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which may lead to a collision with obstacles. In the present without Voronoi diagrams so that it can be visualized
work, the concept adopted in [13] has been used for properly.
smoothing the k-best paths in 3D. In literature, for creating
flyable paths for turn-rate constraint vehicles, a large number B. K - Best Path Selection
of works [14], [15], [16] use Dubin's path [17]. The other
popular approaches for generating continuous flyable paths To select K-best paths, Yen’s algorithm is used as it is one
are to use splines [18], clothoid arcs [19], [20], and of the most efficient algorithms to find K-best loopless paths
Pythagorean hodograph [21]. from a fixed node to all other nodes. This algorithm requires
2n2 additions and n2 comparisons and is lesser than any other
As mentioned earlier, simultaneous arrival to a target available algorithms. A brief overview of this algorithm is
location is very important for time-critical missions to given below:
increase the mission success probability. A Pythagorean
hodograph is used for simultaneous rendezvous in [21] and The algorithm consists of two lists, the first list SPs for
with imperfect communications between vehicles, the determining the initial k-shortest paths and the second list SPP
rendezvous problem is addressed in [22]. The standard for storing other potential shortest path candidates. To
dynamic models of the UAV and UGV are used in [23] for determine SPs1, the shortest path from the source to the sink,
achieving an optimal rendezvous for a UAV with a UGV for any efficient shortest path algorithm can be used such as
refuelling. The main contribution of the current work is to Dijkstra’s algorithm. Then the idea that the kth shortest paths
achieve simultaneous rendezvous by increasing the path may share edges and sub-paths (path from source to any
lengths of other UAVs to match with the path length of the intermediary nodes within the route) from (k-1)th shortest path
UAV with maximum path lengths in a particular group. By is used. For using this concept the (k-1)th shortest path is taken
making the optimal transitions between consecutive waypoint and each node in the route is made unreachable in turn, i.e.
segments the paths are made time-optimal. particular edges are rubbed off that goes to the node within
the route. Once that particular node is unreachable, the
II. SOLUTION APPROACH shortest path is searched from the preceding node to the
destination. Then a new route is created by appending the
common sub-path (from source to the preceding node of the
A. Waypoint Generation
unreachable node) and the new shortest path is added from
As stated, assuming target assignment has already been preceding node to the destination. This route is then added to
done, the first step is to create some possible paths from the the list SPP, provided that it is not present or ever added to list
54 pt UAV to the target, keeping in account that the path should not SPs or list SPP before. After repeating this for all nodes in the 54 pt
0.75 in collide with any of the obstacles present. A Voronoi diagram route, one needs to find the shortest route in list SPP and 0.75 in
19.1 mm in 3D is created to divide the space into polyhedrons, edges of move that to list SPs. This whole process is repeated k times 19.1 mm
which serve as possible paths for the UAV to follow as it is to get all the paths.
the optimum distance that the flight can maintain from the
obstacles. In the present scenario, the Voronoi sites are the III. TRAJECTORY GENERATION
positions of the UAVs, obstacles and the target and using this
information a Voronoi diagram is created to generate the The objective of this section is to generate time-optimal
waypoint segments. trajectories which are flyable for fixed-wing UAVs. The turn
rate constraint is included for the path generation as a fixed-
wing UAV cannot make a sharp turn. The other constraint
considered here is the limitation on the maximum distance
between the waypoint and the UAV while taking turns to take
care of the limited capacity of the sensor placed on it.
Using [13], a complete mechanism is developed to satisfy
the constraints and to generate time-optimal trajectory. For
convenience, the same notations as used in [13] is used. The
minimum radius for turning in a plane that is inclined at an
angle θ with respect to the x-y plane is given by:
va2 (1)
r
g sin T K sin T 1
2 2
Here, r is the minimum turn radius, θ is the angle that the
turning plane makes with the horizontal plane, η is the load
Figure 2: Voronoi diagram for our mission
factor, g is the gravitational constant and va is the airspeed.
The Fig. 2 shows the Voronoi diagram consisting of 30 For three waypoints w1, w2 and w3, the unit vectors along
points where three points represent three UAVs, one point is these two waypoints segments are denoted by q1 and q2,
for the target and other 26 points represent obstacles. For respectively. So,
convenience purposes, we will show the rest of the figures
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w2 w1 w3 w2 (2.a)
q1 ; q2
w2 w1 w3 w2
Let β denote the absolute value of the angle between q2 and
−q1, that is, β = cos−1(−q2Tq1) (3.b)
If a simple trajectory which is made by one turn of
minimum turn radius (Fig. 3) is followed the starting (X0s)
and finishing point (Xfs) on the waypoint segment would be,
§ · § · (4)
¨ r ¸ ¨ r ¸
X 0 s w2 ¨ ¸ q1; X fs w2 ¨ ¸ q2
¨ tan E ¸ ¨ tan E ¸
© 2¹ © 2¹
The unit vector perpendicular to the plane made by these two
consecutive segments is
Figure 3: Simple trajectory with minimum radius turn
q1 u q2 (5)
u
q1 u q2 At a point X0γ, the first circle is tangent to q1 which is at a
distance d1γ from w2, where,
The unit radius vector from X0s towards the centre of the
circular turn is r (11)
d1J
y = u × q1 (6) tan E1
Using vector algebra, we get,
The centre of the circular turn is
X0γ = w2 − d1γq1 (12)
O = X0s + ry (7)
The unit radius vector (y1) from X0γ towards the centre of the
Let the closest point (Ps) on the trajectory from the waypoint first circular turn (O1γ) is,
w2 be at a distance ds away, where
54 pt y1 = −q1 × u (13) 54 pt
ds = ||w2 − O|| − r (8)
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Where u is obtained from Eq. 4. Using vector algebra, we
19.1 mm Note: As mentioned in [13] if two consecutive waypoint can get,
19.1 mm
segments make a very acute angle then the smooth path
following the simple trajectory deviates far from the mid- O1γ = X0γ + ry1 (14)
waypoint, which increases the chances of collision with the
obstacles. To overcome this problem a γ-trajectory The angular value for which the manoeuvre takes place,
constructed using two circles instead of one is used, which § d w2 , O1J sin E E1 r · (15)
passes through a specified distance from the associated TJ cos1 ¨ ¸
waypoint. ¨ 2r ¸
© ¹
1) γ1 trajectory At Xfγ the second circle is tangent to the second waypoint
(q2), which is at a distance of d2γ from the waypoint w2. So,
Trajectory 1, known as γ1 trajectory, generates an optimal
path and also is parameterized by γ to allow dynamic change d2γ = d (w2, O1γ) cos (β − β1) + 2r sin (θγ) (16)
of trajectory. The value of parameter γ ranges between 0 and
Xfγ = w2 + q2d2γ (17)
1. The trajectory is generated using two mutually tangent
circles which are tangent to the two waypoint segments The unit radius vector (y2) from Xfγ towards the centre of the
respectively for values of γ above 0, while a single circle is second circular turn (O2γ) is
required for γ value equal for 1 (Fig. 4). The trajectory can be
y2 = −q2 × u (18)
derived as:
The distance between w2 and the centre of the first The centre of the second circular turn is,
circular turn (O1γ) is given by,
O2γ = Xfγ − ry2 (19)
d (w2, O1γ) = dγ + r (9)
Using these two circular turns centred at O1γ and O2γ,
Let β1 be the angle between the line joining w2 and O1γ and respectively, the desired γ1 trajectory can be computed.
q1. So,
§ r · (10)
E1 sin 1 ¨ ¸
¨ d w2 , O1J ¸
© ¹
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The γ2 trajectory leaves the first waypoint segment at a point circles of which two are tangent to the two waypoint
X0γ which is at a distance d1γ from w2, where, segments respectively. Once the UAV reaches point w2, it
follows those three circles to reach w2 again but the direction
r (22) vector changes from q1 to q2.
d1J
tan E1
The unit vector perpendicular to q1 and q2 are:
Now, Xfγ can be obtained as follows.
q2 u u q1 u u (31)
l1 ; l2
Xfγ = w2 + d1γq1 (23) q2 u u q1 u u
The unit radius vector (y1) from X0γ towards the centre of the
The centres of the first and third circular turn are:
first circular turn (O1γ) is
O1 = w2 + r l2 ; O2= w2 + r l1 (32)
y1 = −q2 × u (24)
Half of the distance between the centres of these circles is
Where u is obtained from Eq. 4. The centre of the first
circular turn is O2 O1 (33)
d
2
O1γ = Xfγ + ry1 (25)
The third unit vector that is the angle bisector of l1 and l2 is
The angular value for which the manoeuvre takes place,
l2 l1 (34)
§ d w2 , O1J sin E E1 r · (26) l3
TJ cos ¨
1
¸ 2
¨ 2r ¸
© ¹ The distance of the third circle from w2 is
At X0γ the second circle is tangent to q2 which is at a distance (35)
of d2γ from the waypoint w2. So, d2 4r 2 d 2 r 2 d 2
d2γ = d (w2, O1γ) cos (β − β1) + 2r sin (θγ) (27) The centre of the third circular turn:
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2. All the individual path lengths, the coordinates of w1, Table 2 K- Best Paths for UAV 1
w2, w3, type of trajectory, gamma value and number
_________________________________________________
of loops are stored in cells for all the UAVs.
Sl. Length Selected Path
3. The reference path will be selected as the longest No____________________(The numbers indicate the selected node index)______
among all the shortest ones. Now the objective is to 1st: 38.96 1 95 102 101 89 103 119
match the path lengths of other UAVs to this UAV. 2nd: 42.32 1 95 102 78 101 89 103 119
For other UAVs, the path with length less than or 3rd: 42.90 1 95 102 101 89 111 119
equal to the reference path is chosen. 4th: 44.66 1 95 102 101 106 65 89 103 119
5th: 45.07 1 95 102 101 89 103 111 119
4. Following steps were applied to increase the path
_________________________________________________
length to the reference length (Fig. 8):
a. The value of γ for γ2 trajectory (wherever Table 3 K- Best Paths for UAV 2
applicable) was sequentially decreased for each _________________________________________________
individual turn until the required increment was Sl. Length Selected Path
met or if all the gamma values become 0. No ________________(The numbers indicate the selected node index)_______
1st: 53.50 1 38 51 8 41 46 15 119
b. If there was still increment required, the 2nd: 53.56 1 5 38 51 8 41 46 15 119
numbers of complete circular turns were 3rd: 53.56 1 39 38 51 8 41 46 15 119
increased (if loops are present). 4th: 53.61 1 39 5 38 51 8 41 46 15 119
c. If there were no loops present, then it is checked 5th: 53.74 1 5 39 38 51 8 41 46 15 119
for the possibilities of converting any γ1 _________________________________________________
trajectory into a looping trajectory.
Table 4 K- Best Paths for UAV 3
_________________________________________________
IV. SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Sl. Length Selected Path
For simulation purpose the mission field is the same as No ________________(The numbers indicate the selected node index)_______
shown in Fig. 1 with three UAVs, random locations of 1st: 43.76 1 38 51 8 41 46 15 119
obstacles and the target. Voronoi diagram is generated for 2nd: 45.72 1 5 38 51 8 41 46 15 119
54 pt 54 pt
0.75 in this field and then Yes’s algorithm is applied to get five best 3rd: 47.11 1 39 38 51 8 41 46 15 119 0.75 in
19.1 mm paths (Fig. 9) which are tabulated in Table 2, 3 and 4 for 4th: 47.54 1 39 5 38 51 8 41 46 15 119 19.1 mm
UAV 1, UAV 2 and UAV3, respectively. 5th: 47.60 1 5 39 38 51 8 41 46 15 119
_______________________________________________
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