The Szondi Test

(ALBERT RABIN, Ph.D. 1952)

THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Over a period of more than a decade,, the Hungarian

psychiatrist, Leopold Szondi, evolved a number of genetic and
psychological theories that became the forerunners of the
Szondi test.

Szondi arrived at a sort of genetic determinism, which is a

variety of a general philosophical theory of predestination. He
himself claims, however, that his work is not philosophical but
biological and bio-psychological. His first book, the
"Schicksalanalyse" (Fate analysis), presents the chief tenets of
his biological theory, which may be stated, briefly, as follows:

The latent hereditary factors in human beings, the recessive

genes, do not remain dormant or inactive within the human
organism, but exert a very important and even decisive
influence upon its behavior. This latent or recessive gene
theory claims that these non-dominant hereditary factors
determine the Object selection, voluntary and involuntary, of
the individual. The drives resulting from these latent genes,
therefore, direct the individual's selection of love objects,
friendships, occupations, diseases, and forms of death. Hence,
from the very beginning of the human's existence there is a
hidden plan of life guided by the before mentioned drives. As
a corollary, the process of genotropism is developed.
Genotropism becomes manifest when two people, because of
similar, identical, or related latent genetic elements-the
recessive genes-become attracted to each other. Hence, this
genotropic attraction determines the choice of love partners,
ideals, and friendships.

A detailed psychological and psychotechnological extension of

the genetic formulations appears in Szondi's second major
work

He feels that "drives," which come forth as a result, of the

latent hereditary elements, constitute an intermediate layer of
the unconscious. Whereas Freud dealt chiefly with the
"Personal Unconscious", and C.G Jung emphasized the
importance of the "Collective Unconscious", Szondi has
proposed another level of the unconscious the "Familial
Unconscious". According to Szondi, this area has been hitherto
unexplored. The familial unconscious, which lies between the
Personal and Collective Unconscious, is the source from which
the "repressed ancestors" direct the selective behavor of the
individual.

To quote Szondi: "Freudian psychoanalysis" is the ontogeny,

"Schicksalanalyse" the genealogy, and Jung's "Analytical
Psychology", the archaeology of the deep mental processes."

Despite the voluminous genealogical material presented by

Szondi, it is doubtful whether modern genetics would be
willing to lend any support to his theory.

(See:" The Szondi's legacy: Innate Dispositions Influence Our

Choices" A sociobiological reinterpretation of the Szondi-
theory, by Bereczkei,, on this Forum: New Developments))

At best, it may be said that the effects of the latent recessive

genes upon the behavior of organisms in general and of the
human species in particular is open to question. Moreover, the
determination of dominance and recessiveness of
psychological characteristics is a very difficult and laborious
process that will require many more years of research and
investigation.

Historically, the Szondi test is an outgrowth of Szondi's genetic

and psychological theories; but it need not be bound or
determined by them. It may be considered separately as an
instrument of personality analysis -without adoption of its
avowed theoretical antecedents.

MATERIALS

The Szondi test materials consist of 48 cards bearing the

portraits of individuals representing the following eight
psychiatric diagnoses:

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 1. homosexual (h)
2. sadist (s)
3. epileptic (e)
4. hysterical (hy)
5. Schizophrenic catatonic (k)
6. Schizophrenic paranoid (p)
7. depressed (d)
8. manic (m)

The total number of 48 cards is divided into six sets of 8

pictures each; in each set, all of the above-mentioned
diagnoses are represented The majority of pictures were
obtained from German textbooks on psychopathology Some of
them are of Hungarian patients, and a few others are of
Swedish criminals Thus the portraits are presumably of a
representative group o western European patients. On the
back of each card is the initial (se above of the diagnosis of
the patients depicted in the portrait, together -,with a number
of from I to 8, indicating the order of presentation of the card
in that particular set, and a Roman numeral from I to VI,
indicating the number of the set.

ADMINISTRATION.

The subject is seated facing the examiner. The cards of the

first set are laid flat on the table in front of the subject, in two
horizontal rows of four each, and in the order indicated on the
back of the cards as shown in Figure 1. The subject is then
instructed as follows:

"Pick out the two pictures you like best (or most)." After the
selection is ma(le he is told: "Now, select the two you dislike
most!" The examiner then records the numbers of the cards
(or the corresponding initials of diagnosis of the cards) that
are "liked," and that are "disliked." The same procedure is
repeated with the remaining five sets. The same instructions
are usually repeated with every set presented. The results of
the selections and rejections are recorded for each set, as
described above.

Occasionally, further amplification of the instructions is

necessary. Some meticulous subjects wonder what frame of
reference they should use for liking or disliking the pictures.

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They may be told, "Suppose you were to enter a room and
meet all these people, which two would you be likely to talk
to?"

For some psychiatric patients, the task is quite difficult. Some

may say, "1 don't like any of them while others (paranoid or
depressed) might state, "But I don't dislike any of them. They
are all nice people." In those instances, a modification of the
instructions is in order. In the first situation, the subject may
be asked to select the two he "disliked least," rather than the
two he likes most. In the second situation, the patient may be
requested to choose the two he "likes less" than the rest of
them, assuming he likes them all.

The time required for a single administration of the Szonditest

varies with the subject. Some subjects may require as little as
10 minutes, while others may t-take one -half hour or longer.

THE PROFIL

At the end of each testing period, a profile based on the

choices and rejections of the subject is constructed. The
profile is a graphic representation of the results and gives the
picture at a glance. It also facilitates comparisons with other
profiles obtained on the same or other individuals.

SCH
S - VECTOR P -VECTOR C- VECTOR
-VECTOR
Nr. h s e hy k p d m
6+
5+
4+
3+

4
 2+
1+

1-
2-
3-
4-
5-
6-

The profile record form, illustrated above, is made up of 96

equal squares. It is divided in the middle by a heavy horizontal
line. The space above that line is divided into eight vertical
columns, corresponding to the eight diagnoses. There are 6
squares in each column. This upper area is the one where all
the "liked" responses are recorded. An identical area below
the heavy horizontal line is reserved for the "disliked"
responses.

The procedure for constructing the profile is as follows: The

pictures liked and disliked in the first (diagnostic category
(homosexual) are counted. Then, the number of squares in the
appropriate column corresponding to the number of likes are
darkened, above the middle horizontal line, which is used as a
base line. Similarly, the number of squares corresponding to
the number of dislikes are darkened below the horizontal base
line. The full profile can be obtained by following this
procedure through each of the eight columns.

Traditionally, and for the sake of distinguishing the areas

easily, the upper part of the profile (likes) is darkened with a
red pencil, and the lower (dislikes), in blue.

PROFILE ANALYSIS

In general, the area of positive choices (likes) is given a plus

sign (+), while the area of negative choices or rejections
(dislikes) is given a minus sign

These generic designations of positive and negative are not

altogether sufficient for the recording of the final results in
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any one column. It is necessary to designate the extent to
which pictures of a certain category were selected; to what
extent and in which category the genotropism; negative or
positive manifest itself. The simple designation of the number
of pluses and the number of minuses in any one column is too
cumbersome and does not give a clear indication of the
"balance of forces" or their direction. Consequently, four
categories of choices have been evolved. These categorics are
as follows:

Positive (+)
Negative (-)
Ambivalent ()
Open (0)

The first two categories are self-explanatory. Not all of the

choices in a column designated as positive need be above the
midline of the profile blank. However, the balance of choices
needs to be overwhelmingly in the positive direction in order
to achieve this designation. Similar reasoning is behind the
negative category. The ambivalent category consists of a
minimum of four selected pictures, evenly or almost evenly
divided between likes and dislikes. It is a designation of a
situation in which the positive and negative choices balance or
nearly balance each other. The open category indicates a
paucity of "loading" in that particular column, that is, when a
maximum of two choices is made, one on either side of the
midline; one choice; or none at all.

SZONDI SCORING. CATEGORIES.

Positive(+) Negative(-) Ambivalent (±) Open (0)

+2;0 0;-2 +2;-2 0;0
+3;0 0;-3 +3;-3 0;-1
+4;0 0;-4 +2;-3 + 1,0
+5;0 0;-5 +3;-2 + 1;-1
+6;0 +6;0 0;-6
+2;-1 + 1;-2
+3;-1 + 1;-3
+4;-1 + 1;-4
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 +5;-1 + 1;-5
+4;-2 +2;-4

A list of the numbers of positive and negative choices (likes

and dislikes) that fall in each of the categories described is
given in the table above. The first figure in each column of the
table gives the number of likes (positive) and the second
figure, the number of dislikes (negative).

The MEANING of the Scoring Categories.

Each column in the test profile represents one of the eight test
factors or drives. The nature of those drives will be discussed
in the latter part of the present chapter. The maximum
number of pictures that can be selected or rejected in any one
diagnostic category is six. Only three pictures would be the
number selected and rejected in any one category by chance.
When the total number of pictures selected and rejected in a
diagnostic category is four or greater, the factor
corresponding to that diagnosis is said to be loaded. From the
viewpoint of Szondi interpretation, it is indicative of a tension
within the personality -a need for satisfaction in this particular
area. By definition, those factors receiving an ambivalent
score are loaded. According to Szondi, the ambivalent (±)
score is indicative of a subjectively felt tension in the
corresponding area. It is the experience of opposing drives
counteracting each other. Conversely, the open (0) score
indicates the absence of tension in that particular area. It is a
sign that the drives corresponding to that factor are able to
find some avenues for their discharge. The positive (+) score
representing a predominance of likes of pictures of some
particular factor, shows an identification with the drives
represented by the pictures of that factor. The negative (-)
score, on the other hand, is indicative of a rejection or
alienation of those drives.

The SERIES of Szondi Profiles.

Szondi and his co-worker believe that a valid personality

diagnosis may be obtained only when the test is administered
several times - from six to ten times. They recommend the
administration of the test every other day until the desired
number of profiles is obtained. The basis for these
recommendations is mainly empirical. Since the Szondi profile
represents a complex balance and the dynamic relationships
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of various drives, it is sensitive to delicate, day-to-day
changes in the personality. Single profiles obtained may be
inaccurate, for they may represent or overemphasize a
temporary interplay between the drive factors. Therefore, a
larger number of profiles is needed for the achievement of a
more valid descrip- tion of the personality and for the
detection of the various areas of stability and comparative
fluidity.

If the interval between test administrations is less than a day,

it is found that such factors as memory and the need to be
consistent with previous choices may distort emergence of the
true drive-relationships at the time of administration. The
experience of Szondi workers justifies a minimum interval of
one day, after which the presumably vitiating influences are
no longer in operation. To be sure, before the successive
administrations of the test, the subject is to be instructed to
select and reject the pictures that he likes or dislikes at that
particular instant, without regard for his own previously
expressed opinions.

SZONDI'S TYPOLOGY

The first section in this chapter dealt with Szondi's more

general genetic and psychological theories. These theoretical
assumptions, as we have already, stated, are not essential to
the use of his test. His psychological typology, however, is
essential, since the test is based on it. Accordingly, a brief
exposition of the Vector-factor theory is in order.

The following four drive-vectors, each subdivided-into two

constituting factors, are identified by Szondi and allegedly
represent the entire scope of driving forces imbedded in the
human personality, "normal" or "abnormal:

I S-Vector the sexual drive

II P-Vector: the paroxysmal-surprise drive
III Sch-Vector: the self-drive
IV C-Vector: the contact drive

Each vector represents a certain personality area that appears

in an extremely exaggerated form in pathological conditions
corresponding to the two factors that constitute it. While the
vector is a designation of a more general drive, the factors

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that make it up are somewhat more specific drives or need-
systems. For the purposes of the test the purposes of the test:

THE NEED-SYSTEMS MAY BE ASSUMED WITHOUT REGARD FOR

THEIR GENESIS.

This assumption is the main hypothesis underlying the Szondi

method. Thus, the vectors and their corresponding factors are:

I. the S-Vector, made up of the homosexual (h) and sadistic (s)

factors;

II the P-Vector, made up of the epileptic (e) and hysterical (hy)

factors;

III the Sch-Vector, made up of the catatonic (k) and paranoid

(p) factors; and IV the C-Vector, made up of the depressiva (d)
and manic (m) factors.

The selection of pictures of the eight diagnostic groups

mentioned in the description of the materials is, therefore,
governed by this choice of factors. They represent the whole
gamut of the extreme manifestations of the factors and the
general drives or vectors these factors constitute.

The relationship between the vectors and, particularly,

between the factors within each vector, is a close one. In
interpretation and personality description based on the
Szondi, the interdependence of the various factors must be
stressed. However, at this point, an exposition of Szondi's
description of each discrete factor is warranted.

1. The (h) factor. Generally speaking, this factor is an

expression of the need for tenderness, femininity,
motherliness, and passivity. The object is usually a definite
person, family, religion, or other institutions. On a higher level,
it expresses itself in "collective tenderness," the object being
all of humanity. Ordinary occupational interests are in personal
services-barber, cosmetician, valet, hotel keeper, dancer, and
so on. On a higher level-gynecologist, sex pathologist, and so
on. The extremely pathological disorders manifested in this
factor may be placed under the general heading of
Hermaphroditism. Spying, prostitution, and fraudulent
dealings are among the criminal forms of expression this drive
may take.

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2. The (s) factor. This factor expresses the need for
masculinity, aggression, sadism, activity, and virility. It is the
masculine drive, the need to be a man, a father, and the
dominant (leading) partner. On a higher level of extreme
sublimation, the need expresses itself in chivalry, ability of self
sacrifice for the common good, and "drive for civilization."
Usual occupational interests of individuals with such a drive
are farming, animal taming, butchering, prize fighting, and so
on. On a higher, more sublimated level, occupations such as
surgeon, dentist, anatomist, and operating room nurse, may
be expected. Pathologically, this drive may appear in the
various forms of sadism, sodomy, pederasty, and the like.
Murder (often with a sexual conation. lb) is the common form
of criminality.

3. The (e) factor. Here, the damming up of "raw" affect is

indicated. There is a need to suppress such emotions as rage,
hate, revenge, and anger. A "surprise" reaction via explosive
discharge, intolerance of others, may be expected. On a
higher level, "collective" righteousness, charity, piousness,
and tolerance, may be the expression. Occupational interests
are in jobs as foreman, baker, sailor, flyer, and stoker. On a
higher level are priest, Monk, missionary, nurse, and others.

Various forms of epilepsy, migraine, stuttering, asthma, and

enuresis are among the pathological expressions. Also found
are forms of criminality: klepto-pyromania and impulsive
murder.

4. The (hy) factor. The major drive of this factor is the need for
exhibitionism-to be "on the stage." Szondi calls this factor "the
class of latent exhibitionism." The socially positive form of
expression of this factor is seen in modesty. However,
basically, the need is for showing off and for suddenness
(surprise) in behavior. Higher-level expressions of this need
are found in acting and in politics. As may be inferred from the
abbreviation of the name of this factor- the pathological
manifestations are revealed in hysteria, tics and phobias.

5. The (k) factor. "Ego systole" is the descriptive phrase used

by Szondi in the exposition of the k-factor (catatonia being
spelled with a k in German). lt is the need for "self-
compression" or self-limitation. The native, basic form of the
need is "to seal oneself off hermetically from the world and to
spend the selfish life in the enclosure of the ego." However,
since submission to the extreme form of this drive is not
10
feasible, emergency outlets such as narcissism and
depersonalization are utilized. Pathologically, the need
becomes manifest through catatonic and a variety of other
schizoid reactions. At a high level of social adjustment, there
is a suppression of these extreme egoistic and narcissistic
trends and adaptation to collectivity takes place. Occupations
such as logician, philosopher, and mathematical physicist are
manifestations of such an adjustment.

6. The (p) factor. In contradistinction to the (k) factor, there is

the (p)factor, which represents the need for "self-extension,"
or what is termed "ego diastole". It is a need aroused from the
unsatisfied self-expansion desire for power: megalomania.
There is a constant need for self-realization, for recognition of
one's unknown capacities and, generally speaking, for
furthering the self.

The socially positive and sublimated form of this need is

through the furthering of humane needs, creativity,
renunciation of the self, and the like. Obviously, the extreme
pathological manifestations of this need are in the several
forms of paranoia and related conditions.

7. The (d) factor. Here, the basic need is that of seeking and
retaining objects. It is most closely related to what the
psychoanalysts term anal characteristics. A pressure for
rivalry is also related to this general drive. There is a seeking
of objects that may, in reality, have been lost, or that it is
feared might be lost. Related self-depreciation and feelings of
guilt are present. Depression and melancholia are the more
extreme pathological manifestations of this drive. lts
socialization at the higher positive level may occur in art or
literary criticism, supervision of a museum, and so forth.

8. The (m) factor. In this factor of the "Contact-Vector," the

need is for clinging to objects. It is an unquenchable need.
Even when the object is possessed there is uncertainty about
its possession. Thus the trait is that of the oral character, or as
Szondi terms it, "the eternal suckling." Oral needs, therefore,
are characteristic of this drive. Manic and hypomanic
reactions, alcoholism, nymphomania, and satyriasis are some
of the extreme pathological expressions of this need. A trend
toward speech disorders is in the same category.

The socially positive expression of the drive appears through

separation from objects in favor of the "collectivity." Politics
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and the art of speech are among the occupational areas into
which this drive may be channeled.

It may readily be noted that each of the pair of factors in

every vector is related to the other; in a sense, one factor of a
pair is the reciprocal of the other in that pair. Thus, the S-
vector contains tenderness vs. aggression, the P-vector,
emotional control vs. emotional expressiveness, the Sch-
vector, ego systole vs. ego diastole, and the C-vector, anal
trends vs. oral characteristics.

INTERPRETATION OF THE SZONDI PROFILES

The foregoing discussion of Szondi's vectors, factors, and

scoring categories readily indicates the complexity involved in
the interpretation of the test. Its administration is relatively
simple, but the interpretation, in which the interdependence
or dynamic relationship between the several factors must be
taken into account, is a highly complicated and difficult task.

In the single test profile, the amount of loading in each factor

is determined, the positive and negative, as well as the
ambivalent aspects of the loadings are noted, and the
estimation of the effects of the factors upon each other yields
the qualitative personality characterization. It is in the nature
of a description of the intra- and inter-factor "balance of
power," each factor representing a need-system, as noted
above.

The several administrations of the test project it, so to speak,

into a temporal continuum. As a result, we obtain not only a
cross-section of a constellation of need-systems within the
individual, but also a longitudinal view of the changes in the
constellation. Extreme changes from loaded to open vectors,
from highly positive to negative vectors, are some of the
important indicators of psychopathology that could not have
been obtained from a single test administration. Moreover, the
areas (factors) of change from one profile to the other, even in
the "normal" individual, are important cues to the more
significant need-systems in the dynamics of a personality.

It is far beyond the scope of the present exposition to give a

detailed description of the methods of interpretation by
means of the Szondi test. Information of this kind,
accompanied by illustrative case material, has been presented
by Deri.
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THE SZONDI TEST AS A PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUE

In general, the Szondi fulfills two of the major requirements for

a projective technique. In the first place, it purports to reveal
the private world of the individual selecting the pictures. It
attempts to lay bare the dynamics of his basic needs and
drives. Secondly, the subject is not conscious of the fact that
he is doing just that. He is not aware of the interpretations
that may be placed on his test performance.

Szondi's particular typology and theoretical orientation result

in personality descriptions that do not clearly overlap
interpretations obtained by other projective methods. To be
sure, some overlapping is inevitable, since they all deal with
personality. However, whereas the Rorschach is primarily
concerned with a cross-section of personality structure and.
the TAT with specific need-press relationships, (=transactional
processes lb), the Szondi deals with more general drives as
related to personality tensions, subjectively felt or objectively
"acted out".

The ease of administration and the lack of need for verbal

response on the part of the subject recommend the
application of this technique to a wide variety of normal and
pathological conditions. Whereas other projective methods
yield very little in the case of the constricted, rigid, and
linguistically handicapped person, Szondi data may be
obtained with comparative ease.

The first question concerning any new method or technique of

personality diagnosis that may be raised by the critical
student is that of validity. Are the personality descriptions and
dynamics that result from the test's application truly
distinguishing and consistent with the behavior manifestations
of the person tested? Unfortunately, the available published
material on the Szondi test does not permit an answer to this
question. There are, to be sure, published testimonies of the
efficacy of the test in personality diagnosis, but they are, for
the most part, descriptive and illustrative, rather than
validating studies that would meet the rigorous criteria of
scientific method.

Another question that may be raised by the critical reader is:

Are the four vectors and their eight. factors well chosen and
sufficient to account for the major aspects of personality
dynamics?
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A third question is related to the theoretical assumptions
underlying the test material itself. The assumption is that the
subject's reaction to the physiognomies of patients
reproduced in photographs taps the deeper layers of
personality dynamics. How well is this substantiated?

These and many other questions that are closely, interrelated

will have to be answered by future investigators before the
test can become fully acceptable to the critical and scientific
clinician.

The clinical use of such a popular projective technique as the

Rorschach preceded critical studies and investigations of 'its
assumptions and theoretical foundations. The Szondi test is
beginning its career in both directions simultaneously. There
are many enthusiastic "Szondi clinicians," but at the same
time, there is evidence of an experimental approach to the
test as well.

A report by Rabin indicated that the pictures are not

meaningless stimuli. He found that students and psychologists
identified more pictures correctly as to diagnosis than can be
attributed to chance. Moreover, he has shown that the factor
of training in the ability to identify the pictures is important ].
The related conclusion is that the pictures have differentiated
meaning, and that their being liked or disliked is not a
haphazard event. However, it has also been shown that the
potency of the picture stimuli in any one diagnostic category
varies considerably. Thus, the diagnosis per se is not the only
factor responsible for selection or rejection of the pictures.
There are apparently additional factors, not accounted for by
Szondi theory, related to the popularity continuum.
Experimentation with the test on electric-shock-treated
depressed and schizophrenic patients appears to be another
promising avenue of research.

SUMMARY

In conclusion, it may be stated that the Szondi test is an

empirical procedure at best. Thus far there are no crucial
experiments that would validate the test, its personality
analyses, or its predictive capacity. The present "evidence" is
of the nature of private empirical proof . The validation is
clinical validation by those who employ the method. Future
research will indicate the capacity of the test to stand up

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under the careful scrutiny of experimentation by the research-
minded clinical psychologist.

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