Biology 116 – Invertebrate Zoology PHYLUM PORIFERA

PHYLUM PORIFERA (SPONGES)

C. Choanoderm
I. General Characteristics  innermost layer made up of choanocytes that bears
 belong to the Subkingdom Parazoa a flagellum and is surrounded by a microvillar collar
 with flagellated cells (choanocytes) with microvillar  lines the radial canals (sycon and leucon) or the
collars spongocoel (ascon)
o function: (1) generate water currents, (2)
capture small food particles and (3) capture
incoming sperm for fertilization
 made up of pores (incurrent pores: ostia, excurrent
pores: osculum) through which watter pass.
 tissue-level of organization; no organs
 diploblastic (body is made up of two layers)
o pinacoderm (outermost layer)
o mesohyl (nonliving middle layer)
o choanoderm (innermost layer)
 central cavity: spongocoel
 digestion is filter feeding by phagocytosis of the
amoebocytes (archaeocytes); intracellular digestion
 reproduction is through sexual or asexual means
o sexual: gamete formation / fusion
o asexual:
 gemmule formation
 gemmules: circular bodies
made up of archaeocytes
that are resistant to
adverse conditions
 budding
 usually sessile at the mature stage

II. Histology
A. Pinacoderm
 outermost layer of the body
 lines the incurrent canals and the spongocoel in
places where choanocytes are lacking
 cells present:
o pinacocytes – flattened contractile cells
o porocytes – conducts water through the
three layers of the ascon type of canal
system
o myocytes – cells capable of contraction;
influence osculum / ostia diameter
B. Mesohyl
 nonliving middle layer
 cells present:
o collenocytes – secretes collagen
o spongiocytes – secretes spongin
o chromocytes – with pigment bodies
o sclerocytes (scleroblasts) – produces
spicules
o thesocytes – nutritive cells
o archaeocytes – undifferentiated cells
capable of becoming other cell types;
become reproductive cells
III. Endoskeleton
 made up of spicules
o various elements of the skeleton of sponges
which provides support and prevent
collapse of their hollow bodies
o may be made up of silica or calcium
carbonate
o secreted by scleroblasts / sclerocytes
o microscleres – smaller spicules; scattered
throughout the mesohyl
o megascleres – larger spicules; located in the
pinacoderm
o basic types of spicules:
 monoaxon – grows along one axis
 monoactinal – grows in
one direction only; one
end blunt, the other end
pointed
 o acanthostyle –  a desma is a megasclere that consist of an ordinary
covered with minute monoaxon, triradiate or tetraxon spicule
thorny process called crepis on which layers of silica are deposited.
 diactinal – grows in both o lithistid – network formed by deposition of
directions silica to the crepis
o oxea – pointed  spongin is a collagen-like substance present in the
ends skeleton of class Demospongia; sulfur-containing
o tylotes – form of collagen
knobbed ends o secreted by spongioblasts (spongiocytes)
 curved monoaxons
o sigmas – C-
shaped
o toxas – bow- IV. Canal Systems
shaped  there are three types of canal systems:
o chelas – with
recurved hooks, o Ascon – water enters
plates at each through the porocytes that carries it
end directly to the spongocoel and exits via the
 amphidisks – with spines osculum; spongocoel lined by choanocytes
at each end  ex. Leucosolenia
 tetraxons (tetractines) – four rays
radiating from a common point
 calthrops – 4 rays are
equal in length o Sycon – water enters
 triaxons (hexactinal) – three axes through the ostia into the incurrent canals
crossing at right angles to give six then to the prosopyle that lead to the
rays radial canals lined with choanocytes into
 polyaxons/asters – several equal the spongocoel, finally passing out of the
rays that radiate from a central osculum
point; may be star-shaped or  ex. Grantia, Sycon
resemble spiny spheres
 sphereasters – with o Leucon – water enters
definite rays through the ostia into the incurrent canals
to the prosopyle that leads to the radial
canals lined by choanocytes exits through
the apopyle to the spongocoel then to the
excurrent canal and out through the
osculum
 ex. Demosponges

V. Reproduction
 can be asexual or sexual
o asexual:
 budding – smaller daughter
organism
 gemmule formation
 a mass of archaeocytes
covered with spongin
resistant to adverse
environmental conditions
 contain trophocytes
(nurse cells) that
functions for nutritive
support
 micropyle – opening to
Legend: (1) oxea, (2) triod, (3) triaxon, (4) tetraxon, (5) anchor, (6)
the gemmule
sphereaster, (7) amphidisk
  regeneration – detachment of a
body part that grows to a new
smaller individual
o
sexual:
 most sponges are hermaphroditic
 sperm and egg comes from
amoebocytes
 ovocytes (mother egg cell) – give
rise to ovum / eggs
 mother sperm cell – give rise to
sperm
 choanocytes may also give rise to
sperm cells
 capable of internal (viviparous) and
external (oviviparous) fertilization
 two kinds of blastula:
o stereoblastula – solid mass
o coeloblastula – hollow ball
 two kinds of larva (flagellated)
o parenchymula – almost all cells at surface
are flagellated
o amphiblastula – one hemisphere of
flagellated cells and the other of large non-
flagellated macromeres

VI. Sponge Classes

CLASS CALCAREA 2. Leucosolenia sp.

 possess spicules of calcium carbonate  ascon type
 spicules are monoaxon or 3-4 pronged  contains a lot of three-pronged (triradiate) spicules
 lack spongin fibers
 all three types of canal system present

1. Grantia sp.
 sycon type

Legend: (A) Radial canal, (B) Incurrent canal, (C) ostium

CLASS DEMOSPONGIA  contains microsceleres and macroscleres
 with skeleton of siliceous spicules or spongin fibers  benthic sponges
or both  lacks spongin
 with megascleres that are monoaxon or tetraxon but
never triaxon 1. Euplectella aspergillum (Venus flower basket)
 Leucon canal system
 with spongin fibers

1. Spongilla sp.
 common freshwater sponge
 Leucon type of canal system
 monoaxon spicules made up of silica that are either
macroscleres or microscleres

CLASS HEXACTINELLIDA SCLEROSPONGIAE

 commensals of shrimps (Spongicola) and crabs  all possess Leucon type of canal system
(Chorilla)  also called as coralline sponges
 also known as glass sponges  have calcareous skeleton; living tissue with siliceous
 spicules are made up of silica and are triaxon spicules and spongin fibers
 sycon type of canal system

VII. Poriferan taxonomy

Phylum PORIFERA
Subphylum CELLULARIA
Class CALCAREA
Subclass CALCARONES
Order LEUCOSOLENIDA
Genus LEUCOSOLENIA
Species Leucosolenia sp.
Order SYCETTIDA
Genus GRANTIA
Species Grantia sp.
Class DEMOSPONGIAE
Subclass HOMOSCLEROMORPHA
Order DICTYOPCERATIDA
Genus SPONGIA
Family SPONGIDAE
Species Spongia sp. (Bath sponge)
Genus CARTERIOSPONGIA
Species Carteriospongia foliascens
Order NEPHELIOSPONGIDA
Genus XESTOSPONGIA
Species Xestospongia sp. (Barrel sponge)
Genus PETROSIA
Species Petrosia sp.
Genus HALICLONA
Species Haliclona sp.
Subclass TETRACTINOMORPHA
Order HADROMERIDA
Genus SUBERITES
Species Suberites sp.
Order AXINELLIDA
Genus ACANTHELLA
Species Acanthella vulgata
Subphylum SYMPLASMA
Class HEXACTINELLIDA
Subclass HEXASTEROPHORA
Order LYSSACINA
Genus EUPLECTELLA
Species Euplectella sp. (Venus Flower Basket)
 PH 116 – Invertebrate Zoology
Biology PHYLUM CNIDARIA

I. General characteristics B. Mesoglea

 radially symmetrical  may be thin noncellular layer or a thick, fibrous-like
 possess CNIDAE (a stinging organelle) material with (Class Scyphozoa, Anthozoa and
 has two major body forms: Cubozoa) or without (Class Hydrozoa) wandering
o medusa: motile, pelagic, solitary amoebocytes
o polyp: sessile, benthic, colonial or solitary
 diploblastic: C. Gastrodermis
o epidermis (outermost layer)  nutritive-muscle cells – similar to epitheliomuscular
o mesoglea (nonliving middle layer) cells but are usually monociliated
o gastrodermis (innermost layer)  enzymatic gland cells – wedge-shaped cells with
 digestive system: incomplete their tapered ends facing the mesoglea
 digestion is initially extracellular, then intracellular  mucous secreting gland cells – abundant around the
 with nerve nets mouth
 reproduction is asexual (budding) in polyp forms and  cnidocytes are only present in this layer (GVC) in
sexual (fusion of gametes) Class SCYPHOZOA and Class ANTHOZOA
 all with a PLANULA LARVAE stage
o ciliated, free swimming stereogastrula III. Cnidae
 respiration and excretion is through simple diffusion  nematocyst
 metagenesis or alternation of generations is a  stenotele – nematocyst with barbs and
characteristic of cnidarians; one generation spikes
reproduces asexually (in the polyp stage) while the  function for hooking / piercing prey
next generation produces sexually (in the medusoid  contain toxins
stage). not all cnidarians are metagenic  may ex. Penetrants
 ancestral cnidarians form was medusoid  spirocyst
 with sticky threads that function for food
II. Histology capture or substrate adhesion
A. Epidermis  no toxin
 Epitheliomuscular cells - columnar cells with base  ex. Glutinants, Volvent (thick and short
resting against the mesoglea as longitudinal muscles thread)
that contract to shorten the body stalk and  ptychocyst
tentacles  characteristic of Order Ceriantharia (tube
 Gland cells - tall cells covering the basal disk and anemones)
usually secretes a sticky mucus by which hydras  forms protective tube covering
attach the objects in the water or can produce gas  operculum – covering of nematocyst
bubbles  cnidocil – modified fused cilia; sensitive to
 Interstitial cells- small, round, undifferentiated cells mechanical pressure that when triggered, discharges
with large nuclei, found between the bases of nematocysts
epidermal cells. They have the potential to produce  a nematocyst can only be discharged once
all other cell types
 Cnidocyte- specialized cells that contain the cnidae, IV. Taxonomy of Cnidaria :D (dun-dun-dun-dun)
the stinging apparatus with the ff basic types
o nematocyst – found in all cnidarians A. Summary of Cnidarian Taxonomy
o spirocyst – only in Zoantharia (Hexacorallia) Kingdom ANIMALIA
and functions in food capture or substrate Subkingdom METAZOA
adhesion Phylum CNIDARIA
o ptychocysts – only in order Ceriantharia Subphylum MEDUSOZOA
(tube anemones) and functions only in the Class HYDROZOA
formation of the tube encasement of the Class SCYPHOZOA
organism Class CUBOZOA
 Sensory/nerve cells – scattered throughout the Class ANTHOZOA (not under
epidermis and maybe equipped with bristles or Medusozoa; an outgroup)
flagellated tips. Their bases connect to the nerve
cells that form a network in the epidermis
 Mucus-secreting cells – secretes mucus for adhesion
 Hydrozoa Scyphozoa Cubozoa Anthozoa  types of polyps:
dominant polyp form medusoid medusoid polyp form;
body form form (sexual); form no medusoid o gastrozooid – digestive
polyp form o gonozooid – reproductive
(larval)
mesoglea never cellular; thick, cellular thick, cellular thick, may
o dactylozooid – defense (not present in
characteristics very thin contain Obelia)
location of epidermis only epidermis and epidermis
sclerites
epidermis and
 parts of the polyp:
nematocysts gastrodermis gastrodermis o hydranths – modules of polyps
location of epidermis; or gastrodermis gastrodermis gastrodermis o coenosarc – living portion of the stalk
gonads if
gastrodermal,
o hydrocaulus – stalk
shed directly o perisarc – covering of the coenosarcs
to the exterior
o gonotheca – covering of the gonozooid
velum present; absent; present; absent;
possession craspedote acraspedote craspedote acraspedote o blastostyle – produces medusa buds
sexuality hermaphrodite dioecious dioecious dioecious; o gonangium – blastostyle + gonotheca
some
monoecious o hydrotheca – covering of hydranth
(gastrozooid)
B. CLASS HYDROZOA o gonopore – opening of the gonozooid
 may be solitary or colonial o hydrorhizza – root-like base
 may be thecate (Obelia) or athecate (Hydra)  types of growth patterns
 if thecate, the covering is composed of chitin o stolonal – polyps arising singly and
 with velum (craspedote) that functions in propulsion irregularly from a hydrorhizza or stolon
of water
 gonochoristic (dioecious)
 asexual reproduction: grafting (polarity is retained)
o sympodial – in primary axis, there is a
zigzag or irregular pattern
Order HYDROIDA
Suborder ANTHOMEDUSAE (athecate)
 lack chitinous covering
 when medusa is present, always bell-shaped
 sometimes have actinula stage o monopodial – first polyp elongates and
Genus HYDRA
give rise to secondary polyps; there is one
primary stem where the secondary stem
1. Hydra sp. elongates
 only hydrozoan genus without medusoid form
 with stenotele type of nematocysts  parts of hydroid medusa (hydromedusae)
 hypostome – apical swelling where mouth is located o bell – inverted bowl shaped structure
 foot / basal disk – attachment to substrate  exumbrella – convex side
 hermaphroditic  subumbrella – concave side
o ovary: 1/3 proximal portion (near the basal o velum – lateral shelf at the inner-circular
disk); amoeboid or circular margin
o testis: 1/3 distal portion (near the tentacle); o tentacles – hangs down from the bell’s
conical margin
o stomach – centrally located within the GVC
Order HYDROIDA o manubrium – mouth located at the distal
Suborder LEPTOMEDUSAE (thecate) portion
 possess chitinous covering; all species marine o tentacular bulbs – base of tentacles;
 medusa, when present, are always flat and never sensory cells
bell-shaped  2 major receptors in tentacular
Genus OBELIA bulb
Genus SERTULARIA  ocellus – photoreceptor
 statocyst – balancing
2. Obelia sp. sense organ
 with medusoid stage - hydromedusa (relatively flat; o nerve ring – along bell margin
saucer shape) o radial nerves – along radiating canals
 polyp forms are colonial (hydroid colony)
 polymorphic – consists of more than 2 types of
modules
Order HYDROIDA  mesoglea is thick and contains wandering
Suborder LIMNOMEDUSAE amoebocytes that originated from the epidermis
 most species occur in freshwater; some are marine  interradial canals – canals adjacent to gastric
but with highly restricted distributions filaments
 medusa have adhesive pads to adhere to algae  perradial canals – canals after the interradial canal
Genus GONIONEMOUS  adradial canal – between interradial and perradial
 medusoid form is dominant canal
 ephyra – immature medusa
Order SIPHONOPHORA  manubrium – muscular cylinder where the end is the
Genus PHYSALIA mouth
Species Physalia sp.
 with pneumatophore (for buoyancy)
 form polymorphic colonies
o modified modules:
 nectophores – motile structures;
used for water propulsion; lack
mouth and tentacles
 phyllozoids – leaf-like; defensive
structures
perradial canal
 with highly toxic nematocysts
interradial canal
Order CHONDROPHORA
Genus VELELLA
Species Velella velella (By-the-wind sailor)  gastric filments – contain a lot of nematocysts
 thecate; all species are marine  gonads are located on the floor of the pouches
 single organism with several mouths  typical life cycle:
 has a single nervous system planula larva stage -> polyp larva stage (scyphistoma) ->
 previously from Siphonophora strobilation (formation of ephyra)
 some species possess “sail”; floating polyps bud off  contain club-shaped structures called rhopalia;
free-swimming medusa which represent the sexual within the rhopalia are following:
stage of the life cycle o statocysts – balancing organ (statolith +
sensory cilium)
Order MILLEPORINA (fire corals) o ocelli – photoreceptors
Genus MILLEPORINA o sensory lappets – mechanoreceptors
 can deposit CaCO3 to the body wall  ramet – genetically identical units
 all colonial; restricted to coral reefs and all host
symbiotic zooxanthellae Order SEMAEOSTOMAE
Genus AURELIA
Order STYLASTERINA (lace corals) Species Aurelia aurita
 secrete calcium carbonate skeletons  swimming bell grows to at least 0.9 m in diameter;
Genus ALLOPORA instead of numerous thin tentacles, it possess 4-7
Genus STYLASTER thick arms

Order MILLEPORINA + Order STYLASTERINA = Order RHIZOSTOMAE

HYDROCORALLINA Genus CASSIOPEA
Species Cassiopea sp.
C. CLASS SCYPHOZOA (TRUE JELLYFISH)  contain many manubria; many mouths joined at the
 medusoid form (scyphomedusa) is dominant base by a single GVC
 asexual reproduction is through strobilation or  lacks ring tentacles
transverse fission  upside-down jellyfish; pulsating on the substrate
 has tetrameric (4-part) symmetry (maximum exposure of zooxanthellae to sunlight)
 do not contain velum (acraspedote)
 two types of tentacles: D. CLASS CUBOZOA
o marginal tentacles – at the rim of the canal  dominant medusoid form
o oral tentacles/arms – at the manubrium  bell is cube shape
 with gastric pouches in the gastrovascular cavity  with velum (craspedote)
 gonochoristic (dioecious)  exhibits tetrameric pattern
 o each individual possess 4 tentacles (or 4
clusters of tentacles) emerging from 4
corners of the bell near the 4 rhopalia
 rhopalia with complex eyes (with lens and retina) at
four points
 polyp form: scyphistoma
 gonochoristic
 asexual reproduction: budding but no strobilation
 toxic nematocysts (stenotele); sea wasps
Order CUBOMEDUSAE
Genus CARYBDEA
Species Carybdea sp.
E. CLASS ANTHOZOA (true corals)
 without a medusoid stage in life cycle
 nematocyst without a cnidocil and operculum
 mitochondrial DNA is circular rather than linear
 presence of siphonoglyph (ciliated groove) in the
pharyngeal wall leading from the mouth that
functions in filter feeding and creation of water
current
 GVC is septate (partitioned by mesenteries);
increased surface area (lobed)
 pharynx = actinopharynx = stomodeum
 also contain nematocyst in the septa (in GVC)
 types of mesenteries:
o complete/primary: extend from GVC and
attach to the pharynx (stomodeum)
o incomplete/secondary: do not touch the
pharynx (contains lobed – trilobed – free
endings)
 acontia – thin filaments that bear nematocysts
which extend from the middle lobe of the
mesenteries that functions in offense and defense
 cinclide – passageway of acontia
Subclass HEXACORALLIA / ZOANTHARIA
 mesenteries are 6 or in multiples of 6 (hexamerous)
 with oral disc (mouth + tentacles) ad pedal disc
 with longitudinal and circular muscles
 endocoel – compartment bordered by two complete
mesenteries
 exocoel – compartments bordered by incomplete
mesentery after 2 consecutive complete
mesenteries; between pairs of complete
mesenteries
 most are solitary but colonial forms are never
polymorphic
Order ACTINARIA (sea anemones)
 no colonial species
 acrorhagi – circular bulges / ridges below the mouth
region beneath the tentacle bearing nematocysts
that functions in bringing in water to the GVC; also
used in defense/offense
 with gonadal band
 contain sphincter muscles in the mouth
 asexual reproduction: pedal laceration (portion of
pedal disc can be detached and regenerate to
another individual)
Order SCLERACTINIA
 Stony corals
 formerly Order Madreporaria
 no siphonoglyphs
 can be solitary (Fungia) or colonial
 most are hermatypic (reef-building) corals
 ahermatypic – not involved in reef-building
 can bear external theca
 polyps can be in cup-shaped structure or on skeleton
 sclerosepta – mesenteries with CaCO3
 corallite – basal cup
o calice – margin; ridges
o fossa – depression
 columella – central axis; longitudinal axis in a single
polyp
 peritheca – covering in between polyps
 coenosarc – covering of polyps
 coenosteum – calcareous skeleton of an entire
colony of corals
 dissepiments – transverse partitions
 asexual reproduction:
o budding: longitudinal division, transverse
division or tentacular budding
 budding on the oral disc
(intratentacular budding) or on
the pedal disc (extratentacular
budding)
o multiple fission
o fragmentation
 sexual reproduction:
o brooders: egg is retained in the body
o broadcasters (true spawners) – release egg
and sperm; susceptible to hybridization; can
undergo synchronous releases
 types of coral reefs:
o fringing reef – corals bordering an oceanic
island
o barrier reef – island-water-reef pattern
o atoll – island has submerged
Order ANTIPATHARIA
 black thorny corals
 with chitinous axial skeleton
 used for jewelry-making
 mesenteries bear ovary
 polyps align the axial skeleton
 mesenterial filaments – also bear nematocyst
Order CERIANTHARIA
 all solitary
 tube anemones
  possess ptychocysts
 no pedal disc
 tentacles in two circular rows
 embedded to the substrate

Subclass OCTOCORALLIA / ALCYONARIA

 possess 8 pinnate (branching) tentacles with 8
complete septa attached to the pharynx
 each tentacle bear short horizontal projections
called pinnules
 siphonoglyph is ventrally located
 contain sclerites – calcareous spicules that can be
either separate or fused
 fused sclerites are hard-bodied
 separated sclerites are soft-bodied
 anthocodia – oral (distal) portion of polyp; only part
seen; contains the mouth and tentacles
 coenenchyme – common flesh; gelatinous mesoglea;
contains the embedded calcareous spicules;
connecting mass in a colony
 solenia – gastrodermal tubes that connects the
polyps
 calyx – basal portion of the polyp

Order STOLONIFERA
 polyps arise from stolons
 skeleton are of separate spicules; sometimes fused
to become tubes

Order GORGONACEA (Horny corals)

 colony in a plant-like form
 axial skeleton of calcareous spicules or collagen-like
gorgonin or both

Order ALCYONACEA (soft corals)

 polyps where lower parts are fused in a fleshy mass
and only the oral ends are protruding
 skeleton made up of separate spicules (soft bodied)
and are not axial

Order COENOTHECALIA
 includes the only genus with massive skeleton of
crystalline fibers (aragonite)
 with septal pores and coenenchymal tubes

Order PENNATULACEA
 sea pens and sea pansies
 colony is fleshy with one long axial (primary axis)
 polyps are dimorphic
o autozooid – typical polyps
o siphonozooid – modified for drawing
watter into the GVC
 skeleton with calcareous spicules
Biology 116 – Invertebrate Zoology PHYLUM CTENOPHORA

I. General Characteristics II. Ctenophore Taxonomy

 biradially symmetrical animals (only 2 axes of
symmetry) CLASS TENTACULATA
 with plates of fused cilia arranged in comb rows or  with branching tentacles
ctenes; functions for locomotion
 no nematocysts Order CYDIPPIDA
 contain colloblast (adhesive cells)  do not metamorphose
 hermaphroditic (monoecious)
 exhibits bioluminescence Order LOBATA
 capable of regeneration  with oral lobes that are useful for locomotion
 contains branching tentacles with tentacular sheath  with auricles – surround mouth; equivalent to oral
(capable of retraction); tentacles function for food tentacles and arms
capture (movement is done by ctenes)  includes Mnemiopsis leidyi
 with apical sense organ containing:
o polar fields: mechanoreceptors Order CESTIDA
o balancers: detection of movement by  pelagic
statoliths  laterally compressed
 subepidermal plexus – not considered as nerves;  Cestum (Venus girdle)
composed of multipolar ganglion cells and neuritis;
forms underneath the comb rows Order PLATYCTENIDA
 apical sense organ covered by cupule  oral/aboral compressed
 mesoglea is called collenchyme that contains  reproduce asexually (fragmentation) and sexually
amoebocytes, nerve tissue, and muscle cells  fertilization is commonly internal and the animal
 due to presence of muscle and nerve cells in always pass through a cydippid stage
mesoglea, they are triploblastic  Coeloplana – pelagic
 contain rosettes  Ctenoplana – creeping; benthic
o excretory cells
o may influence buoyancy CLASS NUDA
 contain complicated system of canals  without tentacles
 stomach = infundibulum  Beroe
 complete digestive system  pelagic
 feed by engulfing prey
 with macrocilia - dense aggregates of cilia; like teeth
anal canal

aboral cnaal
Cnidarians Ctenophores
Cleavage indeterminate determinate
meridional canal Gastrulation delamination, epiboly or
ingression or invagination
tentacular canal invagination
Common dev Planula Cydippid
pharynx
stage
pharyngeal
Digestive incomplete complete
canal system
Nematocysts present none (unless
mouth borrowed)
Colloblast absent present
Sexuality gonochoristic hermaphroditic
(dioecious) (monoecious)
interradial transverse
Musculature within gastrodermis within mesoglea
canal canal Ciliation monociliated cells multiciliated
# of germ layers diploblastic triploblastic
III. Definitions
 epiboly – a sheet of micromeres spreads over what
were adjacent macromeres; ctenophores only
 invagination – group of cells push into the
blastocoelic space; occurs in both cnidarians and
ctenophores
 ingression – certain cells become detached from
their neighbors and move into the blastocoels
creating a second layer of cells
 delamination – cells of the blastula divide with the
cleavage plane approximately parallel to the surface
of the embryo; cells divide into the blastocoels
forming an inner and outer cell later