Landmines 1

The Importance of a Worldwide Ban on

Antipersonnel Landmines
Anna Trapane
November 27, 2016
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RESEARCH QUESTION
Across the world, the environment and inhabitants of war torn countries are exposed to the
dangers of millions of mines that lay active in the ground. Thousands of unsuspecting people are killed
each year due to the detonation of hidden landmines; a majority of the people harmed are the elderly,
women, and children. The United Nations and many other non-governmental advocacy groups have
pursued efforts to create a safer world through the implementation of treaties and other efforts. Though
165 countries have signed the Mine Ban Treaty, 35 countries have yet to sign. Of the 35 countries that
have not signed, a portion of these countries live in unrest and put their citizens in danger everyday by
allowing these unmonitored devices in their counties. Existing antipersonnel landmines should be
removed and further proliferation should be halted worldwide in order to help secure the safety of
civilians and the environment in war torn territories.

INTRODUCTION
What Are Landmines?
Landmines are containers of explosive material with detonating systems that are triggered by
contact with a certain amount of pressure. They are designed to incapacitate humans and vehicles in
contact through damage caused by an explosive blast, fragments, or molten metal. They are typically
buried within 15 centimeters or rest on the surface of the ground. There are more than 600 different
types of landmines, but they can all be divided into two main categories: antipersonnel or antitank
landmines.
Antipersonnel landmines are designed to torture or kill a person, but each deliver a different
effect through the explosion. Explosive blast landmines are designed to rip off the lower part of the leg
and project debris and bone into the remaining part of the leg. They cause secondary infections and
higher amputation. These mines are sold for as little as three dollars each and are generally made in
bright colors and odd shapes to attract children. Fragmentation landmines, more severe than the
former, are metal casings stuffed with ball bearings, tiny metal darts, or metal fragments that are turned
into lethal projectiles by detonation. These mines can cause extensive damage to the legs, stomach, and
chest. Most fragmentation landmines shoot their fragments within a 60-degree horizontal arc and a
two-meter vertical height. Bounding landmines, perhaps the deadliest of all antipersonnel landmines,
can be triggered with as little as 1.5 kg of pressure on trip wires or direct pressure. The first charge lifts
the mine to waist height before fully detonating, then upon detonation an explosion shoots out metal
fragments in a 360-degree horizontal arc. The fragments can kill up to 35 meters or more beyond the
impact site, and severe injuries can occur at more than 100 meters from the landmine.
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Antitank landmines are designed to destroy or incapacitate tanks and other vehicles. They are
much larger than antipersonnel landmines and have an explosive charge of up to 14 kg. Effects of the
mines are usually catastrophic on vehicles such as pickup trucks, utility vehicles, passenger cars, and
jeeps, (CARE, 2003).
Why Are Landmines Used?
Although today many people associate landmines with civil conflicts, they were first used on a
wide scale during World War Two. Antitank landmines were the first to appear; they were originally
large and poorly constructed, so enemy soldiers would remove or re-deploy the unexploded mines.
Often, the mines were turned against the soldiers who originally deployed them. To protect the
unexploded mines from being overtaken, antipersonnel mines were developed. They were used
defensively to protect strategic areas such as borders, camps, and bridges. And the mines were further
used to restrict the movement of opposing forces. A key characteristic of antipersonnel mines is that
they were originally designed to injure rather than kill an enemy soldier; the theory was that it would
consume more resources and effort for the enemy camp to care for an injured soldier than it would to
bury a fallen soldier, (ICBL, 2009).
Over time, the use of landmines has shifted from international conflicts to civil conflicts. They
have also shifted in the ways and the reasons they are used. Defending one’s military position was a
key use for landmines when they first appeared on a mass scale. Warning groups would use landmines
to provide additional protection for their territories. Channeling movement soon followed as a strategy
to prevent people and vehicles from moving through certain areas. They would be forced on a certain
route and would not be able to deviate from that route. As international conflict took a backseat to civil
conflict, landmines began to be used as a way to defend socioeconomic targets. Bridges, dams, railroad
stations, and oil, gas, and water pipelines, were among the top priorities of protection against sabotage
by enemies, (CARE, 2003). As civil conflict has shifted even further, especially within the last two
decades, anti-government groups began to use landmines as political weapons in an effort to cause
chaos, terror, and economic dislocation. Many parties used propaganda to make people feel dissatisfied
with their government by feeding on their fears and making them believe the government doesn’t have
the ability to protect them. By laying mines in agricultural fields and plantations, around irrigation
systems, in forests, and in villages, anti-government groups have succeeded in driving large numbers
of civilians out of rural areas and into cities and towns. The movement of people adds to the social and
economic burdens of those in control of the cities, (CARE, 2003). To further the chaos, combatants
stopped laying mines in contained areas and started placing them in strategic areas without a specific
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pattern. As a result, civilians, medical suppliers, and soldiers had no way of knowing if they had
entered a minefield, (ICBL, 2009).

ANALYSIS
Efforts to Eliminate Existing Landmines
There are many civil society actors and non-governmental organizations working to help
protect lives and restore livelihoods in war torn territories that have been threaten by landmines. Some
of these organizations include APOPO, DanChurchAid, Danish Demining Group, DEMIRA, Golden
West Humanitarian Foundation, The HALO Trust, and Handicap International. Even though each
organization has the same end goal, they all work in different capacities.
APOPO, “Anti-Personnel Landmines Removal Product Development” in English, is a Belgian
non-governmental organization that researches, develops, and implements detection rats for
humanitarian purposes. The two main focuses of APOPO are to use the African Giant Pouched Rat,
also referred to as a HeroRAT, to detect the scent of TNT and Tuberculosis in areas that are riddled
with these issues. APOPO is headquartered in Tanzania and has operations in Mozambique, Thailand,
Angola, and Cambodia.
The African Giant Pouched Rat is used for very specific reasons. Rats have one of the most
sensitive senses of smell. This is a crucial factor in being able to detect a landmine embedded in the
ground. This specific breed of rat is intelligent, relatively calm, and trainable. Weighing just over a
kilogram, they are also too light to set off the mines. They are native to Sub-Saharan African, so they
are adapted to most of the environments where landmines still lay active. Also because of their origin,
they are locally sourced and widely available. Transferring them proves to be an easy task as well due
to their small size and lack of relationship with their trainer. Seeing as they are rats, maintenance costs
are low because they are cheap to feed, breed, maintain, and transport on the local and international
level. Lastly, the African Giant Pouched Rat is a resistant species adapted to harsh conditions with
excellent health and a relatively long lifespan of eight years, (APOPO, 1995).
HeroRATs go through extensive training before they are allowed on an active minefield. The
socialization process starts as early as four weeks old, when they are just opening their eyes. Soon
thereafter they interact with people and become accustomed to the various stimuli in the world. Click
training and scent conditioning follow as the next step in the process. This is when the rat learns to
associate a click sound with food as a reinforcement. Once the rat learns that the click means he will
receive food, he will have to search for the scent of TNT to earn the food. The rat will then have to
discriminate between three different scents and determine which one is TNT. Three scents are placed
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beneath three sniffer holes, only when the rat pauses above the right hole will it hear the click and
receive food. Next, the rat is expected to be able to discriminate scents when placed in a sandbox. The
scent is hidden, and the rat must learn to walk in lanes. Each correct indication earns the rat a reward of
food. After success in the sandbox, the rat will enter a real field with deactivated landmines. They
begin with surface laid mines and gradually work to deeper mines in larger areas. After the nine-month
long process, the rat finally earns the title of HeroRAT, (APOPO, 1998).
APOPO’s two most significant efforts are in Cambodia and Mozambique. Cambodia is located
in Southeast Asia and is the second most landmine-affected country in the world following
Afghanistan. The HeroRATs have been working in Cambodia since January of 2016 and have
successfully completed their fourth minefield. The Cambodian Mine Action Centre and Authorities are
also aiding in the process through humanitarian landmine clearance projects in Odder Meanchey and
Siem Reap Provinces, the two most mine-affected villages. It is estimated that at least 26 million
explosive sub munitions were dropped in Cambodia during the Vietnam War. Most of these explosives
are in the areas bordering Lao People’s Democratic Republic and Vietnam. Since 1979, over 64,000
landmine and other explosive remnants of war have been recorded with an additional 25,000 amputee
cases, giving Cambodia the highest ratio of mine amputees per capita in the world.
As of January 2016 when the HeroRATs first started their efforts in Cambodia, 4,907
landmines have been found and neutralized. Another 38,279 unexploded ordinances have been found
and destroyed, and 14,517,659 square meters of total land area have been released back to the country.
With the goal of returning land back to the citizens of this war torn country, the HeroRATs have had a
promising start and will continue to do their work until Cambodia is completely mine free, (APOPO,
2010).
Mozambique, located on the southeast coast of Africa, is another country that APOPO has
tirelessly worked with in efforts to achieve a mine free world. And, on September 17, 2015, the
country was declared free of all known landmines. But before being declared mine free, Mozambique
was another extremely impacted country due to the remnants of war from decades of conflict. Tens of
thousands of landmines were laid in the country during its 1964 to 1975 fight for independence and
through the civil war that followed. All factions used landmines to protect key infrastructure and
towns. When the wars ended in the 1990s, the battle against unexploded mines and other remnants of
war had just begun. Additionally, in 2007 the Malhazine weapons depot suffered a series of
uncontrolled explosions that took the lives and wounded hundreds of citizens from neighboring
communities. Bombs, rockets, and other explosive metals were scattered over the capital region.
Millions of volatile odor compounds were also released. In terms of the HeroRATs, that could be a
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huge hindrance on their abilities to locate the specific smell of TNT. Although this added another
factor into the detection process, APOPO sent 16 mine detecting rats that showed a very high
proficiency to help assist and speed up the cleaning process.
Declaring Mozambique free of mines is significant in terms of rebuilding a sustainable
environment and economy. Overall, 11,463,861 square meters of land have been returned, 13,836
landmines have been found and neutralized, 29,031 small arms and ammunitions have been found, and
39,601 unexploded ordinances have been found and destroyed. Even though the country is now mine
free and in the process of rebuilding, APOPO still remains in the country at the request of the National
Institute of Demining to continue providing technical expertise and support for any possible remaining
clearance work, (APOPO, 2006).
Another non-governmental organization that has made huge strides in mine clearance is the
HALO Trust. HALO UK and HALO USA are the two sectors of the humanitarian organization.
HALO UK is registered with the Charity Commission for England and Wales and with the Scottish
Charity Regulator. Meanwhile, HALO USA is a non-profit corporation organized for the removal of
debris of war. HALO has over 6,000 staff members and is in 19 countries.
HALO is responsible for providing jobs to capable locals who are passionate about returning
the land to its people. The people who manually demine the area are provided and income, further
helping the community’s economic situation. HALO also provides the community, especially the
children, with mine risk education. To prevent further devastation to the community, HALO provides
the communities with the information they need in order to learn how to live in mine-affected areas.
Lastly, HALO works to combat weapon proliferation through its work with national authorities. All of
these devices are aimed at protecting and flourishing countries that have been living in distress for
decades because of the negative effects of landmines, (HALO, 2000).
HALO is active in multiple countries over a range of continents. HALO’s impact has reached
Africa, Europe, South Asia, Central Asia, South America, and the Middle East. Its work in the Middle
East in Afghanistan is one of the most profound successes. As stated before, Afghanistan is the most
mined country in the world. There have been estimates of up to 640,000 landmines laid since 1979,
and 23,500 casualties were reported between 1979 and 2015.
As of July 2015, HALO has destroyed over 791,244 mines and other unexploded remnants of
war, over ten million items of large caliber ammunition, over 49 million bullets, deactivated 2,800
heavy weapons, and destroyed more than 52,000 light weight weapons. HALO is also committed to
facilitating the implementation of the Government of Afghanistan’s Millennium Development Goals
and Ottawa Mine Ban Treaty, (HALO, 2015).
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One last civil society organization is the Landmine Monitor. The Landmine Monitor, or
Monitor for short, provides the most recent and relevant information concerning the international
community’s response to the problems caused by landmines, munition clusters, and other remnants of
war. In 2012, the Monitor found that international support for mine action was at an all-time high with
497.5 million dollars going towards the cause. A sharp decline followed in the next two years with less
than 450 million in efforts for each fiscal year. The Monitor has also found that the United States,
Japan, Norway, the European Union, and the Netherlands are among the top five donors to mine
action. On the receiving end, Afghanistan, Iraq, Lao PDR, Cambodia, and Angola received the most
financial help towards mine action, (The Monitor, 2016).
Efforts to Prevent Further Proliferation
The International Campaign to Ban Landmines is a global network of non-governmental
organizations, active in around 100 countries, that works toward a world free of antipersonnel
landmines. The campaign revolves around the 1997 Mine Ban Treaty, sometimes referred to as the
Ottawa Convention, created by the United Nations. The treaty is a legally binding international
agreement that bans the use, production, stockpiling, and transfer of antipersonnel mines. It further
places obligations on countries to clear affected areas, assist victims, and destroy stockpiles.
Commitments of the treaty include never using, developing, producing, stockpiling, retaining,
or transferring antipersonnel mines. After signing, it is the country’s responsibility to destroy all mines
in any stockpiles within four years. All mined territory must be cleared within ten years. In mine-
affected countries, mine risk education must be provided. The care, rehabilitation, and social and
economic reintegration of mine victims must be provided. Signatories should offer assistance to other
State Parties who need help providing for survivors or clearance programs. Signatories must also adopt
national implementation measures to ensure that the terms of the treaty are being upheld. Lastly, each
country must report annually on progress in the implementation of the treaty.
The current status of the Mine Ban Treaty is that of 162 States Parties, only 35 remain outside
the treaty. Most of these states do not actually produce antipersonnel landmines though. Some of the
non-signatories include China, Cuba, Iran, North and South Korea, Lao PDR, Pakistan, Russia, Saudi
Arabia, United Arab Emirates, the United States, and Vietnam. As of November 2015, the Russian
Federation has a stockpile of 26,500,000 landmines. China, Pakistan, and the United States all have
stockpiles between three and six million antipersonnel landmines, (ICBL, 2009).
According to the Monitor, as of May 2016, 49 million stockpiles have been destroyed by the
States Parties. Ninety-one of the States Parties have declared completion of the destruction of
stockpiles, while the of 65 signatories never possessed antipersonnel landmines at all.
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CONCLUSION
Landmines destroy the security and environmental stability of communities around the world.
Although the global effort to ban antipersonnel landmines has gained a lot of momentum in the last
few decades, the world as a whole will not be able to recover from many years of landmine destruction
until every country signs and implements the Mine Ban Treaty. Of all the millions of stockpiles that
have been destroyed, nine million are still awaiting destruction in the States Parties and an unknown
amount are still present in non-signatory countries, (The Monitor, 2016). These remaining stockpiles
can undo years of efforts that have aided in saving thousands of lives and allowed communities to
rebuild and safely live in their countries.
There are many organizations and multiple resources available to help in the fight against
existing and further proliferation of antipersonnel landmines. The negative social and environmental
impacts of landmines may not be completely reversible; but with the help of the non-governmental
organizations that have developed strategies to rid the world of landmines, it is possible to end further
suffering. If every country signs the Mine Ban Treaty and implements the steps to rid their countries of
antipersonnel landmines, the world as a whole will be able to help secure the safety of citizens and the
environment in war torn countries.

RESOURCES
APOPO. (1995). Welcome to APOPO! Retrieved November 27, 2016, from https://www.apopo.org/

APOPO. (1998). We train rats to save lives. Retrieved November 27, 2016, from
https://www.apopo.org/en/mine-action/how/training

APOPO. (2006, October). Mozambique. Retrieved November 27, 2016, from

https://www.apopo.org/en/mine-action/projects/mozambique

APOPO. (2010, October). We train rats to save lives. Retrieved November 27, 2016, from
https://www.apopo.org/en/mine-action/projects/cambodia

CARE. (2003). Facts About Landmines. Retrieved November 27, 2016, from
http://www.care.org/search/site/landmines

HALO. (2000). What We Do. Retrieved November 27, 2016, from https://www.halotrust.org/what-we-
do/

HALO. (2015, July). Afghanistan. Retrieved November 27, 2016, from

https://www.halotrust.org/where-we-work/central-asia/afghanistan/
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ICBL. (2009). International campaign to ban landmines - the Treaty | ICBL. Retrieved November 27,
2016, from http://icbl.org/en-gb/the-treaty.aspx

The Monitor. (2016). Landmine Monitor 2016. Retrieved November 27, 2016, from http://www.the-
monitor.org/en-gb/reports/2016/landmine-monitor-2016.aspx