1 +I2 +I3
FOR KVL:
Sl.no. V V1 V2 V3 V1 +V2 +V3
RESULT: Kirchhoff’s laws are verified.

Questions on KCL & KVL
1. Ohm’s law is applicable to _________ [ d ]

(a) Semiconductors (b) Electrolytes (c) Arc Lamps (d) None
2. Kirchhoff’s laws are valid for __________ circuits. [ d ]

(a) Linear (b) Passive time invariant (c) Non Linear (d) both Linear & Non-Linear
3. The curve representing Ohm’s law is _________ [ b ]

(a) Sine function (b) Linear (c) Parabola (d) Hyperbola
4. The ratio of voltage and current in a closed circuit ________ [ a ]

(a) Remains Constant (b) Varies (c) Increases (d) Falls
5. Identify the passive element among the following [C]

A. Voltage source B. Current source C. Inductor D. Transistor
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV Semester
TITLE: VERIFICATION OF GPREC/EEE/EXPT.No. ECP-02

MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER DATE: 28-06-2017
THEOREM
OBJECTIVE: Verification of Maximum Power Transfer theorem by

APPARATUS:
1 Voltmeter MC 1
2 Ammeter MC 1
3 Rheostat - 2
STATEMENT: The maximum power is abstracted by the load from the source when
load resistance is equal to the source resistance.
THEORY: In electrical engineering, the maximum power transfer theorem states that,
to obtain maximum external power from a source with a finite internal resistance, the
resistance of the load must equal the resistance of the source as viewed from its output
terminals. Moritz von Jacobi published the maximum power (transfer) theorem around
1840; it is also referred to as "Jacobi's law".
The theorem results in maximum power transfer, and not maximum efficiency. If
the resistance of the load is made larger than the resistance of the source, then efficiency
is higher, since a higher percentage of the source power is transferred to the load, but
the magnitude of the load power is lower since the total circuit resistance goes up.
If load resistance is smaller than source resistance, then most of the power ends up being
dissipated in the source, and although the total power dissipated is higher, due to a lower
total resistance, it turns out that amount dissipated in load is reduced.
The theorem states how to choose (so as to maximize power transfer) the load resistance,
once the source resistance is given. It is a common misconception to apply the theorem in
the opposite scenario. It does not say how to choose the source resistance for a given load
resistance. In fact, the source resistance that maximizes power transfer is always zero,
regardless of the value of the load resistance.
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV Semester

THEOREM
The theorem can be extended to alternating current circuits that include reactance, and
states that maximum power transfer occurs when the load impedance is equal to the
complex conjugate of the source impedance.
The condition of maximum power transfer does not result in maximum efficiency. If we
define the efficiency η as the ratio of power dissipated by the load to power developed by
the source, then it is straightforward to calculate from the above circuit diagram Fig2 that
R Load
 
R Load  R Source
1
 
 R Source 
1 



R
 Load 
Consider three particular cases:
 If Rsource=0, Rload=∞ then η = 100%

 If Rsource=Rload or then η =50%
 If Rload =0, then η =0%
The efficiency is only 50% when maximum power transfer is achieved, but approaches
100% either load resistance approach infinity or source resistance approach zero though
the total power level tends towards zero and 0% if the load resistance approaches zero. In
the latter case, all the power is consumed inside the source (unless the source also has no
resistance), so the power dissipated in a short circuit is zero.
The theorem is applicable where the source and/or load are not totally resistive. This
invokes a refinement of the maximum power theorem, which says that any reactive
components of source and load should be of equal magnitude but opposite phase. This
means that the source and load impedances should be complex conjugates of each other.
In the case of purely resistive circuits, the two concepts are identical. However,
physically realizable sources and loads are not usually totally resistive, having some
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV Semester

THEOREM
inductive or capacitive components, and so practical applications of this theorem, under

the name of complex conjugate impedance matching, do, in fact, exist.
ZL= (ZS)*
If the source is totally inductive (capacitive), then a totally capacitive (inductive) load, in
the absence of resistive losses, would receive 100% of the energy from the source but
send it back after a quarter cycle. The resultant circuit is nothing other than a resonant LC
circuit in which the energy continues to oscillate to and fro. This oscillation is called
reactive power. Power factor correction (where an inductive reactance is used to "balance
out" a capacitive one), is essentially the same idea as complex conjugate impedance
matching although it is done for entirely different reasons.
For a fixed reactive source, the maximum power theorem maximizes the real power (P)
delivered to the load by complex conjugate matching the load to the source.
For a fixed reactive load, power factor correction minimizes the apparent power (S) (and
unnecessary current) conducted by the transmission lines, while maintaining the same
amount of real power transfer. This is done by adding a reactance to the load to balance
out the load's own reactance, changing the reactive load impedance into resistive load
impedance.
Application:
1. When developing new circuits for a known application, optimize the power transfer by
designing the circuit to have an input resistance close to the load resistance.
2. When selecting a source to power a circuit, one of the selection criteria is to match the
input impedance to the load resistance.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
a. Simulation in PSpice
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV Semester

THEOREM
26
60Vdc RL
0-56 Ohms
0
Figure 1
PROCEDURE:
1. Simulation model is developed in PSpice according to the Figure1.
2. Load resistance is varied in steps and voltage, current and power values are
tabulated.
3. Graph is drawn between load resistance and power across, to find the load
resistance value where maximum power transfer takes place from source to
load.
TABULAR COLUMN:
R V I P
b. Experiment
RS
A
60V V RL
V
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV Semester

THEOREM
2. Keep the load resistance (RL) at maximum position.

3. Apply a dc voltage of 60V.
4. Vary RL in steps and note all the meter readings.
5. Calculate the power (P) drawn by the load for different values of RL and
VS
tabulate. Plot P Vs RL. Where P  I 2 R L ; I 
RS  R L
6. Observe that the maximum power is drawn when the load resistance is equal
to the source resistance.
TABULAR COLUMN:
Sl.no. V I P
EXPECTED GRAPH: P
PMAX
RS RL
RESULT: Maximum power transfer theorem is verified through graph and observations.
QUESTIONS
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV Semester

THEOREM
1. MPTT is applicable to linear, active, bilateral AC and DC networks.

2. Maximum power will be transferred from source to the load when the external load
resistance equals to the internal resistance of the source.
3. State few applications of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
4. Can power system be operated at maximum power point?
A. The efficiency is 50 percent only at maximum power transfer condition. So in
power system network, this condition causes a large voltage drop in the lines. But
the goal of the power system network is to increase the efficiency rather than
maximum power. Therefore, power system is never operated under maximum
power transfer.
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS LABORATORY –EC(P)

DATE: 28-06-2017
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
OBJECTIVE: Verification of Reciprocity theorem by (a) Experiment (b) Simulation in

PSpice software.
APPARATUS:
1 Regulated Power Supply (0-30)V/(0-2)A 1
3 Rheostat 3
Connecting Wires Reqd.
STATEMENT: The ratio of response to excitation is invariant to an interchange of the

positions of the excitation and response in a single source network. However if the
excitation is a voltage source, the response should be a current source and vice versa.
THEORY: The voltage source and the ammeter used in this theorem must be ideal. That
means the internal resistance of both the voltage source and ammeter must be zero. The
reciprocal circuit may be a simple or complex network. But every complex reciprocal
passive network can be simplified into a simple network. As per reciprocity theorem, in a
linear passive network, supply voltage V and output current I are mutually transferable.
The ratio of V and I is called the transfer resistance. The theorem can easily be
understood by the following illustration Fig1.
Figure 1 Reciprocity Theorem Block Diagram

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
a. Simulation Model
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
R1 R3
10 15
I
V1 R5
30Vdc 20
0V
Figure 2 Pspice Model
R1 R3
10 15
I
R5 V1
20 30Vdc
0V
Figure 3 Pspice Model
R1
b. Experiment
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R3
V1 R 2
I2
Dr B.URMILA Dr. T.Bramhananda Reddy A Revision No.0
HEAD, EEE Dept. G
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
Figure 4
R1
I1 R3
R2
A
G
V2
Figure 5
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are to be made as per Figure1.
2. Apply voltage in steps of 5V.
3. Note down meter readings calculate the ratio of voltage to current to find R.
4. Repeat the above steps for Figure2 to 4 to find R.
5. R is equal in Fig 1 & 2 and in Fig 3 & 4.
TABULAR COLUMNS:
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
Table 1 for Fig 1 &3
Sl.no. V I R=V/ I
RESULT: Reciprocity theorem is verified.

Questions:
1. Lorentz and Green invented electromagnetic and Electrostatic reciprocity theorem.
2. To prove reciprocity in a two port network the parameters Z12=Z21; Y = Y ; h12=-h21

��
��
��
and AD-BC=1.
3. The analysis of two-port networks was pioneered in the 1920s by Franz Breisig, a
German mathematician.
4. What is a linear network?
Linear relation between V and I.
5. What is the practical application of reciprocity theorem?
A. In acoustics (Lord Rayleigh), light theory (Helmholtz), electromagnetism and
electrostatics etc.
6. What is a bilateral network? Give one example.
A. V-I relation remains same for current flowing in either direction. Eg. Resistor
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS LABORATORY - (EC (P))

DATE: 28-06-2017
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
OBJECTIVE: Verification of Superposition theorem by (a) Experiment (b) Simulation

in PSpice software.
APPARATUS:
3 Rheostat 3
4 Connecting Wires - Reqd.
STATEMENT: In a linear network with several independent sources which include

equivalent sources due to initial conditions, and linear dependent sources, the overall
response in any part of the network is equal to the sum of the individual responses due to
each independent source, considered with all other independent sources reduced to zero.
THEORY: If there are several sources acting simultaneously in an electrical circuit, then
the current through any branch of the circuit is summation of currents which would flow
through the branch for each source keeping all other sources dead. Suppose there are ‘n’
number of sources acting in a circuit due to which I current flows through a particular
branch of the circuit. It can be easily assumed that total current flows through the branch
is nothing but the summation of all individual currents, contributed by the each individual
voltage or current source acting alone on the circuit.
Electrical sources may be of two kinds mainly, one is voltage source and other is current
source. When we remove the voltage source from a circuit, the voltage, was contributed
to the circuit becomes zero. So for getting zero electric potential difference between the
points where the removed voltage source was connected, these two points must be short
circuited by zero resistance paths. For more accuracy, one can replace the voltage source
by its internal resistance. Now if we remove a current source from the circuit, current is
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
contributed by this source will become zero. Zero current implies open circuit. So when
we remove current source from a circuit, we just disconnect the source from the circuit
terminals and keep both terminals open circuited. As the ideal internal resistance of a
current source is infinitely large, removing a current source from a circuit can be
alternatively referred as replacing the current source by its internal resistance. So for
superposition theorem, the voltage sources is replaced by short circuits and current
sources are replaced by open circuits.
This theorem is only applicable to linear circuit i.e. circuit consisting of resistances in
which Ohm’s law is valid. In the circuits having non - linear resistances such as
thermionic valves, metallic rectifiers this theorem will not be applicable. This theorem is
a more laborious one than many other circuit theorems. But main advantage of this
method is that, it avoids solutions of two or more simultaneous equations.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
a. PSpice Simulation
R1 R2
V1 R3 V2
0-30 Vdc
0-30Vdc
0
Figure 1
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
R1 R2
V1 R3
0-30 Vdc
0
Figure 2
R1 R2
R3 V2
0-30Vdc
0
Figure 3
b. Experiment
R1 R2
I
A
A
V1 V2
R3
Figure 4
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
R1 R2
I1 A
A
V1 A
R3
Figure 5
R1 R2
A
I2
A
V2
R3
Figure 6
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
PROCEDURE:
1. a. Connections are made as per Figure1.
b. Varying V1 & V2 in steps note down the ammeter reading (I).
2. a. Connections are to be made as per Figure2.
b. Varying V1 in steps note down the ammeter reading (I1).
3. a. Connections are to be made as per Figure3.
b. Varying V2 in steps note down the ammeter reading (I2).
4. Verify the superposition theorem (I=I1+I2)
The above procedure is repeated for simulation model.
TABULAR COLUMNS:
Table 1 for Fig 1

Sl.no. V1 V2 I
Table 2 for Fig 2
Sl.no. V1 I1
Table 3 for Fig 3

Sl.no. V2 I2 Table 4 To verify Superposition theorem
Sl.no. V1 V2 I I1+ I2
RESULT: Superposition theorem is verified.
Questions:
1. The “Superposition theorem” is essentially based on the concept of [B]
(A) Duality (B) Linearity (C) Reciprocity (D) Non-linearity
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
2. 2 Cells are connected in parallel in order to [C]

(A) Increase the voltage available (B) Reduce cost of wiring (C) Increase the
current available (D) Reduce the time required to fully charge them after use
3. Superposition theorem can be applicable only to circuits having ___ elements.[D]
(A) Non- linear (B) Passive (C) Resistive (D) Linear bilateral
4. A network that does not have either voltage or current sources is called [B]
(A) Active network (B) Passive network (C) Resistive network (D) Dummy
network
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
OBJECTIVE: Verification of Thevenin’s theorem by

(a) Simulation in PSpice software (b) Experiment.
APPARATUS:
3 Rheostat 1
STATEMENT: Any two terminal networks consisting of linear impedances and sources
may be replaced at the two terminals by a single voltage source acting in series with
impedance. The voltage of the equivalent source is the open circuit voltage measured at
the terminals of the network and the impedance, known as Thevenin’s equivalent
impedance, ZTH is the impedance measured at the terminals with all the independent
sources in the network reduced to zero.
THEORY: This theorem is very conceptual. Suppose if we have to calculate the current
through any particular branch in a circuit where the branch is connected with rest of the
circuits at its two terminals. Due to active sources in the circuit, there is one electric
potential difference between the points where the said branch is connected. The current
through the said branch is caused by this electric potential difference that appears across
the terminals. So rest of the circuit can be considered as a single voltage source, that's
voltage is nothing but the open circuit voltage between the terminals where the said
branch was connected and the internal resistance of the source is nothing but the
equivalent resistance of the circuit looking back into the terminals where, the branch was
connected. So the Thevenin theorem can be stated as follows, An active bilateral linear
network containing energy sources (generators) and impedances can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit containing a voltage source (ETh or VTh) in series with an impedance
(ZTh), where the ETh or VTh is the open circuit voltage between terminals of the network
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
and ZTh is the impedance measured between the terminals of this network with all energy
sources eliminated (not eliminating their impedances).
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
a. Simulation Model in PSpice
R1 R3 R1 R3
10 15 10 15
I
V1 R5 V1 R5
30Vdc 20 30Vdc 20
R6
10
0V 0V
0 0
Figure 1 Figure 2
R1 R3 RTH
10 15
R5 V1
20 VTH
R6
10
0V 0V
0 0
Figure 3 Figure 4
b. Experiment
R1 R3
A
IL
V R2 RL
Figure 5
R1 R3
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Prepared by V Approved
R2by VTH Page 2 of 4
HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
Figure 6
R1 R3
R2 RTH
Figure 7
RT
A
H
IL ’
VTH RL
Figure 8
TABULAR COLUMN:
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
Table 1 for Fig1

Sl.no. V IL Sl.No. V VTH
Table 2 for
Fig2
Table 3 for Fig2 Table 4 for Fig4
RTH
Sl.no. VTH IL’

PROCEDURE:

b. Vary the voltage in steps of 5V and note down the readings.
b. Vary the voltage in steps of 5V and note down the readings of VTH.
3. Connections are made as per Figure3 to find RTH.
4. a. Connections are made as per the Figure4.
b. Vary the current in steps of VTH and note down the readings of IL’.
The above procedure is followed for experiment also.
RESULT: Thevenin’s theorem is verified.

QUESTIONS:
1. Practical applications of Thevenin’s theorem
A. Transmission line, all electrical circuits, particularly in Wheatstone bridge.
2. State the difference between Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorem?
3. Draw the equivalent circuit of Thevenin’s theorem.
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER
TITLE: VERIFICATION OF GPRECD/EEE/EXPT.No.ECP-05

DATE: 28-06-2017
NORTON’S THEOREM
OBJECTIVE: Verification of Norton’s theorem by

APPARATUS:
2 Rheostat 4
3 Digital multimeter 1
NORTON’S THEOREM:
STATEMENT: Any two terminal networks consisting of linear impedances and sources
may be replaced at the two terminals by single current source acting in parallel with
impedance. The voltage of the equivalent current source is the short circuit current
measured at the terminals of the network and the impedance, known as Norton’s
equivalent impedance, RN is the impedance measured at the terminals with all the
independent sources in the network reduced to zero.
THEORY: This theorem is just alternative of Thevenin theorem. In Norton theorem,
we just replace the circuit connected to a particular branch by equivalent current source.
In this theorem, the circuit network is reduced into a single constant current source in
which, the equivalent internal resistance is connected in parallel with it. Every voltage
source can be converted into equivalent current source. Suppose, in complex network we
have to find out the current through a particular branch. If the network has one of more
active sources, then it will supply current through the said branch. As in the said branch
current comes from the network, it can be considered that the network itself is a current
source. So in Norton theorem the network with different active sources is reduced to
single current source in parallel with its internal resistance. Internal resistance is the
equivalent electrical resistance of the network when looks back into the network from the
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HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
NORTON’S THEOREM
terminals where said branch is connected. During calculating this equivalent resistance,
all sources are removed leaving their internal resistances in the network. Actually in
Norton theorem, the branch of the network through which we have to find out the current,
is removed from the network. Short circuit the terminals where the said branch was
connected. Then calculate the short circuit current that flows between the terminals. This
current is nothing but Norton equivalent current I N of the source. The equivalent
resistance between the said terminals with all sources removed leaving their internal
resistances in the circuit is calculated and said it is RN. Now form a current source that's
current is IN A and internal shunt resistance is RN Ω.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
a. Simulation Model in PSpice
R1 R4
R1 R4
I
I
V1 V1
Vdc R7 Vdc R7
R6
0V
0V
0 0
Figure 1 Figure 2
0V R1 R4
V1
R7 Vdc RN
R6
10
0V 0V
0 0
Figure 3 Figure 4
b. Experiment
R1 R3
A
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
IL
V R2 RL
HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
NORTON’S THEOREM
Figure 5
R1 R3
V R2 A ISC
Figure 6
R1 R3
R2 RN
Figure 7
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ISC
RN RL

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
NORTON’S THEOREM
Figure 8
TABULAR COLUMNS:
Table 1 for Fig1 & 5
Sl.no. V IL Sl.no. V ISC
Table 2 for
Fig2 & 6
Table 3 for Fig3 & 7 Table 4 for Fig4 & 8
Sl.no. ISC IL’

RN
PROCEDURE:
1. a. Connections are made as per Fig 1.
b. Vary the voltage in steps of 5V and note down the readings.
b. Vary the voltage in steps of 5V and note down the readings of Isc.
3. a. Connections are made as per Fig3 to find RN.
b. Vary the current in steps of Isc and note down the readings of IL’.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
NORTON’S THEOREM
The above procedure is repeated for experiment.
RESULT: Norton’s theorem is verified.

Questions:
1. State Norton’s theorem
2. State the applications of Norton’s theorem.
3. To Linear and bilateral network, Norton’s theorem can be applied.
4. Differentiate unilateral and bilateral, linear and non-linear.
5. Differentiate single port and two port networks.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER
TITLE: DETERMINATION OF GPREC/EEE/EXPT.No. EC(P)-06

SELF & MUTUAL INDUCTANCE DATE: 28-06-2017
OBJECTIVE: Determination of Self Inductance, Mutual Inductance and coefficient of

coupling of an air core transformer.
APPARATUS:
1 Air core transformer 1
2 Ammeter 0-5A MI 1
3 Voltmeter 0-300V MI 1
4 Wattmeter 5A, 300V UPF 1
THEORY:
Self Inductance:
Inductance is the property of electrical circuits containing coils in which a change in the
electrical current induces an electromotive force (emf). This value of induced emf
opposes the change in current in electrical circuits and electric current produces a
magnetic field which generates magnetic flux acting on the circuit containing coils. This
magnetic flux, due to Lenz's law, tends to act to oppose changes in the flux by generating
a voltage (a back EMF) that counters or tends to reduce the rate of change in the current.
The ratio of the magnetic flux to the current is called the self-inductance. The term
'inductance' was coined by Oliver Heaviside in February 1886. It is customary to use the
symbol 'L' for inductance, possibly in honour of the physicist Heinrich Lenz. In honour of
Joseph Henry, the unit of inductance has been given the name Henry (H): 1H=1Wb/A.
Mutual Inductance:
If we accidentally or purposefully put two inductors close together, we can actually
transfer voltage and current from one inductor to another. This property is called Mutual
Inductance. A device which utilizes mutual inductance to alter the voltage or current
output is called a transformer.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

The inductor that creates the magnetic field is called the primary coil, and the inductor
that picks up the magnetic field is called the secondary coil. They are called as
inductively coupled coils. Though there is no direct physical coupling between two coils,
coupling is provided entirely due to magnetic field generated by current. Transformers
are designed to have the greatest mutual inductance possible by winding both coils on the
same core. (In calculations for inductance, we need to know which materials form the
path for magnetic flux. Air core coils have low inductance; Cores of iron or other
magnetic materials are better 'conductors' of magnetic flux). The transformer that we use
in this experiment is air core transformer.
The voltage that appears in the secondary is caused by the change in the shared magnetic
field, each time the current through the primary changes. Thus, transformers work on
A.C. power, since the voltage and current change continuously.
The flux φ2 through the second coil is directly proportional to the current I1 flowing in the
first coil. Hence, φ2 = M21I1 (M21 = constant of proportionality)
M21 is called the mutual inductance of circuit 2 with respect to circuit 1. Similarly the
flux φ1 through the first coil is directly proportional to the current I2 flowing in the second
coil.
Hence, φ1 = M12I2 (M12= constant of proportionality). M12 is called the mutual inductance
of circuit 1 with respect to circuit 2. It can be proved that M12 = M21
The flux linking circuit 2 when a current flow in circuit 1 is exactly the same as the flux
linking circuit 1 when the same current flows in circuit 2.
M12 = M21 = M
M is called as the “Mutual Inductance” between two circuits. It implies that the mutual
inductance of two coupled coils is a purely geometric quantity, dependent on the sizes,
shapes, and relative orientations of the coils.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

According to definition, L1 and L2 are the self-inductances of circuit 1 and circuit 2

respectively.
Coefficient of Coupling
The coupling coefficient is the fraction of the flux of the primary that cuts the secondary
coil, and is a function of the geometry of the system. The coupling coefficient, k, is
between 0 and 1.
Systems are said to be tightly coupled, loosely coupled, critically coupled or over-
coupled. Tight coupling is when the coupling coefficient is around 1 as with conventional
iron-core transformers. Over-coupling is when the secondary coil is so close that it tends
to collapse the primary's field, and critical coupling is when the transfer in the passband
is optimal. Loose coupling is when the coils are distant from each other, so that most of
the flux misses the secondary. In Tesla coils around 0.2 is used, and at greater distances,
for example for inductive wireless power transmission, it may be lower than 0.01.
The mutual inductance and self inductances have a relationship with the coupling
coefficient.
M= k (L1. L2) ½
where
k is the coupling coefficient and 0≤ k ≤ 1,
L1 is the inductance of the first coil, and
L2 is the inductance of the second coil.
Applications: Generators, motors, transformers, radio receivers, metal detectors
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

M L
A G G
A
C V
G G
1Φ AC
230V,50Hz V
V
H L
AUTO V V
TRANSFORMER
230V/(0-280V) Figure 1 To find LHV
M L
A G G
A
C V
G G
1Φ AC
230V,50Hz V
V
L H
Figure 2 To find LLV
AUTO V V
TRANSFORMER
230V/(0-280V)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

M L
A G G
C V
G G
1Φ AC
230V,50Hz V
V
H L
V V
AUTO
TRANSFORMER
230V/(0-280V)
Figure 3 To find M & K
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram1.
2. Using auto transformer, apply voltage in steps.
3. Note down all meter readings.
4. Calculate self inductance L1 of high voltage (HV) winding.
5. Above procedure is repeated for circuit diagram 2 & 3 to find self inductance L2
of low voltage (LV) winding and mutual inductance of both windings.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

TABULAR COLUMN:
Sl.No V I1 W1 Φ1 Z1 L1
Sl.No V I2 W2 Φ2 Z2 L2
Sl.No V(v) I(A) W(W) Φ Z(Ω) L(H) M=(L-(L1+L2))/2
RESULT: Self, mutual inductance and coefficient of coupling are determined.
Questions:
1. Define self inductance.
2. Define mutual inductance.
3. Define coefficient of coupling.
4. Differentiate air core and iron core transformer.
5. Maximum flux density in iron core transformer? (1.2T)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER
TITLE: RLC SERIES & GPREC/EEE/EXPT.No. ECP-07

DATE: 28-06-2017
PARALLEL RESONANCE
OBJECTIVE: RLC Series & Parallel resonance.

APPARATUS:
1 Function Generator
3 Resistor Ω 1
4 Capacitor 0.16μF 1
5 Inductance box 150mH 1
STATEMENT: Electrical resonance occurs in an electric circuit at a

particular resonant frequency when the imaginary parts of impedances or admittances of
circuit elements cancel each other. In some circuits this happens when the impedance
between the input and output of the circuit is almost zero and the transfer function is
close to one. Resonant circuits exhibit ringing and can generate higher voltages and
currents than are fed into them.
THEORY:
An RLC circuit (or LCR circuit) is an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor, an
inductor, and a capacitor, connected in series or in parallel. The RLC part of the name is
due to those letters being the usual electrical symbols for
resistance, inductance and capacitance respectively. The circuit forms a harmonic
oscillator for current and resonates. Presence of resistor reduces oscillation over time.
This effect of the resistor is called damping. The presence of the resistance also reduces
the peak resonant frequency. Some resistance is unavoidable in real circuits, even if a
resistor is not specifically included as a component.
The three circuit elements can be combined in a number of different topologies. All three
elements in series or all three elements in parallel are the simplest in concept and the
most straightforward to analyze. There are, however, other arrangements, some with
practical importance in real circuits. One issue often encountered is the need to take into
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
PARALLEL RESONANCE
account inductor resistance. Inductors are typically constructed from coils of wire, the
resistance of which is not usually desirable, but it often has a significant effect on the
circuit.
Resonance
An important property of this circuit is its ability to resonate at a specific frequency
called the resonance frequency. Frequencies are measured in units of hertz.
Resonance occurs because energy is stored in two different ways: in an electric field as
the capacitor is charged and in a magnetic field as current flows through the inductor.
Energy can be transferred from one to the other within the circuit and this can be
oscillatory. A mechanical analogy is a weight suspended on a spring which will oscillate
up and down when released. This is no passing metaphor; a weight on a spring is
described by exactly the same second order differential equation as an RLC circuit and
for all the properties of the one system there will be found an analogous property of the
other. The mechanical property answering to the resistor in the circuit is friction in the
spring/weight system. Friction will slowly bring any oscillation to a halt if there is no
external force driving it. Likewise, the resistance in an RLC circuit will "damp" the
oscillation, diminishing it with time if there is no driving AC power source in the circuit.
The resonance frequency is defined as the frequency at which the impedance of the
circuit is at a minimum. Equivalently, it can be defined as the frequency at which the
impedance is purely real (that is, purely resistive). This occurs because the impedances of
the inductor and capacitor at resonance are equal but of opposite sign and cancel out.
Circuits where L and C are in parallel rather than series actually have a maximum
impedance rather than a minimum impedance. The reason for this terminology is that the
driven resonance frequency in a series or parallel resonant circuit has the value
1
fr 
2 LC
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
PARALLEL RESONANCE
fr is the natural frequency or resonance frequency

The resonance frequency is defined in terms of the impedance presented to a driving
source. It is still possible for the circuit to carry on oscillating (for a time) after the
driving source has been removed or it is subjected to a step in voltage (including a step
down to zero). This is similar to the way that a tuning fork will carry on ringing after it
has been struck, and the effect is often called ringing. This effect is the peak natural
resonance frequency of the circuit and in general is not exactly the same as the driven
resonance frequency, although the two will usually be quite close to each other. Various
terms are used by different authors to distinguish the two, but resonance frequency
unqualified usually means the driven resonance frequency. The driven frequency may be
called the undamped resonance frequency or undamped natural frequency and the peak
frequency may be called the damped resonance frequency or the damped natural
frequency.
This is exactly the same as the resonance frequency of an LC circuit, that is, one with no
resistor present. The resonant frequency for an RLC circuit is the same as a circuit in
which there is no damping, hence undamped resonance frequency. The peak resonance
frequency, on the other hand, depends on the value of the resistor and is described as the
damped resonant frequency. A highly damped circuit will fail to resonate at all when not
driven. A circuit with a value of resistor that causes it to be just on the edge of ringing is
called critically damped. Either side of critically damped are described as underdamped
(ringing happens) and overdamped (ringing is suppressed).
Circuits with topologies more complex than straightforward series or parallel (some
examples described later in the article) have a driven resonance frequency that deviates
from and for those the undamped resonance frequency, damped resonance frequency and
driven resonance frequency can all be different.
Applications:
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
PARALLEL RESONANCE
oscillator circuits, tuning circuits, radio receivers or television sets, band-pass

filter, band-stop filter, low-pass filter or high-pass filter
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM & EXPECTED GRAPH:
RLC Series Resonance:

L C
Function RL DMM
Generato
r
I Fig 1 RLC Series Resonance
IMAX
.707 IMAX
fmin f fma f
0
x
RLC Parallel Resonance:

D
M
M
RL
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Function
Dr B.URMILA Dr. T.Bramhananda ReddyL CRevision No.0
Generato
HEAD, EEE Dept.
r
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
PARALLEL RESONANCE
Fig 1 RLC Parallel Resonance
.707
VMINV
MI
N
fmin f fmax f
0
PROCEDURE:
RLC Series & Parallel Resonance:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram1 & 2 for series and parallel
resonance respectively.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
PARALLEL RESONANCE
2. By varying the frequency of the function generator, note down the voltmeter
reading.
3. Plot f Vs I for series resonance and f Vs V for parallel resonance.
4. Observe that the maximum power is drawn when the inductive reactance is
equal to the capacitive reactance.
TABULAR COLUMN:
RLC Series & Parallel Resonance:
Sl.no. f(Hz) V(V) I(A)
RESULT: RLC Series Resonance & Parallel Resonance graphs are plotted and resonant
frequency is found.
Questions:
1. Series RLC is an acceptor circuit.
2. Parallel RLC is a rejecter circuit.
3. Define bandwidth, BW= fmax- fmin
4. Define fmin and fmax and fr.
5. Define Q factor.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER
TITLE: DETERMINATION OF Z GPREC/EEE/EXPT.No. ECP-08

DATE: 28-06-2017
& Y PARAMETERS
OBJECTIVE: Determination of Z-Impedance & Y-Admittance parameters.

APPARATUS:
1 Regulated power supply (0-30) V/(0-2)A 1
2 Rheostats -
3 Voltmeter (0-30) V MC 2
THEORY: A two-port network is represented by four external variables: voltage and

current at the input port, and voltage and current at the output port, so that the two-port
network can be treated as a black box modeled by the relationships between the four
variables V1, V2 , I1 and I2 . There exist six different ways to describe the relationships
between these variables, depending on which two of the four variables are given, while
the other two can always be derived.
Figure 1 Two Port Network

V1= Z11 I1+ Z21 I2 (1)
V2= Z12 I1+ Z22 I2 (2)
Impedance parameters or Z-parameters are properties used in electrical

engineering, electronic engineering, and communication systems engineering to describe
the electrical behavior of linear electrical networks. They are also used to describe
the small-signal (linearized) response of non-linear networks. They are members of a
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
& Y PARAMETERS
family of similar parameters used in electronic engineering, other examples being: S-

parameters, Y-parameters, H-parameters, T-parameters or ABCD-parameters.
Z-parameters are also known as open-circuit impedance parameters as they are

calculated under open circuit conditions. i.e., Ix=0, where x=1, 2 refer to input and output
currents flowing through the ports (of a two-port network in this case) respectively. In a
two port π network
When I1=0: Z21=V1/ I2 and Z22 =V2/ I2
When I2=0: Z12=V2/ I1 and Z11 =V1/ I1
Z PARAMETERS (Open Circuit Impedance Parameters):

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
I1 R2
A
V
V1 R1 R3
2
Figure 2 Z11 & Z21
I2 R2
A
R1 V
V2 R3
1
Figure 3 Z12 & Z22
PROCEDURE:
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
& Y PARAMETERS

2. Output port is open circuited and by varying V1, readings are noted down.
3. Z11 & Z21 are calculated.
4. Input port is open circuited and by varying V2, readings are noted down, to
calculate Z22 & Z12 .
TABULAR COLUMN:
Sl.no. V1 I1 I2 Z11=V1/ I1 Z21=V1/ I2
Sl.no. V2 I1 I2 Z12=V2/ I1 Z21=V2/ I2
Y PARAMETERS (Short Circuit Admittance Parameters):

THEORY: Admittance parameters or Y-parameters (the elements of an admittance
matrix or Y-matrix) are properties used in electrical engineering, electronic engineering,
and communication systems engineering describe the electrical behavior of
linear electrical networks. In a two port π network
I1= Y11 V1+ Y21 V2 (3)

I2= Y12 V1+ Y22 V2 (4)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
& Y PARAMETERS
When V1=0: Y21=I1/ V2 and Y22 =I2/ V2

When V2=0: Y12=I2/ V1 and Y11 =I1/ V1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
I1 R2
A
I2
V1 R1 R3 A
Figure 4 Y11 & Y21
I2 R2
A
I1
V2 R3 R1 A
Figure 5 Y22 & Y12

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are to be made as per the circuit diagram3.
2. Output port is short circuited and by varying V1, readings are noted down.
3. Y11 & Y21 are calculated.
4. Input port is short circuited and by varying V2 as per the circuit diagram4,
readings are noted down to calculate Y22 & Y12 .
TABULAR COLUMN:
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
& Y PARAMETERS
Sl.no. V1 I1 I2 Y11=I1/VI1 Y21=I2/V1
Sl.no. V2 I1 I2 Y12=I1/ V2 Y21=I2/V2
RESULT: Impedance and admittance parameters are determined.

Questions
1. How you know the admittance parameters from impedance parameters?
A. Y=Inv(Z)
2. To be symmetrical Z11=Z22; Y11=Y22
3. To be reciprocal Z12=Z21; Y12=Y21
4. Differentiate T and pie network.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER
TITLE: DETERMINATION OF GPREC/EEE/EXPT.No. ECP-09

DATE: 28-06-2017
ABCD PARAMETERS
OBJECTIVE: Determination of Transmission line parameters (ABCD)

APPARATUS:
1 Regulated Power supply (0-30) V/(0-2)A 1
2 Voltmeter (0-30) V MC 1
4 Rheostat 3
THEORY:
ABCD-PARAMETERS
In this system of parameters voltage and current at port 1 are expressed in terms
of voltage and current at port 2.
a) A is defined as the ratio of input voltage to the output voltage when the output
is open circuited.
A=V1/V2 when I2=0
b) B is defined as the ratio of input voltage to the output current when output is
short circuited.
B= V1/I2 when V2 =0
c) C is defined as the ratio of input current to the output voltage when the output
is open circuited.
C=I1/V2 when I2=0
d) D is defined as the ratio of input current to the output current when output is
short circuited.
D= I1/I2 when V2 =0
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
I1 R2
A
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
V1 R1 R3 V
HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
ABCD PARAMETERS
Fig1To find Parameter ‘A’ & ‘C’
I1 R2
A
I2
V1 R1 R3 A
Fig3 To find Parameter ‘B’ & ‘D’
PROCEDURE:
TO FIND A, C PARAMETERS:

2. The output port is open circuited and by varying V1, the corresponding readings
of V2 and I1 are noted down.
3. Thus A and C parameters are calculated.
TO FIND B, D PARAMETERS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. The output port is short circuited and by varying V 1, the corresponding readings
of I1 and I2 are measured.
3. Thus B and D parameters are calculated.
TABULAR COLUMN:
Sl.No V1 V2 I1 A C
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
ABCD PARAMETERS
Sl.No V1 I1 I2 B D
RESULT: ABCD parameters are determined.

Questions:
1. What is the significance of the two port parameters?
A. To know whether the given network is symmetrical or unsymmetrical, reciprocal
or not etc.
2. What is the application of ABCD parameters?
A. In transmission lines
3. What is the condition for symmetrical network?
A. A=D
4. Two Two-port networks are connected in cascade. The combination is to the
represented as a single two – port network, by multiplying the individual [d]
(a) z-parameter matrices (b) h-parameter matrices (c) y-parameter matrices (d)
ABCD parameters
A. ABCD parameters relate the voltage and current at one port to voltage and current
at the other port.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER
TITLE: RL & RC LOCUS GPREC/EEE/EXPT.No. ECP-10

DATE: 28-06-2017
DIAGRAMS
OBJECTIVE: To plot RL & RC locus diagrams.

APPARATUS:
1 Auto Transformer 230/0-280V 1
2 Voltmeter 0-300V MI 1
3 Ammeter 0-5/10A MI 1
4 Rheostat 26Ω/4A 1
Inductor 171mH 1
5 Capacitor 50μF 1
THEORY:
(1) Series RL Locus
In a Series RL circuit with a constant voltage V at constant frequency ω applied across it.
If the resistance R of the circuit varies, the component voltages V R and VL would vary
keeping the complex sum a constant. This can be plotted in the following manner V = (R
+ jωL)I = (R+jXL)I = VR +jVL If the applied voltage V is taken as reference, current I
would be lagging the voltage by a phase angle φ. The voltage V R is in phase with the
current I and VL would be in quadrature leading the current I (or current I lagging the
voltage VL by 90o). Since VR and VL must be mutually perpendicular, when R varies, the
point P must move along a semi-circle. This semi-circle is the locus of the point P as R is
varied. Let us now look at the variation of I as R varies and X is kept fixed. This is best
understood by considering the addition as V = VL + VR. This has the phasor diagram as
shown. VL is first drawn perpendicular to I (such that the current lags the voltage by 90 o).
The locus of the point P will again be a semi-circle. Since X is fixed, there will be a
definite proportion between the length of phasor I and the length of phase V L. Also, I is
always lagging the voltage VL by 90o. Thus the locus of I must also be a semi-circle
lagging the semi-circle for voltage VL by 90o as shown.
(2) RC Series Circuit Locus: Series RC circuit is analysed in a similar manner to the
series RL circuit. However the current would be leading in this case instead of lagging
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
DIAGRAMS
the voltage. Unlike in the case of the practical inductor, the practical capacitor does not
have significant amount of losses. Thus the practical locus diagram can be considered to
be the same as the theoretical diagram.
Refer to the above figure AB represents the applied voltage V and AD represents current
I, lagging behind V by an angle φ. AC represents VR. It must be in phase with I (pure
resistance) and CB represents VL. It is in quadrature with I (Pure inductance part)
For any value of XL, the conditions will be as shown by the dotted lines in the same
figure. i.e.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
DIAGRAMS
The angles such as ACB and AC’B will always be at right angles. It follows that C, C’
etc will always be on a semi-circle. That is the Locus of C, C’ etc will always be a semi-
circle. The diameter of this semi-circle will be AB = V.
Similarly, it can be shown that the current locus will also be a semi-circle.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM & MODEL GRAPH:
R
RL: A
A
1Φ AC
230V,50Hz V L
V
AUTO Fig 1 Circuit Diagram for RL

TRANSFORMER
I
230V/(0-280V)
Φ Φ
1
2
V
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
DIAGRAMS
RC:
RL
A
A
G
1Φ AC C
230V,50Hz V
V
G
AUTO TRANSFORMER
230V/(0-280V)
Fig 2 Circuit Diagram for RC
Φ V
Φ
1
2
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.
B.Tech- IV SEMESTER

DATE: 28-06-2017
DIAGRAMS
PROCEDURE:
RL & RC LOCUS DIAGRAM:
1. Connections are made as per Fig1 & Fig2 for RL & RC respectively.
2. Apply a voltage of 140V using autotransformer by adjusting the value of R to a
desired value.
3. Note down all meter readings.
4. Draw the current locus diagrams.
TABULAR COLUMN for RL & RC:
Sl.No. V I Z Φ
RESULT: RL and RC locus diagrams are drawn.
Questions:
1. Differentiate RL and RC locus diagrams.
2. What is the power factor in RL and RC series circuits?
3. Write the equation for impedance in RL and RC series circuits.
4. How the loci could differ from RL and RC parallel circuits from RL and RC
series circuits.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HEAD, EEE Dept.

Ec Lab

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PULLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS): KURNOOL

TITLE: LIST OF EXPERIMENTS DATE: 28-06-2017

1. Verification of KCL & KVL through (a) Experiment (b) Simulation.

2. Verification of Maximum Power Transfer theorem through (a)

Experiment (b) Simulation.

3. Verification of Superposition and Reciprocity theorem through (a)

Experiment (b) Simulation.

4. Verification of Thevenin’s theorem through (a) Experiment (b)

5. Verification of Norton’s theorem through (a) Experiment (b)

6. Determination of Self Inductance, Mutual Inductance and coefficient

of coupling of an air core transformer.

7. Series & Parallel resonance.

8. Determination of Impedance and Admittance parameters (Z & Y).

9. Determination of Transmission line parameters (ABCD).

10.Locus diagram on RL and RC circuits.

Note: A minimum of eight experiments should be conducted.

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TITLE: VERIFICATION OF KCL GPREC/EEE/EXPT.No. ECP-01

OBJECTIVE: Verification of Kirchhoff’s voltage and current law by

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Figure 2 KCL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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E1-E2 = I1R1 + I2R2 – I3R3 – I4R4

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Figure 5 KVL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure 6 Simulation Model of KVL in PSpice

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Sl.no. I I1 I2 I3 I1 +I2 +I3

Sl.no. V V1 V2 V3 V1 +V2 +V3

RESULT: Kirchhoff’s laws are verified.

1. Ohm’s law is applicable to _________ [ d ]

2. Kirchhoff’s laws are valid for __________ circuits. [ d ]

3. The curve representing Ohm’s law is _________ [ b ]

4. The ratio of voltage and current in a closed circuit ________ [ a ]

5. Identify the passive element among the following [C]

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TITLE: VERIFICATION OF GPREC/EEE/EXPT.No. ECP-02

OBJECTIVE: Verification of Maximum Power Transfer theorem by

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Consider three particular cases:

 If Rsource=0, Rload=∞ then η = 100%

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inductive or capacitive components, and so practical applications of this theorem, under

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2. Keep the load resistance (RL) at maximum position.

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1. MPTT is applicable to linear, active, bilateral AC and DC networks.

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TITLE: VERIFICATION OF GPREC/EEE/EXPT.No. ECP-03

OBJECTIVE: Verification of Reciprocity theorem by (a) Experiment (b) Simulation in