1.

THE ARTICLE

1) THE DEFINITE ARTICLE (,,the”)

We use the definite article:
a) To refer to something which has already been mentioned: Take a cake. Put the cake on the
table.

b) To create an individualization: Shaw wanted to be the Shakespeare of his time.

c) In Geography:
● With plural states and countries: They went to the Netherlands and the U.S.A.
Exception: The Tyrol, the Congo, the Sudan, the Hague, the Argentine.
● With mountain ranges (siruri de munti)/ hills/ plains/ valleys/ gorges/ canyons/ bays/ oceans/
seas/ rivers/ deserts/ islands (when there’s more than one island):
We saw the Carpathians/ the Cheviot Hills/ the Great Plains/ the Willamette Valley/ the
Bicaz Gorges/ the Grand Canyon/ the Bay of Biscay/ the Pacific Ocean/ the Black Sea/ the
Mississippi River/ the Sahara/ the Hebrides.
● With cardinal points: the North, the South, the East, the West.

d) Before:
● Family names: ,,The Simpsons” are on the TV.
● The name of a ship, boat, craft: ,,The Transylvania” was an old ship.
● Paper names: ,,The Times” is a well-known paper.
● A unique noun: the Sun, the Moon, the Earth.
● An adjective, transformed into a noun: the rich, the poor, the blind, the young, the old, the sick.
● A noun which depicts an abstract notion: the good, the beautiful.
● Parts of the day: She arrived in the morning/ afternoon/ evening.
● Musical instruments: She plays the piano.
● Adjectives in the superlative: She is the most intelligent girl in our class.
● Ordinal numerals: Give me the first book on the desk.
● Names of important buildings (hotels/ cinemas/ opera houses/ theatres/ museums/ atheneums):
He saw a play at the Nottara (theatre).

2) THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE (,,a/ an”)

We use ,,a” when the noun begins with a consonant: a book, a desk, a boy, a cat.
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 We use ,,an” when the noun begins with a vowel: an apple, an elephant, an egg, an
orange.
,,A/an” has no plural, so we don’t use it when we have a plural noun in a sentence. It is
wrong to say: # A children want to go home.
Exceptions of usage:
- we use ,,a” (instead of ,,an”) before ,,u” when we pronounce the ,,u” like an ,,y”: a uniform (not
an uniform)
- we use ,,an” (instead of ,,a”) before ,,h” when ,,h” is a silent consonant: an hour (not a hour)
We use the Indefinite Article:
a) When the noun is mentioned for the first time: Take a pen.

b) When we want to emphasize that a person is unknown: A Mr. Jones called while you were
out.

c)In expressions of ratio (price, speed, frequency etc.): six pence a box; six miles an hour, once/
twice a day.

d) Before:
● Nationalities: I am a Romanian.
● Jobs, professions: I am a teacher.
● Titles: ,,An American-Spanish Dictionary”
● Certain numbers and expressions of quantity: a dozen, a hundred, a thousand, a lot of, a few, a
little (with a positive meaning: I’ve got a little ink. I can give you some.)

e) After:
● ,,What”: What a lovely day!
● ,,Such”: You are such a lazy person!
● ,,Without”: Do your exercise without a mistake!
● ,,Quite”: This is quite a nice novel.
● ,,Rather”: It was rather an expensive lunch for our pockets.

3) THE ZERO ARTICLE

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 We use no article with:
a) The preposition ,,by” (especially when we speak about forms of transport): by bus/ train/ car/
coach/ boat/ plane/ tram etc.

b) Meals: They had breakfast/ lunch/ dinner/ tea.

c) Time divisions (seasons, months, days of the week): Spring, March, Monday.

d) Subjects (materii) and languages: She is studying Maths. English is easy.

e) Uncountable nouns: Do you like sugar?

f) Abstract notions: Knowledge of languages is important.

g) Proper names (nume proprii): Sarah, you look wonderful today!

h) Titles, followed by proper names: Queen Elizabeth was an extraordinary personality.

i) Materials, substances, colors: Chalk is white. Black is my favorite color.

j) ,,Man/ woman, mankind” in general: Man is unable to understand the universe.

k) Common nouns associated with numerals: Lesson 5, Chapter 6, Room 22.

2. THE NOUN

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1) ITS GENDER
a) Masculine: men (and their names), boys, animals (when we know their sex);
b) Feminine: women (and their names), girls, animals (when we know their sex), ships, car;
c) Neuter: things, animals (when we don’t know their sex), professions.
In English language we have 3 noun categories:
● To the first category, we add some specific terminations (like ,,-ess”, ,,-ine”) for the feminine
gender: actor/ actress, duke/ duchess, emperor/ empress, god/ goddess, heir/ heiress, master/
mistress, negro/ negress, tiger/ tigress, steward/ stewardess, prince/ princess, waiter/ waitress,
hero/ heroine, administrator/ administratrix, widower/ widow.
Observation: We must mention that this category refers especially to professions. It has
no neuter gender, only masculine and feminine.
● To the second category, we add an auxiliary word to create the masculine or the feminine
gender:
doctor/ lady-doctor, bride/ bridegroom, grandfather/ grandmother, landlord/ landlady,
policeman/ policewoman, jackass/ jenny ass,/ he-bear/ she-bear, cock-bird/ hen-bird, male
camel/ female camel, bull-calf/ cow-calf, male dog/ female dog(bitch, slut), tom-cat/ tib-cat, he-
elephant/ she-elephant, he-goat/ she-goat, he-mule/ she-mule (catar), he-parrot/ she-parrot, he-
swallow/ she-swallow, he-sparrow/ she-sparrow, turkey-cock/ turkey-hen, he-wolf/ she-wolf.
Observation: For the nouns that describe an animal, we can have the neuter gender if we
don’t know its gender. Eg.: jackass(masculine)/ jenny ass(feminine)/ ass(neuter).
● In the case of the third category, the masculine noun is totally different than the feminine noun:
boy/ girl, brother/ sister, father/ mother, gentleman/ lady, husband/ wife, king/ queen, monk/ nun,
nephew/ niece, son/ daughter, uncle/ aunt, man/ woman, Sir/ Madam, wizard/ witch, tailor/
seamstress, boar(hog)/ sow, buck/ doe, bull(ox)/ cow, colt/ filly (manz), dog(hound)/ bitch, drake/
duck, drone/ bee, gander/ goose, ram/ ewe (oaie).
Observation: For the nouns that describe an animal, we can have the neuter gender if we
don’t know its gender. Eg.: boar(hog)(masculine)/ sow(feminine)/ pig (swine)(neuter).

2) THE PLURAL OF THE SIMPLE NOUN

a) Nouns are made plural by adding ,,-s” to the noun: chair-chairs, roof-roofs, book-books, map-
maps, hat-hats, moth-moths, month-months.

b) Nouns are made plural by adding ,,-es”, if:

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● They are ending in –s, -ss, -x, -ch, -sh and -zz : bus-buses, class-classes, box-boxes, bench-
benches, brush-brushes, buzz-buzzes.
● They are ending in ,,-o”: tomato-tomatoes, potato-potatoes [ Exception: If the nouns have
foreign origins, we add ,,-s” instead of ,,-es”: piano(it.)-pianos, photo(gr.)-photos, radio(lat.) –
radios].
Observation1: There are some nouns ending in ,,-o” that can take either ,,-es” or ,,-s”:
buffalo-buffalos/buffaloes(bivoli); mosquito-mosquitos/mosquitoes; volcano-volcanos/volcanoes.
Observation2: Words preceded by a consonant + y → ,,ies”: baby- babies, hobby-
hobbies, fly-flies, lady-ladies, family-families, factory-factories.

c) Nouns are made plural by adding ,,-ves” if the words are ending in ,,-f/ -fe”: leaf-leaves, wife-
wives, wolf-wolves, knife-knives, life-lives.
Exception: The rule above does not apply for: chef-chefs, roof-roofs, cliff-cliffs,
handkerchief-handkerchiefs. BUT scarf-scarfs/scarves.

d) The plural of the foreign nouns has different endings:

- ,,-es”: analysis – analyses; basis – bases; crisis – crises;
- ,,-a” or ,,-ae”: criterion – criteria, phenomenon – phenomena, datum – data, larva – larvae.
- ,,-i” : stimulus – stimuli, nucleus – nuclei.

3) THE PLURAL OF THE COMPOUND NOUN

Compound nouns form their plural by adding ,,-s/es”:
a) To the second noun if the compound noun consists of two nouns: shopkeeper-shopkeepers,
bedroom-bedrooms, goods-train – goods-trains.
b) To the first noun if the compound noun consists of two nouns connected with a preposition:
sister-in-law/ sisters-in-law.
c) To the noun if the compound consists of adjective and a noun: frying pan- frying pans.
d) At the end of the compound if this is not made up of any nouns: breakdown-breakdowns.

4) SOME NOUNS HAVE AN IRREGULAR PLURAL FORM

- man-men, woman-women, foot-feet, tooth-teeth, louse-lice, mouse-mice, child-children, goose-
geese, ox-oxen, die-dice.
Words composed by ,,man” or ,,woman” at the plural will become ,,men” or ,,women” +
add ,,s” at the other word: man-servant – men servants, woman-clerk – women-clerks.

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5) SOME NOUNS CAN TAKE ONLY A SINGULAR VERB
a) Mass nouns: bread, tea, sugar. (The tea is very hot)
b) Abstract nouns: advice, love, death, strength, work, knowledge, information. (,,Knowledge is
power”)
c) Words ending in ,,ics” (it’s the case of sciences, subjects): athletics, mathematics, physics.
(Mathematics is my favorite subject)
d) Games ending in ,,-s”: billiards, cards, marbles, ninepins. (Biliards is my favorite sport)
e) Diseas ending in ,,-s”: mumps, measles. (Mumps gives you an awful pain in the neck)
e) Nouns such as: weather, luggage, furniture, money, news. (Money is an important stuff)

6) SOME NOUNS CAN TAKE ONLY A PLURAL VERB

a) Objects which consist of two parts:
- garments: trousers, pajamas, shorts, jeans (My trousers are on the chair)
- tools: scissors, compasses, pincers, scales (The scissors are in your purse)
- instruments: binoculars, spectacles. (My spectacles are on my nose)
b) Nouns which have a plural meaning: clothes, goods, people, police, stairs, riches, earrings,,
thanks. (The police are arriving)

7) SOME NOUNS (that is the case of collective nouns which refer to a group of people)
CAN TAKE EITHER A SINGULAR OR A PLURAL VERB, DEPENDING ON
WEATHER WE SEE THE GROUP AS A WHOLE OR AS INDIVIDUALS:
Such group nouns are: army, audience, class, police, club, committee, company, council,
crew, family, government, press, public, staff, team.
Eg.: The team was the best in the country. (=the team as a group)
The team were all given medals. (= each member separately as individuals)

8) SOME NOUNS HAVE A DIFFERENT MEANING (or MEANINGS) IN THE

PLURAL
- compass (busola) vs. compasses (compas), effect (efect) vs. effects (efecte /bunuri), spectacle
(spectacol) vs. spectacles (spectacole/ ochelari), colour (culoare) vs. colours (culori/ steag),
custom (obicei) vs. customs (obiceiuri/ vama), glass (pahar, sticla) vs. glasses (pahare/
ochelari), hair (par) vs. hairs (fire de par), wood (lemn) vs. woods (padure),
experience(experienta) vs. experiences (aventuri), work(munca) vs. works(lucrari, scrieri,
opere), fish (peste) vs. fishes (soiuri de peste), fruit (fructe) vs. fruits (soiuri de fructe), advice

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(sfat) vs. advices (informatii), air(aer) vs. airs (figuri), ash (scrum) vs. ashes (cenusa), domino
(costum de bal) vs. dominoes (joc de domino), sand (nisip) vs. sands (plaja)

9) SOME NOUNS HAVE TWO DIFFERENT PLURAL FORMS, EACH OF THEM

WITH A DIFFERENT MEANING
- brother – brothers(frati), brethren (frati de ideal, frati de cruce); cloth – cloths(panzeturi),
clothes(haine); staff – staffs(toiege), staves(portative)

10) SOME NOUNS HAVE THE SAME FORM AT THE PLURAL AND SINGULAR
- series – series, species – species, cod – cod, deer – deer, salmon – salmon, trout – trout, sheep –
sheep, swine – swine.

11) COUNTABLE/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

Countable nouns are nouns that can be counted: one bag-two bags-three bags etc.
Uncountable nouns are nouns that can’t be counted. It is very important to mention that
uncountable nouns take only a singular verb (There is some sugar left) and are not used with a/
an (It is wrong to say ,,I need a money”).
Many uncountable nouns can be made countable by means of partitives:
- a piece of cake/ information/ advice/ news/ furniture/ chalk/ paper/ bread/ gossip/ scandal/
wisdom/ knowledge;
- an item of information/ news;
- a sheet of / a roll of paper;
- a bit of chalk;
- a glass/ bottle of water;
- a bottle of vinegar;
- a jar of jam;
- a jet of water;
- a rasher of bacon;
- a box of chocolate/ matches;
-a bar of chocolate/ soap/ metal;
- a packet of biscuits/ tea;
- a cup of tea;
- a slice/ loaf of/ crust of bread;
- a pot of yogurt/ tea;
- a kilo/ pound of meat;

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- a drop/ can of oil/ Coke;
- a carton of milk;
- a tube of toothpaste;
- a cube of ice;
- a dash of soda;
- a grain of corn/ dirt/ rice/ sand;
- a head of cattle/ cabbage/ lettuce;
- a lump of coal/ sugar;
- a bag of flour;
- a sip of/ scrap of tea;
- a pat of butter;
- a pinch of salt;
- a splash of soda;
- a stick of chalk;
- a pair of trousers;
- a blade of grass;
- a block of marble/ice/wood;
- a book of stamps;

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Z3) THE GENITIVE
a) The Saxon Genitive: it is the case when we add an ’s to the singular noun and a simple ’ to the
plural noun. The Saxon Genitive is used especially for persons and livings (animals, birds etc.)
Eg.: The girl’s book = Cartea fetei.
The girls’ books = Cartile fetelor.
Observation: If the plural of the noun has an irregular form, we add ’s:
The child’ s book = Cartea copilului.
The children’s books = Cartile copiilor.
If two nouns are connected by ,,and”, we have two different situations:
- when we add ’s after the second noun, it means that we are speaking about a single possession:
Mary and David’s friends = Prietenii Mariei si ai lui David (deci au prieteni comuni)
- when we add ’s after each noun, it means that we have different possessions: Mary’s and
David’s friends = Prietenii lui Mary si prietenii lui David (deci au prieteni diferiti)
The Saxon Genitive may also suggest a place: florist’s = florarie, grocer’s = bacanie.
b) The Prepositional Genitive: it is constructed with the preposition ,,of”. It is used especially for
things, rarely for persons and livings.
The colour of the grass = Culoarea ierbii.
The entrance of the cave = Intrarea din pestera.
The heat of the sun = Caldura soarelui.

3) THE PRONOUN

A) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
a) – this/ these (acesta, aceasta/ acestia, acestea):
- for people or things near us: This is my pen and these are my pencils.
- for present or future situations: He’s leaving for London this month.
- when the speaker is in the place he is referring to: This room is very large.
b) – that/ those (acela, aceea/ aceia, acelea):
-for people or things not near us: I don’t like that picture but those on the left are nice.
- for past situations: They enjoyed that summer very much.

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c) – the same (acelasi, aceeasi, aceiasi, aceleasi): it is used when we want to speak again about a
person.

B) PERSONAL PRONOUNS
I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they – go before verbs as subjects
Me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them – go after verbs as objects.
Eg.: They gave me a beautiful painting but I didn’t like it.
Observation: We don’t use a noun and a pronoun together: # My cat it’s under the chair (wrong!)
= My cat is under the chair (correct)

C) POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
Mine, yours, his, hers, -, ours, yours, theirs.
Possessive pronouns do not go before nouns: This is her jacket. It’s hers.
Sometimes possessive pronouns go at the beginning of a sentence: Yours is more
beautiful.

D) REFLEXIVE/ EMPHATIC PRONOUNS

Myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
Reflexive pronouns are used after certain verbs (behave, burn, cut, enjoy, hurt, kill, look,
laugh at, introduce, dry, teach etc.) when the subject and the object of the verb are the same: He
cut himself. They enjoy themselves at the party.
Reflexive pronouns can be used after be, feel, look, seem to describe emotions or states:
She doesn’t look herself these days.
Emphatic pronouns have the same form as reflexive pronouns but a different meaning.
They emphasise the noun or the fact that one person, and not another, performs an action: He
himself did the whole job. He did the whole job himself.
They go after nouns, pronouns, at the end of a sentence, or after but and than: You should
count on no one but yourself.

4) THE ADJECTIVE

Adjectives describe nouns. They have the same form in both singular and the plural form.
Eg.: The red pencil is on the table.
The red pencils are on the table.
a) Order of adjectives:
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 Adjectives normally go before nouns: I have a white cat.
Observation: Adjectives can also be used without a noun after certain verbs (appear, be,
become, feel, seem, smell, taste, look etc.): He felt nervous. She looks happy. The cake smells
good.
The adjectives: afraid, alone, alive, awake, asleep, glad etc. are NEVER
followed by a noun: The girl was afraid.
Some nouns can be used as adjectives if they go before another noun.
They have no plural form in this case: the garden gate, a three-week holiday (not: a three-weeks
holiday)

When there are two or more fact adjectives, they normally go in the following order:
Fact adjectives
OPINION SIZE AGE SHAPE
That’s a nice big new square

Fact adjectives
COLOUR ORIGIN MATERIAL PURPOSE NOUN
brown German wooden linen chest

Adjectives Positive Comparative Superlative

Of one syllable add – short shorter (than) the shortest (of/in)
(e)r/ -(e)st to form
their comparative and big bigger (than) the biggest (of/in)
superlative forms.
large larger (than) the largest (of/in)
Of two syllables heavy heavier (than) the heaviest (of/in)
ending in –er, -ly, -y,
-w, also add –er/-est. shallow shallower (than) the shallowest (of/in)
Of two or more special more special (than) the most special
syllables take more/ (of/in)
most. attractive more attractive (than)
the most attractive
(of/in)

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Observation: Certain adjectives form their comparative and superlative in both ways, either by
adding –er/-est or taking more/most: clever, common, cruel, friendly, gentle, narrow, pleasant,
polite, quiet, simple, stupid etc.: Clever-cleverer-the cleverest OR clever – more clever – the
most clever.
When a short adjective (one or two syllables) ends in a consonant + ,,y” (eg.: dry, happy)
→ ,,i” and add ,,-er/-est”: dry – drier – the driest; happy – happier – the happiest.
When a one syllable adjective ends in a consonant, we double the final consonant: hot –
hotter – the hottest; big – bigger – the biggest; fat – fatter – the fattest.
Observation: We can use the intensifiers much, a lot, far to make the comparative stronger:
much more important

●
●
●
●

5) THE ADVERB

Adverbs normally describe verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. They say how (adverbs of
manner), where (adverbs of place), when (adverbs of time), how much/ to what extent (adverbs
of degree), or how often (adverbs of frequency) something happens.
Observation: There are also sentence adverbs (certainly, surely, probably, possibly etc.) and
relative adverbs (where, why, when)
Formation of Adverbs from Adjectives
a) Most adverbs are formed by adding –ly to an adjective: quick-quickly
b) Adjectives ending in –ic add –ally to form their adverbs: dramatic – dramatically

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c) Adjectives ending in –le drop –le and add –ly to form their adverbs: terrible – terribly
d) Adjectives ending in consonant+y drop –y and add –ily to form their adverbs: happy – happily
e) Adjectives ending in –ly (friendly, lonely, lovely, fatherly, motherly, silly, lively, ugly etc.)
form their adverbs with in a …way: in a friendly way
f) Adjectives ending in –e form their adverbs adding –ly, without dropping –e: rare – rarely
Exceptions: whole – wholly, true – truly.
Observation: The adverb of ,,good” is ,,well”.
Observation: Some adverbs are the same as their adjectives:daily, early, fast, hard, late, monthly,
easy, low etc.:
Eg.: He works hard.(=adverb)
This is a hard job. (=adjective)
Observation: In spoken English the adverbs loud, quick, slow, cheap are the same as their
adjectives. In formal/ grammatical English we use loudly, quickly, slowly, cheaply:
Eg.: He speaks loud. (=spoken)
He speaks loudly. (=formal)
SOME PAIRS OF ADVERBS HAVE DIFFERENT MEANINGS
1. deep= a long way down. 1. deeply= greatly
He dug deep into the ground. The scientist was deeply respected.
2. free= without payment. 2. freely= willingly
Children travel free on buses. He spoke freely about his past.
3. hard= with a lot of effort. 3. hardly= scarcely.
He works hard. I hardly see him.
4. high= to/at a high level. 4. highly= very much.
The pilot flew high above the clouds. She is highly regarded by her employers.
5. last= after all others 5. lastly= finally
He got here last. Lastly, read the instructions then do the test.
6. late= after the proper time. 6. lately= recently
They arrived late. I haven’t seen him lately.
7. near= close to. 7. nearly= almost
I live near the school. I have nearly finished.
8. pretty= fairly. 8. prettily= in an attractive way
The film was pretty awful. She smiled prettily.
9. short= suddenly 9. shortly= soon
The driver stopped short. He will be arriving shortly.
10. wide= far away from the right point. 10. widely= to a large extent
He threw the ball wide. It’s widely believed that the Prime Minister
will resign soon.

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Order of Adverbs
Adverbs can go in front, mid or end position in a sentence.
Eg. Finally, he will probably start working here next week.
1. Adverbs of frequency (often, usually, never, ever, regularly, barely, seldom, scarcely, rarely,
sometimes etc.) normally go before main verbs but after auxiliary verbs they go in mid position:
Eg.: He often drinks coffee.
He is always telling lies!
Observation: In short answers, the adverbs of frequency go before the auxiliary verb: Yes, he
always is.
Observation: Used to and have to take the adverb of frequency before them: He always used to
drink tea in the morning.
Observation: For reasons of emphasis the adverb of frequency can also go at the beginning or at
the end of the sentence: Sometimes I play basketball.
I make that cake occasionally.
2. Adverbs of time usually go at the end of the sentence (They went to the hospital yesterday). If
we want to put emphasis on the time we use them at the beginning of the sentence (Yesterday
they went to hospital). Short time adverbs such as: soon, now, still, then etc. can go in mid
position: He is now having a bath.
The adverbs already. no longer, normally, hardly, nearly, almost usually go in mid
position: They have nearly missed the train.
3. Sentence adverbs: probably, certainly, possibly, clearly, fortunately, luckily, maybe, perhaps,
of course etc. go in any position, but the front position is the most usual though.:
Probably he believed you.
He probably believed you.
He believed you probably.
Observation: In negation certainly, possibly and probably go before the auxiliary: He probably
didn’t believe you.
4. Adverbs of degree (absolutely, just, totally, very, completely, extremely, a lot, really, terribly,
much, awfully, rather, quite, fairly, pretty, a little, a bit, slightly, enough, too etc.) can go before
the adjective or the adverb they modify.: She’s quite good at Maths.
Most of these adverbs can also go before a main verb or after an auxiliary verb.:
I rather like this film.
I can’t quite understand it.

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 The adverbs a lot, much, a little, a bit, awfully, terribly, absolutely, completely, totally
go in mid or end position.
The train was a little delayed.
The train was delayed a little.
5. Adverbs of manner (beautifully, badly, eagerly etc.) and place (here, there etc.) go after the
verb or the object of the verb if there is one:
She looked at me angrily.
Adverbs of manner can also go in mid position: She looked angrily at me.
Observation: When there is more than one adverb in a sentence, their order is manner-place-
time. However, when there is a verb of movement (go, run, leave etc.), the place adverb goes
next to the verb of movement,: He spoke well(MANNER) at the meeting (PLACE) yesterday
(TIME).
She goes to work (PLACE) on foot (MANNER) every day (TIME).

Grid 1. Regular Comparative and Superlative Forms

ADVERBS POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

Adverbs having the fast faster the fastest
same forms as hard harder the hardest
adjectives, add –er/ high higher the highest
-est late later the latest
,,early” drops –y and early earlier the earliest
adds –ier/ -iest
Two syllable or often more often the most often
compound adverbs
take more/most safely more safely the most safely
(compound adverbs
are adjectives + ly easily more easily the most easily
e.g. careful - carefull

Grid 2. Irregular Adverbs

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

much more the most
well better the best
little less the least
badly worse the worst
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far farther/ further the farthest/ the furthest

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