Process STD 104

PROCESS STD 104
FOSTER WHEELER VESSELS PAGE Contents-1

REACTORS REV 12
DATE SEP 2003
REVISION ORIGINAL REV 10 REV 11 REV 12 REV 13 REV 14

DATE JUN 83 JUL 02 FEB 03 SEP 03
ORIGINATOR PS HECD HECD
CHECKED VC IRG
APPROVED MH IRG
FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

PROCESS STD 104
REACTORS REV 12
DATE SEP 2003
CONTENTS PAGE
1.0 GENERAL 1.0-1
2.0 REACTORS IN PETROLEUM REFINING PROCESSES 2.0-1
2.1 Fixed Bed Reactors 2.0-1

2.2 Fluidized Bed Reactors 2.0-1
2.3 Moving Bed Reactors 2.0-1
3.0 REACTOR SPECIFICATION 3.0-1
3.1 Fixed Bed, Down Flow Reactor 3.0-1

3.1.1 Reactor Sizing 3.0-1
3.1.2 Pressure Drop 3.0-2
R12 3.1.2.1 Single-Phase Fluid Flow 3.0-2
3.1.2.2 Two-Phase Fluid Flow 3.0-5
3.1.2.3 Process Considerations 3.0-12
R12 3.1.3 Catalysts 3.0-14
3.1.4 Reactor Internals 3.0-14
R11 3.1.4.1 Inlet Distributors 3.0-14
3.1.4.2 Liquid Distributor Trays 3.0-15
3.1.4.3 Distributor Baskets 3.0-15
3.1.4.4 Catalyst Hold-Down and Bed Support 3.0-16
Materials
3.1.4.5 Catalyst Support Grids 3.0-17
3.1.4.6 Quench Distributors 3.0-19
3.1.4.7 Outlet Collectors 3.0-20
3.1.5 Sample Problems 3.0-20
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE TITLE
1 Constants for the Ergun Correlation

Based on Packing 3.0-5
2. Typical Pressure Drops for Fixed Bed, 3.0-13

Down flow Reactors in the Petroleum
Refining Industry

PROCESS STD 104
REACTORS REV 12
DATE SEP 2003
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE TITLE PAGE
1. Typical Fixed Bed, Down Flow, Vertical Cylindrical

Reactor Used in Naphtha Hydrodesulfurization 3.0-33
2. Void Fraction Data for Packed Beds 3.0-34
3. Inlet Distributor for Vapor Feed 3.0-35
4. Inlet Distributor for Two-Phase Fluid Feed 3.0-36
5. Liquid Distributor Tray 3.0-37
6. Typical Chimney for Liquid Distributor Tray 3.0-38
7. Johnson’s Distributor Basket, Straight Type 3.0-39
8. Johnson’s Distributor Basket, Mushroom Type 3.0-40
9. Johnson’s Typical Distributor Arrangement, Mushroom

Type Baskets 3.0-41
10. Johnson’s Support Grid, Flange Type 3.0-42
11. Johnson’s Support Grid, Recessed Type 3.0-43
12. Quench Distributor, Ladder Type 3.0-44
13. Quench Distributor, Ring Type 3.0-45
14. Johnson’s Outlet Collectors 3.0-46
15. Johnson’s Open Area Chart 3.0-47
REFERENCES 3.0-48

PROCESS STD 104
FOSTER WHEELER VESSELS PAGE 1.0-1
REACTORS REV 12
DATE SEP 2003
1.0 GENERAL
Chemical reactors can be classified by the following criteria:
Continuity of Operation
1. Batch Reactors
2. Semi-continuous Reactors
3. Continuous Reactors
Mixing
1. Agitated Reactors
Vertical Mixers
Horizontal Mixers
Rotating Drums
2. Non-Agitated Reactors
Operating Conditions
1. Low Pressure Reactors (up to 100 psig)
2. Medium Pressure Reactors (100 to 700 psig)
3. High Pressure Reactors (over 700 psig)
Reaction Type
1. Homogeneous Reactions
2. Heterogeneous Reactions
Fluid-fluid
Non-Catalyzed Fluid-Solid Reactions
Catalyzed Fluid-Solid Reactions

PROCESS STD 104
REACTORS REV 12
DATE SEP 2003
2.0 REACTORS IN PETROLEUM REFINING PROCESSES
Petroleum refining processes generally use continuous, high temperature reactors

for heterogeneous, catalyzed, fluid-solid reactions at various pressures. Three
major types of reactors are now in service:
2.1 Fixed Bed Reactors
1. Down Flow (Axial)
2. Up Flow (Axial)
3. Radial Flow
4. Transverse Flow
5. Axial-Radial Flow
These reactors are employed in catalytic desulfurization, platinum catalyst

reforming, and ammonia and methanol synthesis plants.
2.2 Fluidized Bed Reactors
These are used in fluid catalytic cracking, fluid Hydroforming and fluid
coking processes.
2.3 Moving Bed Reactors
These are used in Thermofor and Houdriflow catalytic cracking processes.

PROCESS STD 104
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DATE SEP 2003
3.0 REACTOR SPECIFICATION
3.1 Fixed Bed, Down Flow Reactor
3.1.1 Reactor Sizing
A typical vertical, cylindrical reactor used in naphtha

hydrodesulfurization is shown in Figure 1.
1. The Catalyst Volume is a function of liquid hourly space

velocity (LHSV):
Q
V! (1)
LHSV
where:
V = Catalyst Volume, (cu. ft.)
Q = Cold liquid feed flow at 60F, (cu. ft.)/(hr.)
LHSV = Cold liquid volume of fresh feed (at 60F) per

hour per unit volume of catalyst feed.
(cu.ft.)
Feed /(cu. ft.). Catalyst
(hr.)
The LHSV is specified by the process licensor or catalyst

vendor based on the feed properties and the chosen
catalyst.
2. The Catalyst Bed Size is determined by iterative

calculation.
As an initial step pick an L/D ratio of 1.33-2:1 and

calculate the height and diameter of the bed. A maximum
diameter of twelve (12) feet is recommended (15 ft.
clearance including projections is the maximum for
shipment by rail of shop fabricated vessels). In general
the bed height should be limited to a maximum of 25 feet
to avoid crushing the catalyst.

PROCESS STD 104
REACTORS REV 12
DATE SEP 2003
3.1.1 Reactor Sizing (Cont’d)
Often, the process licensor or the catalyst supplier specifies the

maximum bed height.
There are higher beds in use (up to 45 ft.) but in general a bed
higher than 25 ft. should be selected only after consulting the
process licensor or the catalyst vendor.
In certain processes such as heavy gas oil hydrocracking or

residue desulfurization, the temperature rise through each bed
establishes the need for dividing the total catalyst volume into a
series of separate beds with a quench between the beds.
In other processes, such as catalytic reforming, the temperature

drop requires the division of the total volume into three or four
reactors in series, with fired heaters between the reactors.
The chosen bed height has to meet the pressure drop

requirements of the respective process.
A number of parallel reactors/trains may be employed when the

pressure drop is too high for one reactor/train.
3.1.2 Pressure Drop
3.1.2.1 Single-Phase Fluid Flow
Calculate the frictional pressure drop for a single phase

fluid flow through the catalyst bed using Chart FW 5-113-
B.
The modified Ergun correlation (1) (2), can be used as an

alternative calculation method:
1 µ2
R12 "Pi ! ( $ 1) 3 (A # BRe ")Re " (2)
! g c Dp 3
where:
%P’i = Frictional pressure drop of the individual phase

(gas or liquid) per foot of bed, (lb. force)/(sq.
ft.) (ft.)

PROCESS STD 104
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DATE SEP 2003
3.1.2.1 Single-Phase Fluid Flow (Cont’d)&
' = Void fraction in the catalyst bed (void volume

per unit volume of bed) dimensionless.
( = Viscosity of the fluid, (lb. mass)/(ft.) (sec.)
(1 CP = 0.000672 (lb. mass)/(ft.) (sec.)
gc = Gravitational constant, 32.17 (lb. mass)(ft.)/(lb.

force)(sec. 2)
) = Density of the fluid, (lb. mass) (cu. ft.)
DP = Characteristic diameter of the catalyst particle,

(ft.)
Re’• •= Modified Reynolds Number
A or B = Constant (see Table 1)
The void fraction data for the catalyst bed should be

obtained from the process licensor or the catalyst vendor.
When the data is not available, a value of 0.33 may be
used. This value is an average void fraction for catalyst
particles having a length to diameter ratio of 1.0. For
spheres and cylinders, except those with extremely rough
surfaces, the following equation is recommended:
Ds
! 0.3375 # 0.430 (3)
DR
where:
DS = Equivalent catalyst diameter, (ft.)
DR = Reactor diameter, (ft.)
The equivalent catalyst diameter is defined as the

diameter of a sphere having the same volume as the
catalyst particle. For a cylindrical pellet:
3D 2H 1/3
Ds ! ( ) (4)
2

PROCESS STD 104
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DATE SEP 2003
3.1.2.1 Single-Phase Fluid Flow (Cont’d)
Data for the void fraction for different materials are

presented in FW 5-113-B and Figure 2.
The characteristic diameter is defined as:
6
Dp ! (5)
Sv
where:
SV = Specific surface, (sq. ft.)/(cu. ft.)
For a uniform shaped catalyst the specific surface is

defined as the surface area per unit volume of catalyst
particle.
For a non-uniform shaped catalyst the specific surface

becomes:
S
Sv ! (6)
(1 $ ' )
where:
S = Surface area of the catalyst per unit volume of

packed bed, (sq. ft.)/(cu. ft.)
The modified Reynolds number is defined as:
DpG
Re" ! (7)
µ(1 $ )
where: G = Mass velocity based on empty reactor

cross section, (lb. mass)/(sec.) (sq. ft.)Larkins et al. (2)
report that the constants in the Ergun correlation,
equation (2), are dependent on the packing particle shape
and size:

PROCESS STD 104
REACTORS REV 12
DATE SEP 2003
3.1.2.1 Single-Phase Fluid Flow (Cont’d)&
Table 1
Constants for the Ergun Correlation
Based on Packing
Packing A B
1/8 in. x 1/8 in. cylinders 150 1.75
3/8 in. spheres 118.2 1
3/8 in. Raschig rings 266 2.33
The frictional pressure drop is independent of column

orientation so long as true concurrent flow is maintained.
The total pressure drop includes the frictional pressure

drop plus allowance for kinetic energy and static head. A
rigorous calculation of the total pressure drop is based
on an overall energy balance over the catalyst bed.
However, in most gas-phase applications these
allowances may be neglected.
3.1.2.2 Two-Phase Fluid Flow
1. Larkins et al. Correlation (2)
A. Calculate the frictional pressure drop for a two-

phase fluid flowing through a packed bed as
follows:
0.416
log10*!P"LG/(!P"L # !P"G)+ ! (8)
(log10 !P"L/!P"G) 2 # 0.666

PROCESS STD 104
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DATE SEP 2003
3.1.2.2 Two-Phase Fluid Flow (Cont’d)
where:
%P’LG = Frictional pressure drop per foot

of bed for two-phase concurrent
flow through the catalyst bed (lb,
force)/(sq. ft.) (ft.)
%P’G or P’L= Frictional pressure drop per foot

of bed calculated from single-
phase correlations for the gas or
liquid flowing alone in the bed at
the same temperature and
pressure as the two-phase flow
in (lb. force)/(sq. ft.) (ft.)
B. The total pressure drop for a two-phase

concurrent downward flow through the catalyst
bed is defined by neglecting the kinetic energy
contribution:
$ (P2 $ P1) g
! %P"LG $ )m (9)
L gc
where:
P1 = Upstream pressure, (lb.

force)/(sq. ft.)
P2 = Downstream pressure, (lb.

force)/(sq. ft.)
L = Height of the catalyst bed, ft.
)m = Density of the two-phase fluid

at the average pressure in the
bed (lb. mass)/(cu. ft.)
gc = Gravitational acceleration,
2
32.17 (ft.)/(sec. ).
The two-phase fluid density is given by:
)m = )LRL+)GRG = )LRL+)G(1-RL)
(10)
PROCESS STD 104
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DATE SEP 2003
where:
RG or RL = Gas or liquid saturation,

fraction of voids filled with gas
or liquid, dimensionless.
The liquid saturation is calculated from the

equation: (11)
2
1 %P"L ., 1 " .
Log10RL ! $0.774 # 0.525// log 10 $ 0 . 109 / log 10 %P L ,
0 %P"G ,- /
0 %P"G ,-
%P"L
0.05 2 2 30
%P"G
If the gas/liquid ratio changes between bed

inlet and outlet, the total pressure drops for
these two extreme conditions are calculated
and their arithmetic average is used.
2. A more recent correlation for two-phase concurrent

downward flow was presented by Turpin and
Huntington (3):
A. Calculate two-phase friction factor:
ln(fTPf) = 8.37 - 1.372(ln Z) - 0.0315 (ln Z) 2 + 0.0123(ln Z) 3 (12)
(0.1 < Z < 600)
where: fTPf = Friction factor for two-phase

concurrent flow through the
catalyst bed, dimensionless
.09
(Re G )1.167 1 ( W .
Z! // ,,
(ReL )0.767 0 ( L -
DPG G
Re G !
(G
Reynolds number for gas phase:

PROCESS STD 104
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DATE SEP 2003
D p GL
ReL !
(L
Reynolds number for liquid phase:
Dp = Characteristic diameter
of the catalyst particle as
defined in equation (5),
(ft.)
GG or GL = Mass velocity of the gas

or liquid, based on
empty reactor cross
section, (lb.
mass)/(sec.)(sq. ft.)
(G or (L or (W = Viscosity of the gas,

liquid or water (lb.
mass)/(ft.)(sec.))
(1Cp = 0.000672 (lb./mass)/(ft.)(sec.))
B. Calculate two-phase frictional pressure drop:
2"G1V 2 GS fTPfL
!PTPf ! (13)
gc D e
where:
%PTPf = Frictional pressure drop for

two-phase concurrent flow
through the catalyst bed, (lb.
force)/(sq. ft.)
)G1 = Density of the upstream gas-

phase (lb. mass)/(cu. ft.)
VGS = Superficial gas-phase velocity,

based on empty reactor cross
section and the entering
density G1, (ft.)/(sec.)

PROCESS STD 104
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DATE SEP 2003
L = Height of the catalyst bed, (ft.)
gc = Gravitational constant, 32.17

(lb. mass)(ft.)/(lb. force)(sec2)
De = Hydraulic diameter, (ft.)
The Hydraulic diameter is defined as four

times the hydraulic radius for the packed bed:
1 VP .
De ! 4 / ,, (14)
1 $ /0 SP -
where:
VP = Volume of catalyst particle,

(cu. ft.)
SP = Surface area of catalyst

particle (sq. ft.)
kR G )GL2 g
!Ps ! $(" GR GL # " L R L L # ) (15)
2P gc
where:
%PS = Static pressure drop for two-

phase concurrent downward
flow through the catalyst bed,
(lb. force)/(sq. ft.)
)G or )L = Density of gas or liquid

phase, (lb. mass)/(cu. ft.)
RG or RL = Gas or liquid saturation,

fraction of voids filled with gas
or liquid, dimensionless.
k = Variation of pressure with bed

height

PROCESS STD 104
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DATE SEP 2003

!P
(lb. Force)/(Sq. ft.) (ft.)
!L
P = Average operating pressure,
(lb. force)/(sq. ft.)
gc = Acceleration due to gravity =
32.17 (lb. mass)(ft.)/(lb
force)(sec.)
The liquid saturation is calculated from
equation:
RL = -0.017 + 0.132 (GL/GG) 0.24 (16)
31.0 2 (GL/GG)0.24 2 6.0)

D. Calculate the pressure drop due to
acceleration:
WG W
Pa ! (VG2 $ VG1 ) # L (VL2 $ VL1 )
gc A gc A
(17)
Where:
%Pa = Acceleration pressure drop for

two-phase concurrent flow
through the catalyst bed, (lb,
force)/(sq. ft.)
WG or WL = Weight flow rate of gas or

liquid phase, (lb. mass)/(sec.)
A = Area of flow, (sq. ft.)
VG2 or VG1 = Actual gas velocity at

downstream or upsteam
datum point, (ft.)/(sec.)
VL2 or VL1 = Actual liquid velocity at

downstream or upstream
datum point, (ft.)/(sec.)

PROCESS STD 104
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The acceleration pressure drop usually is

negligible for reactor operating pressures less
than 50 psia and pressure drops less than 40
psi.
E. Calculate total pressure drop:
-(P2 - P1) = %PTPf +%Ps + %Pa (18)
where:
P1 = Upstream pressure,
(lb.force)/(sq. ft.)
P2 = Downstream pressure,
(lb.force)/(sq. ft.)
An iterative solution is necessary since the

average operating pressure is an unknown and
is dependent upon the calculated pressure
drop.
As an initial step, the acceleration pressure

drop and the third term in equation (15) can be
neglected and an approximate total pressure
drop is calculated. The approximate
downstream pressure determined from this
pressure drop is used to calculate an average
operating pressure and then a more accurate
total pressure drop.
This procedure is repeated until the average

pressure, as determined from the calculated
pressure drop, is sufficiently close to the
operating pressure used in the calculation.

PROCESS STD 104
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DATE SEP 2003
3.1.2.3 Process Considerations
1. Limitations of the pressure drop correlations.
The above correlations were established for non-

foaming systems, based on small scale laboratory
data, using small diameter columns (2 to 6 in.) and
mostly air-water systems.
Even for this data, the accuracy of the correlations

ranged between +20% and +50%. The observed
values of pressure drop in foaming systems are as
much as five times the values predicted by the non-
foaming correlations. The addition of a foam
breaker reduces the effect of foaming on friction
drop even through some emulsification may still
occur.
Experience has also shown that a given packing

material can be packed to give the same porosity
(void fraction) but yield friction pressure drops
varying by as much as 50%.
For a conservative design the computed pressure

drop should be increased by 50% because of these
inaccuracies.
2. Approximate pressure drop data for different

processes are presented in Table 2.
These data should be used as a guide only. The

pressure drop across the reactor for a certain
process depends on the specific properties of the
feed, type of catalyst, reactor internals, number of
beds and other factors.

PROCESS STD 104
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DATE SEP 2003
TABLE 2
TYPICAL PRESSURE DROPS FOR FIXED BED, DOWN FLOW REACTORS IN THE
PETROLEUM REFINING INDUSTRY
Recommended Range Design Pressure
Process for Calculated Clean Drop Range
Pressure Drop, PSI PSI
Hydrodesulfurization
Naphtha 8-15 8-30
Middle Distillates 10-25 30-60
Residue 50-60 70-90
Lube Oil 65 125
Hydrocracking
Chevron Oil: Four Bed Reactor 55-60 100
Isomax 85 150
Isocracker
Catalytic Reforming
Shell Oil: Four Spherical
Reactors in Series 4-7/Reactor 6-10/Reactor
Socony (Mobil)
Four Horizontal 4-6/Reactor 10/Reactor
Cylindrical Reactors in Series

PROCESS STD 104
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DATE SEP 2003
3.1.3 Catalysts
The catalysts used in the reactor depend on the specific process

and differ from vendor to vendor.
Catalysts are available in cylindrical pellet, sphere extrudate or

powdered form
In general the cylindrical pellets have a diameter of 1/8 to 1/16

inch and a length of 3/16 to 0.10 inch.
In general the diameter of the spherical catalysts is also 1/8 to

1/16 inch.
When small size catalyst is employed, a layer of 6 to 8 inches of

1/8 inch diameter, catalyst is placed on top and below the main
catalyst bed, to minimize catalyst losses.
3.1.4 Reactor Internals
Internals shown here are typical. For some applications,

especially licensor designs, the internals may vary considerably
from the designs shown here.
3.1.4.1 Inlet Distributors
The inlet distributors are used to get an initial distribution

of the feed over the catalyst bed.
Typical inlet distributors are shown in Figures 3 and 4.
For two phase fluid feed the conical deflector shown in

Figure 4 is recommended. The distributor slots are sized
in rectangular shape for a pressure drop across the
R12 distributor of 0.25 psi.
KQ 2"
!P ! or (19A)
2gc A 2
A = 2.08 X 10 -2 K0.5 Q )0.5 (K=1) (19B)

PROCESS STD 104
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DATE SEP 2003
3.1.4.1 Inlet Distributors (Cont’d)
where:
%P = Pressure drop across distributor, 36 (lb.

force)/(sq. ft.)
K = Number of velocity heads, dimensionless. In

general K = 1.0-2.77. Rev 11
) = Density of the fluid, (lb. mass)/(cu. ft.)
Q = Volumetric flow rate, (cu. ft.)/(sec.)
gc = Gravitational constant, 32.17 (lb. mass) (ft.)/(lb.

force) (sec. 2)
A = Total net open area of the slots, (sq. ft.)
An alternative sizing method for the distributor slots

requires that the total net open area of the slots be equal
to about 200% of the inlet nozzle cross section area.
3.1.4.2 Liquid Distributor Trays
The liquid distributor or chimney trays are used for a

further distribution of a two-phase fluid feed over the
catalyst bed.
In a multi-bed reactor they are used also for liquid

redistribution over each catalyst bed.
A typical liquid distributor tray is shown in Figures 5 and

6.
3.1.4.3 Distributor Baskets
The distributor baskets, also known as scale traps or

trash baskets, allow a complete service cycle of the
catalyst by increasing the bed inlet area. The baskets
are nested in the top of the catalyst bed and allow
process flow into the bed after the top surface of the bed
is plugged by pipe scale and other particulate
contaminates entering with the process flow.

PROCESS STD 104
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DATE SEP 2003
3.1.4.3 Distributor Baskets (Cont’d)
The baskets are made of stainless steel wire mesh

screens or Johnson’s “Profile Wire Screens” (5).
They are made in cylindrical or mushroom type

configurations. The mushroom design provides more
flow area below the bed surface than the cylindrical type.
Wood covers are provided for the baskets during loading

of the catalyst and the inert packing. The covers are
removed after loading.
The baskets are nested concentric circles, free standing

on top of the bed or suspended in place with a series of
chains and hardware. The suspension of the baskets in
place provides a major advantage during unloading of
the catalyst.
The size and number of baskets is chosen to provide a

total circumferential surface equal to approximately
200% of the reactor cross section.
The total basket inlet cross section areas is

approximately 35% of the reactor cross section.
Johnson’s distributor baskets and their layout in the

reactor is shown in Figures 7, 8, and 9.
3.1.4.4 Catalyst Hold-Down and Bed Support Materials
Inert refractory packing is placed on top of the catalyst to

prevent particle movement and consequent attrition.
When a liquid distributor tray is used above the catalyst
bed, a minimum of one (1) foot clearance s left between
the top of the inert packing and the tray. A minimum of
two (2) feet clearance should be left between the inlet
distributor and the inert packing for a vapor phase feed.
The same type of packing is used also in the bottom of

the reactor to support the catalyst bed.
Reactors equipped with mechanical support grids, upon

which screens are placed, should use about a six (6)

PROCESS STD 104
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3.1.4.4 Catalyst Hold-Down and Bed Support Materials (Cont’d)
inch layer of inert material placed on the screen prior to

charging of the catalyst.
When no mechanical grids are employed, the inert

packing is used to completely fill the dished or
hemispherical head of the vessel.
Different shapes of inert packing material, ranging from

aluminum oxide (with or without silica) spheres or rings
(6) to Intalox saddles, are used as catalyst supports.
Grading the sizes of the support material is required, in

general.
The size of the material closest to the catalyst should be

no more than twice the minimum dimension of the
catalyst.
The minimum dimension of the support placed on a

screen should be no less then one-half the opening on
the screen to avoid its plugging.
To satisfy both size requirements, several sizes of

support material may be necessary. Six to eight inch
layers of each size support, starting with the largest size
and then reducing or grading each size by half is
recommended.
3.1.4.5 Catalyst Support Grids
Mechanical support grids are used mainly in multi-bed

reactors to retain the catalyst and support each bed.
A distributor system is often employed under the grids to

introduce the process flow to the next bed.
In a one-bed reactor the support grid is substituted by

inert packing supporting material, in general, as shown in
Figure 1.
Johnson’s support grids are shown in Figures 10 and 11.

PROCESS STD 104
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DATE SEP 2003
3.1.4.5 Catalyst Support Grids (Cont’d)
The grid locations and installation configuration depend

on type of process, pressure drop considerations and
other criteria.
1. Design Configurations:
A Flange type grids consisting of welded

sections covered with wire screen, which
are bolted together inside the vessel.
Support beams are used to support the
grid.
B Recessed type grids are used when a

smooth screen surface is required for
catalyst removal.
2. Slot Opening
The slot opening is selected as 40% to 60% of

the minimum dimension of the media.
Johnson’s (5) support grids used the following

slot opening for the media listed:
Media Slot Opening
1/16” Spherical Catalyst 0.030”
1/16” x ¼” Extrudate Catalyst 0.030”
1/8” x ¼” Molecular Sieve 0.060”
Methods of Installation
A Bolted support grids are used if reverse

flow conditions are a part of the process.
B Free standing supports are provided for

processes, which are down, flow only.
Catalyst dump tubes for unloading the catalyst

from the bed are located in the support grids
adjacent to the manway.

PROCESS STD 104
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3.1.4.6 Quench Distributors
Quench distributors are used in multi-bed reactors when

the temperature rise over the catalyst bed requires a
quench between the beds.
The design of the quench distributors depends on the

quench fluid and the type of process. In general, the
quench distributors are similar to packed tower feed
distributors.
Ladder or ring type distributors are most commonly used.
Typical quench distributors are shown in Figures 12 and

13. The distributor orifices are sized as circular holes for
a pressure drop, across the distributor, of 0.25 psi.
Equation (19A) is employed in the hole sizing, using a

K=2.77 velocity head.
It becomes:
A’=5Q)0.5 (20)
where:
A’ = Total net open area of the holes, (sq. in.)
The diameter and spacing of the holes is determined

according to symmetry considerations for a complete
coverage of the reactor cross section by the fluid spray.
A minimum orifice diameter of 3/8 in. for vapors and • •

in. for two-phase fluid is recommended to avoid plugging
of the holes. A minimum distance of one hole diameter
is left between the holes.
Weep holes of 1/4 inch diameter are provided at the

bottom of each distributor extremity.

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3.1.4.7 Outlet Collectors
The outlet collectors are positioned over the bottom

outlet in the reactor to retain the inert packing and
provide ample open area for passage of the process
flow.
The collector diameter is about 15% to 40% of the

reactor diameter. The slots are covered with wire mesh
screen. The mesh opening is about half the diameter of
the smallest inert packing particles.
The net open area through the mesh and slots is about
200% of the outlet nozzle cross sectional area.
Johnson’s(5) outlet collectors are fabricated from “Profile

Wire Screens”, eliminating the need for the slots, as
shown in Figure 13.
3.1.5 Sample Problems
Gas Phase Reactor
Service Naphtha Reformer
Gas Flow 25,704 lb/hr
Gas Mol wt 25.1
Gas Viscosity 0.020 cp
Gas Density 0.761 lb/cu. ft.
Temperature 990F
Pressure 435 PSIA
Bed Diameter 2'6"
Bed Length 9'0"
Catalyst Diameter 1/16 inch
Catalyst Length 1/16 inch

PROCESS STD 104
REACTORS REV 12
DATE SEP 2003
3.1.5 Sample Problems (Cont’d)
A. Calculate the void fraction
1/3
9 1 2 1 6
7 3x( (16x12) ) x( (16x12) ) 4
Ds ! 7 4
7 2 4
78 45
DS = 0.0060 ft.
' = 0.3375 + 0.430 (0.0060/2.5)
' = 0.3385
Use ' = 0.34
B. Calculate the Characteristic Diameter
2( :D 2 )
:DL #
4 4 2
Sv ! 2
! #
:D L D L
4
SV = 1152 sq. ft./cu. ft.
DP = 6/1152
= 0.0052
C. Calculate Reynolds Number
G = 25704/3600 x 4.91 = 1.455 lb/sec. sq. ft.
0.0052x1.4 55
Re" ! ! 854.1
.020x0.000 672x(1 $ 0.34)
3
1 1 . (0.020x0.000672) 2
!P ! / $1 , (150 # 1.75x854.1 )854.1
0 0.34 - 32.17x0.76 1x(0.0052) 3
= 536.5 lb. force/(sq. ft.) (ft.) = 3.73 PSI/ft

PROCESS STD 104
REACTORS REV 12
DATE SEP 2003

Total Pressure Drop
L = 9 ft.
%P = 3.73 x 9
= 33.6 PSI
Two Phase Reactor
Process Data:
Service Heavy Diesel
Hydrodesulfurisation
Gas Flow 4,435.78 lb. Moles/hr
Gas Mol. Wt. 35.90 lb/lb mole
Gas Viscosity 0.019 cps
Gas Density 1.967 lb./cu. ft.
Liquid Fresh Feed to the Unit 22,000 BPSD=5,147.1

cu. ft./hr.
Liquid Flow to Reactor 162,705 lb./hr.
Liquid Mol. Wt. 259.90 lb./lb. Mole
Liquid Viscosity 0.159 cps
Liquid Density 52.87 lb./cu. ft.
Liquid oAPI 29.8oAPI

Temperature 750oF
Pressure 710 psia
Catalyst Diameter 1/16 in.
Catalyst Length 0.15 in.
LHSV 2.0 (cu. ft. cold

feed/hr.)/cu. ft.
catalyst)

PROCESS STD 104
REACTORS REV 12
DATE SEP 2003
Calculation:
1. Catalyst Volume
5,147.1
V! ! 2,574cu.ft .catalyst
2
2. Catalyst Bed Size
Assume an L/D of 2:1
DB = 12 ft.
Bed Cross Section: 113.1 ft2
LB = 22.76 ft.
Use DB = 12 ft., LB = 23 ft.
Catalyst Volume: 2601 cu. ft.
3. Pressure drop calculation using Larkins et al. method.
A. Calculate the void fraction

1/3
9 1 2 0.15 6
7 3x(16x12 ) x 12 4
Ds ! 7 4
7 2 4
78 45
DS = 0.008 ft.
' = 0.3375 + 0.430 (0.008/12)
' = 0.3378
Use ' = 0.34

PROCESS STD 104
REACTORS REV 12
DATE SEP 2003

B. Calculate the characteristic diameter of pellett
2:D 2
:DL #
SV ! 4 ! 4#2
2
:D D L
L
4
sq.ft.
S V ! 928
cu.ft
6
Dp ! ! 0.0065 ft.
928
C. Calculate Reynolds numbers
4,435.78 x35.90 lb.mass

G! ! 0.391 .
3,600 x113.1 (sec)(sq.ft )
162,705 lb.mass
GL ! ! 0.400 .
3,600 x113.1 (sec)(sq.ft )
0.0065 x0.391
Re " ! ! 301.60
0.019 x0.000672 x(1 $ 0.34 )
0.0065 x0.400
Re" L ! ! 36.87
0.159 x0.000672 x(1 $ 0.34 )
D. Calculate the single-phase frictional pressure

drops
3
1 1 . (0.019 x0.000672 ) 2
%PG" ! / $ 1, (150 # 1.75 x301.6)301.6
0 0.34 - 32.17 x1.967 x(0.0065 ) 3
lb.force
%PG" ! 14.028
(sq.ft.)( ft.)
3
1 1 . (0.159 x0.000672 ) 2
%PL" ! / $ 1, (150 # 1.75 x36.87)36.87
0 0.34 - 32.17 x52.87 x(0.0065 ) 3
lb.force
%PL" ! 1.414
(sq.ft.)( ft )

PROCESS STD 104
REACTORS REV 12
DATE SEP 2003
E. Calculate the two-phase frictional pressure drop
0.416
log10 *%PLG
" (1.414 # 14.028 )+ !
2
1 .
/ log10 1.414 , # 0.666
/ 14.028 ,-
0
lb.force psi
" ! 44.026
%PLG ! 0.306
(sq.ft.)( ft.) ft
F. Calculate the two-phase total pressure drop
1.414
0.05 2 ! 0.317 2 30 O.K.
14.028
2
1 1.414 ., 1 .
log10 R L ! $0.774 # 0.525// log10 $ 0 .019 / log10 1.414 ,
0 14.028 ,- /
0 14.028 ,-
log10 RL = -1.0626
RL = 0.0866
RG1 = 1-RL = 0.9134
)m = 52.87 x 0.0866 + 1.967 x 0.9134 = 6.375 lb./cu. ft.
(P2 $ P1 ) lb.force psi

$ ! 44.026 $ 6.375 ! 37.65 ! 0.261
L (sq.ft.)( ft.) ft
G. Calculate the total pressure drop across the catalyst

bed
L= 23 ft.
%P = P1- P2 = 0.261 x 23 = 6.01 psi
4. Pressure drop calculation using Turpin and Huntington

method
A. Calculate two-phase traction factor

PROCESS STD 104
REACTORS REV 12
DATE SEP 2003
0.0065 x0.391
Re GL ! ! 199.05
0.019 x0.000672
0.0065 x0.400
ReL ! ! 24.33
0.159 x0.000672
0 .9
(199.05)1.167 1 1 .
0.2 2 Z ! / , ! 218.00 2 600 O.K.
(24.33)0.767 0 0.159 -
ln (fTPf) = 8.37-1.372 (ln 218)-0.0315(ln 218)2 + 0.0123(ln 218)3
ln fTPf = 1.99
fTPf = 7.31
B. Calculate two-phase frictional pressure drop
4,435.78x3 5.90 ft
VES ! ! 0.199
1.967x3,60 0x113.1 sec
SP sq.ft
SV ! ! 928
VP cu.ft
0.34 1
De ! 4 x ! 0.0022ft
1 $ 0.34 928
2x1.967x(0.199) 2
!PTPf ! x7.31x23
32.17x0.00 22
lb.force
!PTPf ! 370.27
sq.ft.
= 2.6 PSI
C. Calculate the static pressure drop
0.400x0.24
1.0 2 ! 1.005 2 6.0 O.K.
0.391

PROCESS STD 104
REACTORS REV 12
DATE SEP 2003
0.24
1 0.400 .
R L ! $0.017 # 0.132/ , ! 0.116
0 0.391 -
RG = 1 - 0.116 = 0.884
Neglect the third term in equation (15):
lb.force
PS ! $(1.967x0.8 84x23 # 52.87x0.11 6x23) ! $181.05
sq.ft.
Recalculate equation (15) assuming:
-(P2 - P1) = 190 lb. force sq. ft.
lb.force
P ! 710x144 $ 95 ! 102,145
sq.ft
190 lb.force
k! ! 8.26
23 (sq.ft.)( ft )
8.26x0.884 x1.967x(23) 2 lb.force

PS ! $181.05 # ! $181.09
2x102,145 (sq.ft.)(ft.)
D. Calculate the pressure drop due to acceleration.
The total pressure drop in this sample problem is

about 5 psi, so the pressure drop due to
acceleration is negligible.
The following calculation illustrates equation (17).
Assuming no change in gas/liquid weight ratio

across the catalyst bed:
:x(12) 2
A ! 0.34x ! 38.45sq.ft
4

PROCESS STD 104
REACTORS REV 12
DATE SEP 2003
102,050 lb.
G 2 ! 1.967 ! 1.963
102,240 cu.ft.
4,435.78x3 5.90 lb.

WG ! ! 44.23
3,600 sec.
44.23 ft.
VG2 ! ! 0.6629
1.963x38.4 5x0.884 sec.
44.23 ft.
VG1 ! ! 0.6616
1.967x38.45x0.884 sec.
162,705 lb.
WL ! ! 45.20
3,600 sec.
45.20 ft.
VL2 ! VL1 ! ! 0.1917
52.87x38.4 5x0.116 sec.
44.23 45.20
!Pa ! (0.6629 $ 0.6616) # (0.1917 $ 0.1917)
32.17x38.45 32.17x38.45
lb.force
!Pa ! 4.65x10 $ 5
sq.ft.
E. Calculate the total pressure drop
lb.force
$ (P2 $ P1 ) ! 370.27 $ 181.09 $ 189.18 ! 1.31ps i
sq.ft
The total pressure drop is very close to the value
assumed in the static pressure drop calculation so
no recalculation is necessary.
5. Analysis of the pressure drop results
Comparing the total pressure drops obtained in the two

methods:
Larkins et al. %P = 6.01 psi
Turpin and Huntington %P = 1.31 psi

PROCESS STD 104
REACTORS REV 12
DATE SEP 2003
It appears that the Larkins et al. method is much more

conservative in the above sample problem.
Considering that a calculated, clean pressure drop of

up to 25 psi can be employed in a heavy diesel
hydrodesulfurizer the calculation should be repeated
for a smaller diameter bed.
The final bed height has to be checked with the

process licensor or the catalyst supplier.
6. Inlet distributor sizing
lb.
WG ! 44.23
sec.
lb.
WL ! 45.20
sec.
44.23 45.20 cu.ft.

Q! # ! 23.34
1.967 52.87 sec.
44.23 # 45.20 lb.

"! ! 3.83
23.34 cu.ft.
For K = 1:
A = 2.08 x 10-2 x 23.34 x (3.83)0.5 = 0.95 sq. ft. = 137 sq. in.
For K = 2.77:
A = 0.95 x (2.77)0.5 = 1.58 sq. ft. = 228 sq. in.
Inlet nozzle diameter is chosen 12 in., so its cross

section is 113 sq. in.
Use 15 slots, 2 in. wide x 8 in. high, A = 240 sq. in.
240
x100 ! 212 % O.K.
113
Slot Velocity

PROCESS STD 104
REACTORS REV 12
DATE SEP 2003
V = 23.34 ft3/sec//(240 in2/144 in2/ft2)
V = 14.0 ft/sec
7. Liquid distributor tray sizing
Select: 4 in. chimneys, vapor velocity = 7.0 ft./sec/
3/4 in. holes, liquid velocity = 2.5 ft./sec.
Vapor flow:
WG = 44.23 lb/sec.
44.23 cu.ft.
QG1 ! ! 22.49
1.967 sec.
2
#1 4 .
A Chimney ! / , ! 0.087sq.ft .
4 0 12 -
22.49
Number of chimneys = ! 36.93
0.087x7.0
Use a safety factor of 35%: 50 chimneys
Liquid flow:
lb.
WL ! 45.20
sec .
45.20 cu.ft.
QL ! ! 0.855
52.87 sec.
0.855
Number.of. holes ! ! 111.5
0.00307x2.5
Use a safety factor of 35%: 150 holes
8. Distributor baskets sizing
Assuming bed diameter 10 ft., the reactor cross section

is 78.54 ft.

PROCESS STD 104
REACTORS REV 12
DATE SEP 2003
Use 35 cylindrical baskets, 1 ft. diameter x 1.5 ft.

height.
Baskets total circumferential surface:
35 x : x 1 x 1.5 = 165 ft2 165/78.54 = 2.1 O.K.
Baskets total inlet cross section:
35 x : x 1/4 = 27.5 ft2 78.54 x 0.35 = 27.5 ft2 O.K.
Johnson••s mushroom type baskets can be chosen as

an alternative, see Figures 7 and 8.
9. Outlet collector sizing
The outlet nozzle diameter is chosen 12 in.
Use Doutlet = 0.2D reactor = 0.2 x 10 = 2.0 ft. Collector
15 slots, 8 in long x 2 in wide each, as for the inlet

distributor
Houtlet = 12 in. Minimum collector
Wire mesh opening: 1/4 x 0.5 = 0.125 in.
6 mesh screens : 0.132 in. nominal aperture
A Johnson••s outlet collector with screened top can be

used as an alternative, see Figure 13:
Doutlet = 0.15 x 10 = 1.5 ft.
Slot opening = 0.120 in.
Open area for No. 130 wire: 47%
:
Top.Open.A rea ! (1.5) 2 x0.47 ! 0.83sq.ft.
4
Side.Open. Area ! 2x0.83 ! 1.66sq.f t.
Total open area: 2.49 sq. ft. = 358 sq. in.

PROCESS STD 104
REACTORS REV 12
DATE SEP 2003
358
x100 ! 317%outlet .nozzle.cross.section.
113
1.66
L oulet ! ! 0.75ft. ! 9in.
collector :x1.5x0.47

PROCESS STD 104
REACTORS REV 12
DATE SEP 2003

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REACTORS REV 12
DATE SEP 2003
REFERENCES
1• • “Fluid Flow Through Packed Columns,” S. Ergun, Chemical Engineering Progress,

48 (2), pages 89-94, February 1952.
2. “Two-Phase Concurrent Flow in Packed Beds,” R. P. Larkins, R. R. White and D. W.

Jeffrey, AIChE Journal 7 (2), pages 231-239, June 1961.
3. Prediction of Pressure Drop for Two-Phase, Two-Component Concurrent Flow in

Packed Beds, J. L. Turpin and R. L. Huntington, AIChE Journal, 13 (6), pages 1196-
1202, November 1967.
4. Fluidization, M. Leva, McGraw-Hill, New York 1959, page 54.
5. “Johnson Product Types and Specifications for Reactor Screen Internals,” Bulletin,
Johnson Division, UOP Inc., 1975.
6. “Catalyst Bed Supports Bulletin,” Catalysts and Chemicals Inc., 1976.

Process STD 104

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PROCESS STD 104

FOSTER WHEELER VESSELS PAGE Contents-1

REVISION ORIGINAL REV 10 REV 11 REV 12 REV 13 REV 14

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

1.0 GENERAL 1.0-1

2.0 REACTORS IN PETROLEUM REFINING PROCESSES 2.0-1

2.1 Fixed Bed Reactors 2.0-1

3.0 REACTOR SPECIFICATION 3.0-1

3.1 Fixed Bed, Down Flow Reactor 3.0-1

1 Constants for the Ergun Correlation

2. Typical Pressure Drops for Fixed Bed, 3.0-13

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

1. Typical Fixed Bed, Down Flow, Vertical Cylindrical

2. Void Fraction Data for Packed Beds 3.0-34

3. Inlet Distributor for Vapor Feed 3.0-35

4. Inlet Distributor for Two-Phase Fluid Feed 3.0-36

5. Liquid Distributor Tray 3.0-37

6. Typical Chimney for Liquid Distributor Tray 3.0-38

7. Johnson’s Distributor Basket, Straight Type 3.0-39

8. Johnson’s Distributor Basket, Mushroom Type 3.0-40

9. Johnson’s Typical Distributor Arrangement, Mushroom

10. Johnson’s Support Grid, Flange Type 3.0-42

11. Johnson’s Support Grid, Recessed Type 3.0-43

12. Quench Distributor, Ladder Type 3.0-44

13. Quench Distributor, Ring Type 3.0-45

14. Johnson’s Outlet Collectors 3.0-46

15. Johnson’s Open Area Chart 3.0-47

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

Chemical reactors can be classified by the following criteria:

1. Low Pressure Reactors (up to 100 psig)

2. Medium Pressure Reactors (100 to 700 psig)

3. High Pressure Reactors (over 700 psig)

Non-Catalyzed Fluid-Solid Reactions

Catalyzed Fluid-Solid Reactions

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

2.0 REACTORS IN PETROLEUM REFINING PROCESSES

Petroleum refining processes generally use continuous, high temperature reactors

2.1 Fixed Bed Reactors

1. Down Flow (Axial)

These reactors are employed in catalytic desulfurization, platinum catalyst

2.2 Fluidized Bed Reactors

2.3 Moving Bed Reactors

These are used in Thermofor and Houdriflow catalytic cracking processes.

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

3.0 REACTOR SPECIFICATION

3.1 Fixed Bed, Down Flow Reactor

3.1.1 Reactor Sizing

A typical vertical, cylindrical reactor used in naphtha

1. The Catalyst Volume is a function of liquid hourly space

V = Catalyst Volume, (cu. ft.)

Q = Cold liquid feed flow at 60F, (cu. ft.)/(hr.)

LHSV = Cold liquid volume of fresh feed (at 60F) per

The LHSV is specified by the process licensor or catalyst

2. The Catalyst Bed Size is determined by iterative

As an initial step pick an L/D ratio of 1.33-2:1 and

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

3.1.1 Reactor Sizing (Cont’d)

Often, the process licensor or the catalyst supplier specifies the

In certain processes such as heavy gas oil hydrocracking or

In other processes, such as catalytic reforming, the temperature

The chosen bed height has to meet the pressure drop

A number of parallel reactors/trains may be employed when the