Late Quaternary history of colluvial deposition and erosion in hollows,

central California Coast Ranges

STEVEN L. RENEAU Earth and Environmental Sciences Division, M.S. D462, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545
WILLIAM E. DIETRICH Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720
DOUGLAS J. DONAHUE | National Science Foundation Regional Facility for Radioisotope Analysis, University of Arizona, Tucson,
A. J. TIMOTHY JULL J Arizona 85721
MEYER RUBIN U.S. Geological Survey, National Center 971, Reston, Virginia 22092

ABSTRACT
Colluvial deposits in hollows are the pre-
dominant source of debris flows in many
mountainous areas, and the depositional his-
tory of hollows can provide insight into land-
slide frequency and long-term hillslope proc-
esses. Detailed study of colluvial deposits in
20 hollows in the northern San Francisco Bay
area, California, reveals diverse histories of
erosion and deposition. Basal radiocarbon
ages range from 1 to 29 ka and document
deposition of colluvium throughout this pe-
riod at different sites. Ages from multiple
stratigraphic levels confirm that the deposits
are cumulative and have thickened through
the Holocene. Radiocarbon dates and strati-
graphic observations document unconformi-
ties in hollows, reflecting incomplete evacua-
tion of colluvium during both Pleistocene and
Holocene events and providing evidence for a
cycle of alternating accumulation and evacua-
tion of colluvium. This cycle has apparently
been affected by major climatic changes, and
the common occurrence of basal ages at ca. 9
to 14 ka may record widespread slope insta-
bility during the Pleistocene-Holocene transi-
tion. By analogy with modern landsliding, the
increased erosion may have been caused by
an increased frequency of high-intensity
storms during extended periods of meridional
flow in the upper atmosphere. The acceler-
ated discharge of colluvium from hillslopes
may have contributed to stream aggradation
in diverse parts of California.
INTRODUCTION
Hollows are an important part of many
landscapes, playing a critical role in the flux of
debris from hillslopes to streams. As defined by
Hack and Goodlett (1960) and Hack (1965),
hollows are parts of hillslopes where contours
are concave-out from the slope, contrasting with
side slopes and noses where contours are straight
and convex, respectively. The concave topog-
raphy forces colluvial debris to converge toward
the axes of hollows, resulting in long-term depo-
sition (for example, Dietrich and others, 1986;
Reneau and others, 1989). Landslides in the col-
luvial deposits are the primary source of debris
flows in many mountainous areas, and the initial
landslides and subsequent erosion by debris
flows supply much sediment to stream channels
(for example, Pierson, 1977; Dietrich and
Dunne, 1978; Lehre, 1981,1982; Okunishi and
lida, 1981; Dietrich and others, 1982; Tsuka-
moto and others, 1982; Reneau and Dietrich,
1987a, 1987b). The long-term history of deposi-
tion and erosion in hollows is thus needed to
evaluate debris-flow hazards and the flux of sed-
iment to streams.
Conceptual models of the evolution of collu-
vial deposits in hollows are varied and have led
to differing interpretations of the geomorphic
significance of the deposits. Several workers
have proposed that colluvial deposits in hollows
owe their existence to climatic changes, with
stream incision under one climatic regime re-
placed by colluvial deposition following a major
climate change. Cotton and TePunga (1955)
postulated that a change from warmer intergla-
cial to colder periglacial conditions led to collu-
vial deposition in New Zealand hollows, and
Schlocker (1974) and Shlemon and others
(1987) proposed that a change from a wetter
glacial to a drier interglacial climate led to depo-
sition in California hollows. An alternative view
is that continued accumulation of colluvium in
hollows inherently leads to instability, and hol-
lows are thus characterized by a cycle of alter-
nating storage and discharge of colluvium. A
cyclic model, independent of climatic changes,
has been proposed for sites in coastal California,
Oregon, Washington (for example, Pierson,
1977; Dietrich and Dunne, 1978; Lehre, 1981,
1982; Dietrich and others, 1982), and Japan
(Okunishi and lida, 1981). In other areas, some
workers have proposed that the deposition of
coarse permeable debris in hollows leads to sta-
bility, and subsequent erosion of weathered bed-
rock on the adjoining side slopes and noses
results in topographic inversion. This model has
been proposed for colluvial deposits in the Ap-
palachian Mountains and in Texas (Bryan,
1940; Mills, 1981).
These conceptual models are not mutually
exclusive, and each may be partially correct in
explaining the evolution of hollows in a region.
Detailed knowledge of the depositional history
of hollows and the processes active at these sites
is essential to resolve the relative importance of
the above models.
In this paper, previous research on the deposi-
tional history of hollows in the western United
States is reviewed, followed by the presentation
of detailed stratigraphic observations and chron-
ologic data from hollows in part of the central
California Coast Ranges. The research presented
herein expands the earlier work of Reneau and
others (1986), incorporating a greatly enlarged
data set. In particular, radiocarbon dates from
multiple stratigraphic levels and from different
longitudinal positions in several colluvial depos-
its help document the depositional history of in-
dividual hollows in greater detail than previous-
ly possible. The dating constrains the timing of
past erosional events and improves the under-
standing of the late Quaternary history of hol-
lows in central California and the effects of
regional climatic changes on hillslope erosional
processes.
PREVIOUS RESEARCH ON
DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY
OF HOLLOWS
Knowledge of the depositional history of hol-
lows in western North America has developed
through studies in California, Oregon, and
Washington during the past 15 yr. Dietrich and
Dunne (1978) initially described colluvial de-

Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 102, p. 9 6 9 - 9 8 2 , 13 figs., 2 tables, July 1990.

969
970
posits in Oregon Coast Range hollows and
proposed that they were sites of episodic land-
sliding, with the landslide scars filled with
colluvium derived from the adjacent slopes. Ob-
served textural variations included an increase in
gravel content toward the base of the deposits,
and the basal gravels were interpreted as record-
ing the winnowing of fine sediment by overland
flow when the deposits were thin. Subsequently,
Dietrich and others (1982) reported similar
deposits on the Olympic Peninsula in Washing-
ton and estimated that colluvial accumulation
for 1,000 to 10,000 yr was required to replace
the sediment evacuated in a landslide. On the
basis of detailed observations and measurements
of landslide scars in central California grass-
lands, Lehre (1981, 1982) proposed essentially
the same model for colluvial deposits north of
San Francisco, emphasizing the role of revegeta-
tion in stabilizing debris within landslide scars
and the role of gullying in evacuating some
hollows.
A more diverse depositional history was sug-
gested by the study of colluvial deposits in the
Redwood Creek basin of northwest California
by Marron (1982, 1985). Abrupt changes in tex-
ture and soil development that record probable
unconformities were observed within some de-
posits, and Marron proposed that partial remov-
al of colluvium by landsliding is common. On
the basis of relative weathering and soil devel-
opment criteria, she also suggested that the col-
luvium varies widely in age; radiocarbon dates
of 7-10 ka were obtained from one deposit, and
most deposits studied were more weathered than
that one. Some deposits in Marron's study area
have no topographic expression, and this, in
combination with strongly weathered collu-
vium, suggests long-term stability of some sites.
In central California, Dietrich and Dorn
(1984) used pollen analysis to locate an 11-13.5
ka stratigraphic level within two colluvial depos-
its near Clear Lake. This level occurs near the
base of one deposit and in the upper part of the
second, recording differing periods of accumula-
tion. Reneau and others (1986) subsequently re-
ported basal radiocarbon dates from 11 Cali-
fornia hollows. Most of these dates cluster
between 9 and 15 ka, and Reneau and others
(1986) proposed that evacuation of colluvium
was more thorough and possibly more frequent
under the latest Pleistocene vegetation and cli-
mate. Shlemon and others (1987) used soil stra-
tigraphy to interpret the history of one hollow in
Pacifica, south of San Francisco. A 6-m section
in the upper basin was interpreted as a cumula-
tive deposit, with uninterrupted deposition for
8,000-10,000 yr, whereas a recurrence interval
of about 1,000-4,000 yr for debris flows from
the lower basin was proposed based on mean
RENEAU AND OTHERS
residence time radiocarbon ages from buried
soils. Shlemon and others (1987) also proposed
that the climatic change at the onset of the Hol-
ocene led to initial accumulation of colluvium in
former Pleistocene stream channels. A similar
model had previously been advanced by
Schlocker (1974) for deposits on the Marin Pe-
ninsula, immediately north of San Francisco.
Additional radiocarbon age determinations
have been made from hollows in coastal Oregon
and Washington. Benda and Dunne (1987) re-
ported basal radiocarbon dates from recent
landslide scars in three Oregon Coast Range hol-
lows of 1.6, 6.4, and 9.4 ka and inferred that the
period between successive failures in this area is
thus in the range of thousands of years. Basal
radiocarbon dates from nine additional hollows
in the Oregon Coast Range extend from 4 to
>40 ka, with seven sites clustering between 4
and 7.5 ka (Reneau, 1988). Basal radiocarbon
dates from eight hollows on the Olympic Penin-
sula of Washington range from 7-13 ka and
show a clustering between 7 and 10 ka (Reneau
and others, 1989). The early Holocene was a
period of warmer, drier climate in Washington,
and the basal ages suggest a period of wide-
spread landsliding during this drier period
(Reneau and others, 1989). In addition, dates
from multiple stratigraphic levels in 11 Oregon
and Washington hollows document that the
deposits there are cumulative and have progres-
sively thickened over time (Reneau, 1988; Ren-
eau and others, 1989).
In summary, the research to date indicates
Figure 1. Location map of dated hollows in northern San Francisco Bay area. CC, Clare-
mont Canyon; GPB, Grizzly Peak Boulevard; LTC, Lone Tree Creek; MPC, Madrone Park
Circle; NSP, North San Pedro Road; PCG, Pike County Gulch; SB, Skyline Boulevard; SPR,
San Pedro Ridge; TV, Third Valley. Late Pleistocene pollen sites of Rypins and others (1989)
at Point Reyes are shown by triangles.
that colluvial deposits in hollows are typically
cumulative, thickening over time, and that the
period of accumulation can exceed 10,000 yr.
This overlaps with the time scale of major cli-
matic change, and clusterings of basal radiocar-
bon dates suggest that climatic changes have
influenced the evacuation of colluvium from
hollows in some regions. Relative dating criteria
suggest that a wide range in age of colluvium
may be present and that unconformities record-
ing partial evacuation are present in some
deposits.
STUDY AREA
The study sites are within the central Califor-
nia Coast Ranges of Marin and Alameda Coun-
ties, in the northern San Francisco Bay area
(Fig. 1). The climate is Mediterranean, with wet
winters and dry summers, moderated by coastal
fog. Average annual rainfall ranges from about
600 to 1,000 mm/yr and is greatest at sites near-
est the coast (Rantz, 1971). Native vegetation is
varied and includes grassland; a northern coastal
scrub community dominated by coyote brush
(Baccharis pilularis) and poison oak (Rhus di-
versiloba); a mixed hardwood forest dominated
by California laurel (Umbellularia californica),
coast live oak (Quercus agrifolia), and Pacific
madrone (Arbutus menziesii); and a mixed
bishop pine (Pinus muricata) hardwood forest.
Available paleoecological data in the San
Francisco Bay area record an increase in certain
coniferous species in the latest Pleistocene that
 QUATERNARY COLLUVIAL DEPOSITION AND EROSION, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES
indicate a cooler, moister climate, as discussed
by Johnson (1977), Adam and others (1981),
and Rypins and others (1989). The nearest rec-
ord spanning the Pleistocene-Holocene bound-
ary is from the Point Reyes Peninsula in Marin
County (Fig. 1), where the major change from a
closed coniferous forest of Douglas fir, grand fir
(?), and bishop pine to coastal scrub and grass-
land occurred between ca. 10.3 and 9.4 ka
(Rypins and others, 1989). Conifers were prob-
ably also common at the San Pedro Ridge study
sites (Fig. 1) in the latest Pleistocene, contrasting
with the modern mixed hardwood forest; an ex-
amination of charcoal fragments from three San
Pedro Ridge hollows, dated to 10-21 ka, re-
vealed a mixture of conifers and hardwoods, al-
though species-level identification was not pos-
sible (O. K. Davis, 1986, written commun.).
Records from the last interstadial, ca. 30-29 ka,
are available from Tomales Bay in Marin
County (Mason, 1934; Berger and Libby, 1966)
and from coastal Santa Cruz County (Adam and
others, 1981). These also suggest a cooler cli-
mate than today, although the relative precipita-
tion is uncertain.
Bedrock at the study sites is diverse but com-
prises units generally resistant to deep-seated
landsliding. Most Marin County sites are under-
lain by sandstone and shale of the Mesozoic
Franciscan assemblage, although sites in Third
Valley near Inverness are underlain by deeply
weathered Mesozoic granitic rocks (Blake and
others, 1974). Study sites in the Berkeley Hills of
Alameda County are underlain by Miocene sed-
imentary rocks, primarily chert of the Monterey
A / tributary
M
/ i hollow
i i i '
runoff and colluvial
transport path
Figure 2. Sketches of some typical characteristics of recent landslides in San Pedro Ridge hollows. (A) Debris flow mobilized from landslide
in upper hollow, causing minor erosion of colluvium in lower hollow. Old degraded landslide scar present in tributary hollow. (B) Debris flow
originating in upper hollow, triggering secondary landslide downslope.
Group (Radbruch, 1969). Colluvial soils devel-
oped on these units typically have high friction
angles and high porosities, and landslides in the
colluvium are generally mobilized into rapid de-
bris flows rather than slower earthflows or
slumps (for example, Reneau and Dietrich,
1987b).
Several studies have documented that hollows
are the predominant source of shallow, debris-
flow-producing landslides in this region (Lehre,
1981, 1982; Smith and Hart, 1982; Reneau and
Dietrich, 1987a, 1987b; Shlemon and others,
1987; Ellen and others, 1988; Howard and oth-
ers, 1988; Smith, 1988). Landslide characteris-
tics for forested San Pedro Ridge (Fig. 1), where
most of the radiocarbon dates in this study were
obtained, are presented in Reneau and Dietrich
(1987a, 1987b) and Reneau (1988); similar
characteristics were seen in many other parts of
the region with similar soils and topography. On
San Pedro Ridge, recent landslide scars have a
characteristic size that is much smaller than the
size of each hollow (Reneau and Dietrich,
1987b). The landslides typically evacuated col-
luvium from only a part of a hollow, and debris
flows initiated in the upper part of a hollow
caused varying amounts of erosion downslope
(Fig. 2). In many cases, little erosion occurred in
the lower hollow or was limited to the uprooting
of trees and stripping of the uppermost soil layer
(Fig. 2A), although the triggering of secondary
landslides downslope by debris flows in some
cases resulted in major evacuation (Fig. 2B; see
also Ellen, 1988). Failure planes developed
within the colluvium in about half of the scars
/ ' / ,
/ .' / '
'
temporary
discontinous
channel
bedrock-colluvium
boundary
971
in hollows, leaving the basal colluvium in place
(Fig. 2B). Recent landslide scars on San Pedro
Ridge have been relatively stable since initial
failure (Reneau, 1988), although significant,
progressive erosion of colluvium can in some
cases occur over a period of years. For example,
a history of successive failures over an 18-yr
period is well documented in a relatively gentle
(17°) grassland hollow in the Lone Tree Creek
basin first studied by Lehre (1982) (Fig. 3), as
summarized by Wilson and others (1989).
STRATIGRAPHY AND
CHRONOLOGY
In order to constrain the depositional history
of hollows, 35 radiocarbon dates have been ob-
tained from 20 hollows in the northern San
Francisco Bay area. The sites consist of 10 hol-
lows on San Pedro Ridge in Marin County, 7
additional hollows in Marin County, and 3 hol-
lows in the Berkeley Hills of Alameda County
(Fig. 1; Table 1). Study sites were chosen based
on the availability of charcoal in the lower part
of a deposit, so that the approximate initiation of
deposition could be determined. Large charcoal
fragments or collections of many small frag-
ments were dated using conventional beta
counting methods where possible, and accelera-
tor mass spectrometry dating of small fragments
was used when charcoal was less abundant. The
dates include samples from multiple stratigraph-
ic levels in five deposits and different longitudi-
nal positions in six deposits. Because of their
critical importance in understanding the history
of hollows, site descriptions, including strati-
graphic observations, are presented in some
detail below.
 972 RENEAU AND OTHERS

The study sites vary in slope gradient, in up-

slope drainage area, and in the magnitude of
topographic convergence (Table 2), and these
variables may strongly influence the history of
specific sites. For example, the analyses of Ren-
eau and Dietrich (1987b) predict that min-
imum failure volume will decrease with increas-
ing slope gradient, so that failures could occur
more frequently on steeper slopes. In addition,
sites with large drainage areas, which typically
branch and include tributary hollows (Reneau
and Dietrich, 1987a), should be more influenced
by landslides triggered upslope than are sites
with small drainage areas. Local topographic
convergence is important because it affects the
flux of colluvium and runoff into hollows, with
faster depositional rates and greater pore-
pressure development generally expected in hol-
lows with stronger convergence. The local
topography can be quantified by a convergence
angle, which is the angle between the orientation
Figure 3. Photograph of 1974 landslide scar at Lone Tree Creek 1 site, taken in 1987. A of the hollow axis and the orientation of the
history of successive failures is documented here; a fresh scar in center of photograph occurred adjacent side slopes (Fig. 4); sites with conver-
in 1987, and, to left of person, a smaller failure occurred in 1982. Person at upper cross section gence angles of 30°-50° will be informally re-
of Figure 12. ferred to as "distinct hollows" in this paper, and
sites with convergence angles of 10°- 30° as
"subtle hollows."

TABLE 1. R A D I O C A R B O N D A T E S F R O M SAN F R A N C I S C O BAY A R E A HOLLOWS San Pedro Ridge

Site name Depth Radiocarbon age Laboratory Most of the age determinations for this study
(m) (yr B.P.) number
have been obtained from San Pedro Ridge
San Pedro Ridge above San Rafael (Figs. 1 and 5), and this area
Arbutus landslide, axis
Arbutus landslide, side
2.6
1.8
14.280
21,000
±
450*
±
500*
W-5456
W-5448
provides the most detailed depositional records.
Calyptroderma landslide 2.5 15,550 +
160 AA-1616 Reneau and others (1986) reported 9 basal dates
Cascade landslide 1.0 2360 ±70 AA-2548
3.1 10,080 i
80 AA-2547 from 6 sites on this ridge, and a total of 22 dates
Chockstone landslide, headscarp 3.2
4.2
9600
9830
±
110
120
±
AA-1612
AA-1611
from 10 hollows are now available (Table 1).
Chockstone landslide, lower scar 2.3 7650 290
± Beta-27254 These include radiocarbon dates from multiple
Hole, uppermost scar 1.7 13,720 ±
300* W-5641
Hole, upper scar 1.8 11,200 ±
670* UCLA-2443 stratigraphic levels in four hollows and, in addi-
Hole, head of gully
Hole, mid-gully
1.7
3.2
12,370
13,000
±
550
i
300
GX-11083
W-5638
tion, dates from different longitudinal positions
4.8 13,650 ±
300 W-5634 in four hollows. Bedrock at all sites is sandstone
Hungry Vulture swale 1.5 1230 ±
250* W-5639
Island landslide, headscarp 1.5 21,160 ±
400 W-5667 and shale of the Franciscan assemblage, and
25,850 ±
330
Island landslide, island
2.5
0.55 1735 ±95
AA-1613
AA-1614
vegetation is a mixed hardwood forest.
Lindenwood landslide, lower scar
2.5
1.5
9370
18,995
±
±
80
1140*
AA-2546
UCLA-2435
The Hole. The best exposed and most thor-
Lindenwood landslide, mid-scar 1.5 13.350 ±
600* W-5635 oughly dated site on San Pedro Ridge is re-
Mosquito landslide 1.5 11,670 +
1680
-
1390' GX-11163 ferred to as "the Hole," the largest landslide scar
Rodine landslide 2.0 9740 ± 660* GX-11162 in the study area of Reneau and Dietrich
Other Marin County sites (1987b) (Fig. 6). The site grades from a subtle
Lone Tree Creek 1 2.5 12,290 ± 140 AA-1618
4.2 12,915 ± 760* UCLA-2441 hollow in the upper reaches to a distinct hollow
Lone Tree Creek 2
Madrone Park Circle
2.65
2.0
9960
10,220
± 100
± 100
AA-1617
AA-1619
along the lower scar; a pre-1982 channel head
North San Pedro Road 3.5 29,150 ± 450 AA-1610 was probably present at the downslope end of
Pike County Gulch 3.5 6260 ± 250 Beta-27249
Third Valley 1, upper scar 2.5 10,560 ± 100 Beta-26812 the scar. The scar is about 100 m long, with a
Third Valley 1, lower gully
Third Valley 2
3.2
2.2
9130
10,090
± 400*
± 90
(none)
Beta-26502
maximum depth of 7.0 m (Figs. 6C and 7A),
3.3 10,580 ± 130 Beta-26503 and provides extensive exposures of the bedrock
Berkeley Hills surface and the colluvial stratigraphy. The lower
? 11,875 ± 720* UCLA-2442
Claremont Canyon
Grizzly Peak Blvd. 6 24,330 ± 350 AA-2545
part of the scar has a steep-sided main axis with
Skyline Blvd. 5 24,030 ± 310 AA-2544 a distinct concave bedrock profile (Fig. 7A),
and the landslide scarp extends up into and high-
•Presenled in Reneau and others (1986).
lights several subtle tributary hollows (Figs. 6B
 QUATERNARY COLLUVIAL DEPOSITION AND EROSION, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES 973

T A B L E 2. S I T E D A T A F R O M D A T E D H O L L O W S IN T H E SAN F R A N C I S C O BAY A R E A

Site name Deposit Hollow Convergence Distance Upslope

thickness gradient angle below drainage
(m) (degrees) (degrees) ridge area
<m) (m2)

San Pedro Ridge

Arbutus landslide 2.6 31 26 55 1,200
C a l y p u o d e r m a landslide 2.1 35 16 135 1,300
Cascade landslide 3.6 29 44 95 6,300
Chockstone landslide, headscarp 5.5 30 41 60 2,000
Chockstone landslide, lower scar 2.3 27 47 95 5,500 convergence
Hole, headscarp 2.3 38 II 45 400 angle
Hole, inner scar 7.0 35 30 90 2,800
Hungry Vulture swale 1.5 31 47 155 7,900
Island landslide, headscarp 3.0 23 48 50 2,400
Island landslide, island 2.5 22 50 90 5,900 Figure 4. Schematic topographic map of
Lindenwood landslide, lower scar 1.8 29 26 90 1,500
Lindenwood landslide, mid-scar 1.5 29 26 75 1,100 hillslope, illustrating convergence angle.
Mosquito landslide 1.5 28 35 60 2,600
Rodine landslide 2.0 30 19 40 800

Other Marin County sites

Lone Tree Cr. 1, upper scar 5.0 17 45 50 2,200
lows, suggesting more prolonged periods of flu-
Lone Tree Cr. 1, lower scat 4.2 17 45 70 3,200 vial erosion here. The other sites in distinct
Lone Tree Cr. 2 4.6 17 45 85 4,400
Madrone Park Circle 3.5 30 7 95 1,000 hollows yielded basal dates between 7 and 26
North San Pedro Road 3.5 14 16 65 700
Pike County Gulch 3.5 25 46 155 7,300
ka, and four sites have yielded 9-12 ka dates.
Third Valley 1, upper scar 2.5 28 28 65 3,200 Eight radiocarbon dates have been obtained
Third Valley 1. lower gully 3.2 14 48 190 21,300
Third Valley 2 5.5 21 35 55 1,900 from landslide scars in distinct hollows in three
Berkeley Hills
adjacent basins near the Hole (Fig. 8), and each
Claremont Canyon ? 15 ? 160 5,600 of these sites displays a unique stratigraphy. The
GriKly Peak Blvd. 7+ 35 31 55 ?
Skyline Blvd. 6+ 24 45 70 4,900
Island and Chockstone scars are the second and
third largest scars in the study area of Reneau
and Dietrich (1987b), with volumes of about
1,250 and 590 m 3 , whereas the 150-m3 size of
and 6C). The deepest part of the deposit con- dates have been obtained from six distinct hol- the Mosquito scar is more typical.
sists of about 4.0 m of coarse, angular, strat- lows on San Pedro Ridge, including the lower The Island landslide (Fig. 8A) is unusual in
ified gravels overlain by finer-textured, matrix- part of the Hole. The youngest, a 1230 yr B.P. that a small part of the original surface was left
supported colluvium. The lower gravels suggest date from Hungry Vulture swale (Table 1), was surrounded by the landslide scar, allowing two
a talus apron produced by raveling off a bedrock obtained at the downslope end of a long hollow. separate cross sections to be examined. It is also
slope; analogous modern deposits are present The deposit overlies water-polished bedrock; the lowest-gradient landslide studied on San
below bedrock outcrops in some San Pedro similar bedrock was not seen beneath other hol- Pedro Ridge, with a 22°-23° slope. At the
Ridge hollows.
Radiocarbon dates obtained from the deepest
part of the deposit at the Hole document rapid
deposition of the lower gravels in the latest Pleis-
tocene, and ages of 13,650 and 13,000 yr B.P.
were obtained 4.8 and 3.2 m deep, respectively
(Fig. 7A; Table 1). At the head of the inner
gully, an additional date of 12,370 + 550 yr B.P.
from the overlying matrix-supported colluvium,
at a depth of 2.0 m (Fig. 7A), shows that coarse
gravel deposition had ceased by this time. No
evidence of unconformities has been found in
exposures along the 100 m of scar, and a date of
13,720 yr B.P. from the uppermost scar, where
maximum thickness is only about 2.5 m, reveals
that deposition here began contemporaneously
with deposition in the deeper part downslope
(Fig. 7A). In the headscarp exposure, continu-
ous deposition is suggested by a progressive de-
crease in gravel content higher in the section Figure 5. Topographic map showing dated hollows on San Pedro Ridge and locations of
(Fig. 7B); this apparently records gradual areas shown in Figures 6B and 8A. A, Arbutus landslide; C, Calyptroderma landslide; Ca,
changes in soil texture in the source area over Cascade landslide; Ch, Chockstone landslide; H, the Hole; HV, Hungry Vulture swale; I, Island
time, possibly due to the progressive burial of landslide; L, Lindenwood landslide; M, Mosquito landslide; R, Rodine landslide. Roads shown
bedrock exposures. by dashed lines. LC, Lindenwood Court in Glenwood subdivision of San Rafael. Contour
Other Distinct Hollows. Basal radiocarbon interval is 50 ft; topography from San Quentin and San Rafael 7.5' quadrangles.
 974 RENEAU AND OTHERS

headscarp, a 3-m-thick section displays a distinct

unconformity at a depth of 1.35 m (Fig. 8B).
Clasts in the lower colluvium are very friable,
suggesting a greater age than most deposits, and
radiocarbon dates of 21,160 and 25,850 yr B.P.
from depths of 1.5 and 2.5 m confirm the greater
apparent age (Table 1). The unconformity is
marked by an abrupt change in color and tex-
ture, and lenses of well-sorted sand in the overly-
ing deposit record overland flow; similar recent
deposits of sand are seen at the downslope
end of many landslide scars in this area. The
sandy horizon grades up into the root-permeated
A horizon, and the upper part of this A horizon
contains sand apparently derived from a small
landslide scar present immediately upslope
(Fig. 8A).
Two dates have been obtained from the lower
cross section at the "island," yielding an age of
9370 yr B.P. for the base of the 2.5-m-thick
section and an age of 1735 yr B.P. for a gravelly
layer at a depth of 0.55 m (Fig. 8B, Table 1); the
latter date documents that deposition continued
into the late Holocene here. At the island, two
discontinuous stone lines are present at depths of
1.0 and 1.55 m, and they may record uncon- Figure 6. (A) Photograph of the Hole, a 100-m-long, 2,600-m 3 landslide scar that occurred
formities or distinct depositional events in the in January 1982. Failure plane in the upper scar and on left side of the lower scar is at an
lower hollow; the lower stone line seems to be approximately 1.5-m-deep soil horizon, below main rooting zone. Inner scar is a maximum of
traceable to the unconformity in the headscarp, 7 m deep, and failure of openwork gravels here may have been due to rapid undrained loading
bracketing the post-21 ka landslide to between caused by a debris flow generated upslope. (B) Topographic map of the Hole; surveyed in
1.7 and 9.4 ka. In sum, the dating and stratig- 1983 and 1984. (C) Isopach map of pre-failure thickness of colluvium at the Hole; depths to
raphy at the Island landslide document that bedrock obtained from reconstructed topography, exposures in scar, and soil pits. Hachured
different parts of this hollow have different his- line is 1982 scarp, which extends up into several subtle tributary hollows. Isopach contour
tories and that incomplete evacuation of collu- interval = 1.0 m.
vium has occurred in multiple Holocene
landslides.
Dates from different longitudinal positions tion (Figs. 8B and 9). Because most of the lower sites discussed above, and a date of 2360 yr B.P.
were also obtained from the Chockstone land- section was eroded in 1982, the presence or ab- from a depth of 1.0 m (Table 1) documents
slide scar (Figs. 8 and 9), recording a history sence of an unconformity cannot be determined, continued deposition into the late Holocene, as
different from that of the Island basin. The col- although the existence of four recognized land- seen in the Island basin. No unconformity was
luvium at the headscarp of the scar reached 5.5 slide scars upslope (Fig. 8A) suggests that such recognized in this section.
m in thickness, consisting of a 3-m-thick layer of incomplete evacuation is possible. Subtle Hollows. Radiocarbon dates have
coarse, angular, openwork gravel overlain by In the Mosquito landslide scar (Fig. 8), a been obtained from five landslide scars in subtle,
finer-textured colluvium with matrix-supported basal age of 11,670 yr B.P. was obtained from weakly convergent hollows on San Pedro Ridge,
gravel (Figs. 8B and 10); the lower gravel layer the lower axis (Table 1). A complex series of including the upper part of the Hole. All have
pinched out downslope as the deposit thinned to overlapping scars is present in the upper basin yielded basal dates between 9 and 16 ka (Table
about 3 m. Radiocarbon dates of 9830 and 9600 (Fig. 8A), and soil stratigraphy in the headscarp 1), overlapping with dates from the distinct hol-
yr B.P. obtained from depths of 4.2 and 3.2 m of the 1982 scar indicates that partial evacuation lows, although the latter tend to be younger.
(Table 1; Figs. 8 and 9) document that the of the lower hollow occurred during at least one Unconformities are also present in the subtle
gravel layer was deposited very rapidly, as seen older landslide event; a 13-cm-thick lens of col- hollows, indicated by multiple dates from two
at the Hole, although deposition of the gravels in luvium derived from the B horizon upslope sites. At the Arbutus landslide (Fig. 5), two dif-
the Chockstone basin occurred 3,000-4,000 yr (Munsell color 7.5 YR 5/6) unconformably ferent dates were obtained from a single cross
later. No unconformity is apparent in this sec- overlies a truncated BA horizon (10 YR section (Fig. 11). A date of 21,000 ± 500 yr B.P.
tion, and the gravel content progressively in- 3/2-3/3) (Fig. 8B). From the soil stratigraphy, from large charcoal fragments within coarse
creases with depth, as seen at the Hole. Two an estimated 1.2 m of the upper soil was eroded basal gravel on the side of the hollow contrasts
recent landslides upslope from the headscarp during this pre-1982 landslide, followed by 0.3 with a date of 14,280 + 450 yr B.P. from
(Fig. 8A) thus left no obvious stratigraphic m of deposition prior to 1982. smaller, rounded charcoal fragments within
record. Two dates have been obtained from a 3.6-m stratified, finer-textured basal gravels in the axis.
A basal date of 7650 yr B.P. from the lower section in an additional distinct hollow on San These dates record erosional events separated by
Chockstone scar documents deposition begin- Pedro Ridge. A basal date of 10,080 yr B.P. about 5,700-7,700 yr. At the Lindenwood
ning significantly later than at the headscarp sec- from Cascade landslide is similar to those of the landslide (Fig. 5), basal dates from two separate
 QUATERNARY COLLUVIAL DEPOSITION AND EROSION, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES 975

contour interval 1 meter

Figure 6. (Continued).
arbitrary datum

cross sections were obtained. A date of 18,995 ±

1140 yr B.P. from basal gravels at the down-
slope end of the scar contrasts with a 13,350 ±
600 yr B.P. date from finer-textured, matrix-
supported basal colluvium 15 m upslope at a
mid-scar location (Fig. 11), suggesting an addi-
tional late Pleistocene unconformity. No evi-
dence of unconformities younger than the latest
Pleistocene dates was seen at the Arbutus or
Lindenwood sites, or at the other dated sites in
subtle hollows.
Older colluvium is also present in some subtle
hollows on San Pedro Ridge, as indicated by the
degree of soil profile development. Colluvial
deposits in the 1 -26 ka age range have brownish
colors (Munsell hue 10 YR or 7.5 YR), whereas
greater ages in other deposits are shown by their
redder hues (5 YR) and higher clay contents. A
basal date of 29,150 yr B.P. (Table 1) was ob-
tained from one deposit with 5 YR hues in a
subtle, low-gradient hollow along North San
Pedro Road (Fig. 1), about 2.5 km northeast of
the San Pedro Ridge sites. In some cases, the
older deposits occur unconformably beneath Figure 7. (A) Longitudinal profile of the Hole, showing pre-failure ground surface, bedrock
younger colluvium, as was observed in a small surface, and locations of dated charcoal samples. (B) Gravel content in headscarp of the Hole.
 ridgecrest
A nose
hollow axis
channel
flow lines
dirt road
radiocarbon dates

1982 landslide scar

4
OLDER LANDSLIDE SCARS

distinct, vegetated

î A degraded
t ^

^ I vague

dark (10 YR 3/2-2/3)

Chockstone Landslide Island Landslide Mosquito Landslide upper soil, with matrix-
ß headscarp lower scar headscarp "island" headscarp supported clasts
[A, AB, BA horizons]
unconformity
gravelly layer 1.7 ka - brown (7.5 YR 4/4-5/6)
- N lower colluvium, with
1 - unconformity 1 - matrix-supported clasts
1 - 1 - ; Jna-'/I 11.7 ka
/ / T l U t [B horizon]
CD
O
CO
21.2 ka &&&
1
' \
—
>
•
, predominantly openwork,
•e \ \ " ' \
/ . N N ,
>
clast-supported gravels
co 2 • 2 -
/ « '
2 H I X
/ S
'-"
G O" '
• <1 1
with yellowish brown
TD
C 7.7 ka (10 YR 4/4-5/6) matrix
3 T r h r f i 9.4 ka
0 25.6 ka r r m f n
5 sand lens
3
1
CD
9.6 ka
O <D O discontinuous stone line

m gradual, transitional
O ' * ? •

Q.
boundary
CD
O 4, Figure 8. (A) Sketch map of Chockstone, Island, and Mosquito landslide scars and surrounding brdrock-colluvium
9.8 ka 77777777 boundary
l i f t e d basins, showing location of dated samples. Scars are grouped into different age classes based on scarp
degradation: youngest pre-1982 scars are vegetated, yet retain vertical scarps; intermediate-age scars
uncertain correlation
have distinct margins, although no vertical scarps remain; oldest scars have vague margins, and
<?>. ^ o - q . . c=
between sections
scarps are reduced to rough slope breaks. (B) Simplified sections through colluvial deposits, showing
5- CV <?.<>•.<? •
soil horizons, stratigraphy, locations of dated charcoal samples, and possible correlations between radiocarbon-dated
9, sections. Basal age at Mosquito landslide obtained from lower scar and tentatively extrapolated to sample
m ï r M headscarp.
 QUATERNARY COLLUVIAL DEPOSITION AND EROSION, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES
Chockstone
% Landslide
Bedrock surface
20 m
30 m
i •7650 +/- 290 BP
landslide scar in a subtle hollow 20 m west of
Chockstone landslide (Fig. 8A), recording in-
complete evacuation in a previous landslide. In
other cases, the older colluvium occupies buried
bedrock hollows that have no topographic ex-
pression; a small 1982 landslide scar on a side
slope 10 m east of the Hole (Fig. 6B) exposes
Figure 10. Photograph of coarse, angular, openwork gravel at
headscarp of Chockstone landslide, dated at ca. 9.6-9.8 ka.
977
Figure 9. Longitudinal profile
of Chockstone basin, showing
1982 landslide scar and loca-
tions of dated charcoal samples.
Thickness of colluvium deter-
mined from exposures in scar,
soil pits, and seismic lines. Cross
sections at sample locations are
also shown and illustrate the
variable shape of the deposi-
tional zone. The upper cross sec-
tion is in a steep-sided sandstone
trough, with the colluvium con-
sisting of angular openwork
gravel; relatively high deposi-
tional rates in this trough may
have produced the convex slope
seen in the longitudinal profile.
one such deposit. Similar deposits with no topo-
graphic expression are also present in the Red-
wood Creek basin of northwest California County. The occurrence of these old colluvial
(Marron, 1982) and on Bolinas Ridge in Marin deposits suggests relatively great stability of
some sites.
Other Marin County Sites
Two additional dated sites have similar bed-
rock and vegetation to the San Pedro Ridge
Arbutus Landslide
21,000 +/- 500
14,280 +/- 450 BP
13,350 +/- 600 BP
Lindenwood Landslide
Franciscan
18,995 +/- 1140 BP sandstone
Figure 11. Cross sections across Arbutus and Lindenwood landslide
scars, showing locations of dated charcoal samples, bedrock-
colluvium boundary, and approximate pre-1982 ground surface
(dashed lines).
978
sites, located in the Pike County Gulch basin on
Bolinas Ridge and near Madrone Park Circle in
Mill Valley (Fig. 1). The Pike County Gulch site
is a large (750 m 3 ) 1982 landslide scar and has a
relatively large drainage area of about 7,300 m 2
(Table 2). The colluvium is very loose and grav-
elly, containing a high percentage of angular
sandstone clasts, and has yielded a relatively
young basal date of 6260 + 250 yr B.P. (Table
1). Additional exposures downslope in the
debris-flow path reveal a basal unit containing
subrounded clasts overlain by colluvium with
angular gravel, recording a transition from flu-
vial erosion to colluvial deposition as the deposit
extended downslope.
The Madrone Park Circle site is a 1982 land-
slide scar in a subtle forested hollow. Present
topographic convergence is very low (Table 2),
and the topographic expression of this hollow
has been nearly erased; a topographic map of the
hillslope is presented in Reneau and Dietrich
(1987a). A date of 10,220 yr B.P. was obtained
from a depth of 2.0 m in a deposit reaching at
least 3.5 m in total thickness, indicating that
most of the deposition here has occurred during
the Holocene.
Two adjacent grassland hollows underlain by
Franciscan sandstone have been studied at the
head of Lone Tree Creek on the south slope of
Mount Tamalpais (Fig. 1). Lone Tree Creek 1 is
a large 1974 landslide scar with extensive
exposures of colluvium (Figs. 3 and 12). The
deposit reached a maximum thickness of about
5.5 m and contained about 4,000 m 3 of collu-
Lone Tree Creek #1
base of
12,300 yr B.P.
horizon
upper scar
Franciscan
sandstone
lower scar
RENEAU AND OTHERS
vium prior to failure; an isopach map of the
deposit is presented in Wilson and others
(1989). A distinctive horizon that contains
small, scattered fragments of charcoal and
common reddish clasts occurs within the de-
posit. The horizon also generally contains
coarser gravel than the lower, more yellowish
colluvium. The charcoal-bearing layer overlies
an unconformity in the deposit and postdates a
major erosional event in this hollow. Whereas in
the upper scar it occurs 2-3 m above bedrock, in
the lower scar the horizon rests on bedrock in
the axis and drapes over the lower colluvium on
the side (Fig. 12); gravel layers in the lower
colluvium are truncated by the upper unit. Two
radiocarbon dates obtained from the basal part
of the upper horizon in different parts of the scar
are essentially the same at ca. 12.3 ka (Table 1),
approximating the age of the earlier erosional
event.
As a comparison with Lone Tree Creek 1, a
single date was obtained from a pre-1943 land-
slide scar in the next hollow to the south (Lone
Tree Creek 2). Maximum thickness here was
about 4-5 m before failure, and a date of 9960 ±
100 yr B.P. was obtained from a depth of 2.65
m (Table 1). Although no basal age could be
obtained here, the available date suggests a pe-
riod of accumulation similar to that at Lone
Tree Creek 1.
Two additional dated sites in Marin County
are in Third Valley on Inverness Ridge (Fig. 1),
within a mixed bishop pine-hardwood forest
developed on weathered granitic bedrock. At
base of
12,300 yr B.P.
horizon
Franciscan
sandstone
Third Valley 1, the steep upper hollow contains
a large 1982 landslide scar, and extensive gully-
ing occurred in 1982 in the lower-gradient swale
downslope. A basal date of 10,560 yr B.P. was
obtained from the upper scar, and a basal date of
9130 yr B.P. was obtained from the gully 125 m
downslope (Table 1). The gully exposure is lo-
cated farther downslope than the other dated
hollows and has a much larger drainage area of
about 21,000 m 2 (Table 2). No stratigraphic
breaks suggestive of unconformities were seen at
either location. At Third Valley 2, another large
1982 landslide scar, two dates have been ob-
tained from a single stratigraphic section. Ages
of 10,580 yr B.P. for the lower colluvium and
10,090 yr B.P. 1.1m higher in the section (Table
1) document rapid initial deposition of collu-
vium. The nearly identical basal ages from Third
Valley 1 and 2 suggest similar histories for these
two hollows.
Berkeley Hills
Radiocarbon dates have been obtained from
three hollows in the Berkeley Hills. Reneau and
others (1986) reported a date of 11,875 yr B.P.
for a low-gradient site in Claremont Canyon
(Table 1; Fig. 1). The dated exposure is at the
lower end of a hollow where it merges with a
broad colluvial apron above the main valley
floor and is atypical of the dated deposits. Depo-
sition here may have been associated with either
the hollow upslope or the valley fill downslope.
Additional dates have been obtained from
Figure 12. Cross sec-
tions across Lone Tree
Creek 1 landslide scar,
showing approximate
pre-1974 ground surface
(dashed lines), bedrock-
colluvium boundary, and
location of dated horizon.
4 m
_i i
 QUATERNARY COLLUVIAL DEPOSITION AND EROSION, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES 979

two large deposits near the crest of the Berkeley Ridge suggest late Pleistocene landslides in each tral California hollows record the burial of Pleis-
Hills to the southeast (Fig. 1). Sites below basin separated by roughly 4,000-8,000 yr. An tocene stream channels by colluvium following
Grizzly Peak Boulevard and along Skyline additional late Pleistocene landslide is probably the change to a drier climate. The postulated
Boulevard are both on chert of the Monterey recorded by the unconformity at Lone Tree lack of colluvial deposition in the wetter periods
Group; present vegetation includes introduced Creek 1, and Holocene unconformities are pres- of the Pleistocene presumably reflected much
eucalyptus and pine, whereas the native vegeta- ent in the Mosquito and Island basins on San greater runoff that was capable of transporting
tion probably consisted of grassland or north Pedro Ridge. the colluvial debris shed from adjacent hill-
coastal scrub. Both deposits are very gravelly, slopes. This hypothesis implies a synchroneity of
with the lower sections dominated by stratified, GENERALIZED MODELS OF basal ages that would correspond to the period
angular, openwork gravels. Dates from the DEPOSITION AND EROSION of changing climate. Pollen analyses from Clear
lower parts of both deposits are about 24 ka IN HOLLOWS Lake, 110 km north, show that a change toward
(Table 1), suggesting similar histories for many species indicating drier conditions began ca. 13
deposits on this ridge crest. The history of hollows in the central Califor- ka and was generally complete by ca. 10 ka
nia Coast Ranges appears to be complex, and (Adam, 1988). Although the latest period of
Summary none of the general conceptual models discussed deposition in many hollows did begin during
in the Introduction is adequate to characterize and immediately after the period 13-10 ka
Study of the 20 hollows discussed above re- fully the history of these sites. Evidence pertain- (Fig. 13), deposition was not restricted to this
veals significant variations in stratigraphy and ing to each of these models is discussed below. climatic transition and instead occurred under a
chronology, documenting diverse depositional range of climates. Older basal ages range from
histories. Basal ages range from 1 to 29 ka, Long-Term Stability ca. 29 to 14 ka, extending from the last intersta-
although about half are between 9 and 14 ka dial until after the peak of the late Wisconsinan
(Fig. 13). Rapid initial deposition of coarse Long-term stability of some hollows is re- glaciation, and younger ages of 1-8 ka docu-
openwork gravels occurred at the Hole and at corded by the presence of old colluvial deposits ment deposition beginning well after the
Chockstone landslide, and of finer-textured col- mantling bedrock hollows with no topographic Pleistocene-Holocene transition (Fig. 13).
luvium at Third Valley 2. Late Holocene deposi- expression. Subtle topographic noses formed on Although a model of climatically induced
tion is recorded by dates from upper levels at the colluvial deposits have been observed at two deposition of colluvium is probably inadequate
Island and Cascade sites. Colluvium in down- locations in central California, on Bolinas Ridge for most dated sites, it may apply to the down-
slope parts of hollows is generally younger than in Marin County and in the Berkeley Hills, al- slope parts of some hollows reflecting relatively
in the upslope parts, shown by paired dates at though such inversion of topography is atypical small changes in the location of channel heads.
the Chockstone, Island, and Third Valley 1 of hollows in this region. No evidence was seen Reneau and others (1986) and Montgomery and
landslide scars, and by the stratigraphy at Lone for the relief inversion mechanisms proposed by Dietrich (1988) have suggested that the location
Tree Creek 1, although at the Hole, deposition Bryan (1940) and Mills (1981), involving depo- of channel heads and the length of hollows in
in different parts began synchronously, and at sition of bouldery debris on less resistant part reflect the local climate and are thus sensi-
the Lindenwood site, the younger of two dates bedrock. tive to regional climate changes. For example,
was obtained upslope. Incomplete evacuation of for slope gradients of 20°-35°, channel heads
colluvium in earlier erosional events is indicated Climatic Control on Colluvial Deposition are typically about 10-20 m farther upslope in
by probable unconformities in five of the 20 the wetter climate of coastal Oregon, where an-
dated hollows. Radiocarbon dates from the Ar- Schlocker (1974) and Shlemon and others nual rainfall is about 1,500 mm/yr, than in cen-
butus and Lindenwood basins on San Pedro (1987) proposed that colluvial deposits in cen- tral coastal California, with about 800 mm/yr of
rain (D. R. Montgomery, unpub. data). There is,
however, much variation in the location of
channel heads in each area, associated with re-
cent landsliding, and there is also much overlap
between the two populations (Montgomery and
Dietrich, 1988). Changes in channel-head loca-
tion caused by recent landslides in many cases
exceed 20 m and are probably more important
in most steep hollows than those induced by
regional climatic changes.
Basal Radiocarbon Age (ka)
Cyclic Instability
Figure 13. Histogram of basal radiocarbon dates from hollows in San Francisco Bay area,
with each date recording the approximate initiation of deposition at different locations. Be- Evidence for a recurring cycle of accumula-
cause most hollows with dates from two longitudinal positions yield variable ages, such paired tion and evacuation of colluvium in hollows is
dates are included as separate sites. Several dates are below recognized unconformities, and provided by the presence of probable uncon-
unconformities may also be present at other sites. These dates, therefore, do not necessarily formities in five of the 20 deposits reported in
record the last evacuation event at each site. this study, recording partial erosion of colluvium
 980
in both Pleistocene and Holocene landslides.
The 1-8 ka basal ages at Hungry Vulture swale,
Pike County Gulch, and Chockstone landslide
may also record Holocene landslides. As men-
tioned earlier, Marron (1982, 1985) similarly
reported the presence of unconformities in col-
luvial deposits in northwest California, and
Shlemon and others (1987) reported evidence
for multiple Holocene failures in a hollow at
Pacifica, California. The stratigraphic and chron-
ologic evidence for recurring landslides in both
the late Pleistocene and the Holocene, combined
with the well-documented occurrence of recent
landslides in hollows, supports a model of cyclic
accumulation and evacuation of colluvium from
hollows. A model of climatically controlled
deposition, however, as discussed above, cannot
be ruled out for the downslope parts of some
hollows. In addition, the available basal ages
from hollows suggest that landsliding has not
been uniformly distributed through time, but in-
stead has been influenced by climatic changes.
The clustering of ages at ca. 14-9 ka (Fig. 13)
for sites with varying topography, including
both relatively steep and gentle slope gradients
and large and small drainage areas, varying
vegetation, and at recognized unconformities,
argues for widespread hillslope instability during
the Pleistocene-Holocene transition. Landsliding
in hollows, however, was clearly not restricted
to this period, and all hollows were not "cleaned
out" at this time.
DISCUSSION
The chronologic data and stratigraphic obser-
vations presented in this study are generally con-
sistent with a cycle of alternating accumulation
and evacuation of colluvium in California Coast
Range hollows, as inferred from modern proc-
esses. Unconformities in the deposits reflect
partial erosion of colluvium in both Pleistocene
and Holocene events, as is often caused by mod-
ern landslides (Reneau and Dietrich, 1987b).
Longitudinal variations in age within a hollow
are also consistent with landslides that involve
only part of a hollow in each event. The obser-
vation that colluvium is generally younger
downslope may be partially explained by an in-
creasing frequency of debris flows, and conse-
quently more frequent erosional events, as the
upslope drainage area increases in a hollow
(Reneau and Dietrich, 1987a).
Basal radiocarbon dates from hollows show a
broad range in age. The latest period of deposi-
tion at most dated sites began between 16 and 9
ka, particularly from 14-9 ka (Fig. 13), span-
RENEAU AND OTHERS
ning the period of déglaciation. Late Wiscon-
sinan glaciation in California began ca. 26 ka
(Atwater and others, 1986), and deposition be-
ginning during the early stages of this glaciation
is documented by ca. 24 ka dates from two de-
posits in the Berkeley Hills and a ca. 26 ka date
from San Pedro Ridge. One dated deposit in
Marin County documents accumulation that
began ca. 29 ka, during the previous interstadial.
A simple climatically controlled model of filling
of Pleistocene stream channels or gullies with
colluvium following the change to Holocene
climate, as proposed by Schlocker (1974) and
Shlemon and others (1987) for sites in the San
Francisco Bay area, is largely inconsistent with
these data. Such a model, however, may apply
to the downslope parts of some hollows, reflect-
ing climatically induced changes in channel-
head location.
A more important climatic influence may be
present in the timing of landslides. The common
occurrence of basal ages at ca. 14-9 ka, at sites
with varying topography and vegetation, sug-
gests more widespread landsliding in the latest
Pleistocene than in the Holocene as proposed
earlier by Reneau and others (1986). It is un-
likely that such a clustering reflects an inherent
time scale of failure, owing to widely varying
site conditions. Specifically, stability analyses
suggest that root strength along the margins of a
potential failure imposes constraints on landslide
size and that each colluvial deposit must reach a
critical size before failure can occur (Reneau and
Dietrich, 1987b). This critical size should vary
as a function of vegetation, slope gradient, soil
texture, and local hydrology. In addition, depo-
sitional rates of colluvium vary greatly between
sites (Reneau, 1988), and such a critical deposit
size should thus be reached at very different
times in different hollows. The clustering of
basal radiocarbon ages thus seems to record cli-
matic fluctuations that are superimposed on a
cycle of alternating accumulation and evacua-
tion of colluvium, producing regional fluctua-
tions in the discharge of debris from hillslopes.
We propose that failures on steep slopes at
sites with typical loamy, matrix-supported col-
luvium are generally scattered through time,
with the timing of failure controlled in part by
the depositional rate of colluvium and the
strength provided by local vegetation (for exam-
ple, Reneau and Dietrich, 1987b). In addition to
these typical steep sites, considerable additional
colluvium is stored in relatively stable deposits.
Deposits that are comparatively stable include
sites with low slope gradients and sites where
local hydrologie conditions allow subsurface
runoff to drain, such as through coarse basal
gravel layers or into highly fractured bedrock.
The stable colluvial deposits require exceptional
conditions to fail, such as unusually high-
intensity rainfall that results in greatly elevated
pore pressures, repeated large storms that result
in progressive upslope failures from landslide
scarps or channel heads, or secondary failures
triggered from debris flows originating upslope.
For example, the four largest landslide scars in
the study area of Reneau and Dietrich (1987b)
on San Pedro Ridge are spatially clustered, sug-
gesting failure of relatively stable deposits asso-
ciated with a local rainfall cell of exceptional
intensity. Periods with increased storm intensity
and frequency over broad regions could cause
widespread evacuation of the more stable depos-
its, and such a period at ca. 14-9 ka is suggested
by the clustering of basal ages from hollows.
Extended periods of widespread landsliding, by
discharging exceptional volumes of colluvium
from hillsides, may also contribute to aggrada-
tion along streams.
Support for a connection between widespread
landsliding in hollows and aggradation along
streams is present in the stratigraphy of two
drainages on the Point Reyes Peninsula (Rypins
and others, 1989). Aggradation in these valleys
began ca. 12 ka, associated with thick debris-
flow deposits, and slowed considerably by ca. 10
ka. Periods of stream aggradation in this region
have also occurred during the Holocene (Pape,
1978; Haible, 1980), although the relative
timing in different basins and the magnitude
of these aggradation events has not been
determined.
Evidence for major stream aggradation dur-
ing the Pleistocene-Holocene transition has also
been cited from other nonglaciated parts of Cali-
fornia (Marchand, 1977; Swan and others,
1977; Ponti and others, 1980; Weldon, 1983,
1986; Lettis, 1985; Ponti, 1985; Wells and oth-
ers, 1987, 1989). The timing of stream aggrada-
tion is well constrained by Weldon (1986) for
Cajon Creek in the Transverse Ranges, where
aggradation extended from ca. 17 to 6 ka and
culminated at ca. 14-12 ka. This fill event at
Cajon Creek was the largest in the past 50,000
yr (Weldon, 1986). Farther east in the eastern
Mojave Desert, Wells and others (1987, 1989)
used dated shorelines of pluvial Lake Mojave to
constrain fan aggradation between ca. 12.5 and
9.5 ka. The apparent similarity in timing of hill-
slope erosion and stream aggradation over di-
verse parts of California suggests that there may
have been a common meteorologic control. This
is at a time when atmospheric general circula-
 QUATERNARY COLLUVIAL DEPOSITION AND EROSION, CALIFORNIA COAST RANGES
tion models indicate that major changes in the
location and strength of the jet stream occurred
over western North America (for example,
Kutzbach, 1987).
Modern landsliding in colluvium occurs dur-
ing periods of relatively long-duration high-
intensity rainfall (Caine, 1980; Cannon and
Ellen, 1985, 1988; Neary and Swift, 1987;
Wieczorek, 1987; Wieczorek and Sarmiento,
1988). In coastal California, these storms result
from unusual meteorological conditions involv-
ing the formation of a high-latitude high-
pressure region, or "block" near the Gulf of
Alaska, a weakening and southward shift of the
semi-permanent North Pacific high, and the
formation of a low-pressure region along the
California coast. These events allow the conver-
gence of cold polar air masses and warm, moist
subtropical air masses that have been responsi-
ble for the periods of heaviest rain (Weaver,
1962; Cayan and Namias, 1982; Monteverdi,
1982; Namias, 1982; Hirschboeck, 1987). Ex-
amples include the storms of 21-24 December
1955, 21-23 December 1964, 18-27 January
1969, and 3-5 January 1982, all periods of ex-
ceptional landslide activity and major flooding
in parts of California. Similar blocking events
have also been linked to historic and late Holo-
cene lakes in the Mojave Desert of southeastern
California associated with heavy rainfall in the
San Bernardino Mountains (Enzel and others,
1989; Wells and others, 1989). In addition,
Wells and others (1989) proposed that Lake
Mojave high stands at ca. 13.7-11.7 ka record
more frequent flood events in the San Bernar-
dino Mountains, suggesting a higher frequency
of such blocking events in the latest Pleistocene.
The blocking events occur as a result of ex-
treme meridional flow in the upper atmosphere
(for example, Lamb, 1972; Hirschboeck, 1987),
and by analogy with modern météorologie con-
ditions, the accelerated hillslope erosion pro-
posed for ca. 14-9 ka may reflect extended
periods of meridional flow. Historic periods
characterized by frequent blocking display
greater climatic variability than do periods of
predominantly zonal atmospheric flow (for ex-
ample, Lamb, 1977), and the existence of more
pronounced meridional flow during the terminal
Wisconsinan déglaciation is supported by di-
verse paleoenvironmental records that indicate
major climatic variability at this time. For ex-
ample, sea surface-temperature reconstructions
in the Pacific Ocean from cores off the Oregon
coast suggest much greater variability during the
period ca. 15-10.5 ka than during the Holocene
(Moore, 1973). On the basis of lake-level data
from the Great Basin, Benson and Thompson
(1987) suggested greater climatic variability dur-
ing the period 13-10 ka, with major high stands
in several lakes followed by rapid retreat. In
addition, Spaulding and Graumlich (1986) pro-
posed that vegetation changes in the southwest-
ern deserts reflect pronounced meridional flow
from 12-8 ka that contrasted with zonal flow
during full-glacial time. The correlation between
the basal radiocarbon ages from hollows and
these diverse records of climatic change supports
the inference that hillslope erosion in central
California hollows was affected by climatic
changes at the end of the Pleistocene.
CONCLUSIONS
The detailed study of colluvial deposits pre-
sented herein documents a complex history of
erosion and deposition in California Coast
Range hollows. A cycle of alternating accumula-
tion and evacuation of colluvium probably
characterizes most sites, with landslides occur-
ring during the late Pleistocene as well as the
Holocene. This cycle of erosion and deposition
has apparently been influenced by regional cli-
matic fluctuations, with more widespread land-
sliding occurring at ca. 14-9 ka. The period of
increased landsliding may have been caused by
extended periods of meridional flow in the
upper atmosphere during the terminal Wiscon-
sinan deglaciation that led to frequent blocking
events over the North Pacific Ocean and more
frequent intense storms over California. The ac-
celerated discharge of colluvium from hillslopes
may in turn have contributed to stream aggrada-
tion in diverse parts of California. Hollows,
which are the primary storage site for colluvium
on many hillslopes, may provide a critical link
between climatic fluctuations, sediment produc-
tion, and stream aggradation in many areas.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank the California Department
of Parks and Recreation for access to China
Camp and Mt. Tamalpais State Parks, the City
of San Rafael for access to Barbier Memorial
Park, and Oscar Brostrom and Jack and Patty
Wright for access to sites near Inverness. O.K.
Davis generously provided an examination of
charcoal fragments from San Pedro Ridge. Field
assistance by D. Chambers, L. Collins, L. Den-
gler, E. Hughes, P. Jordan, A. Lagios, J. Mani-
takos, M. Mauldon, D. Montgomery, G. Muller,
A. Niederhov, R. Olshansky, S. Raugust,
K. Rich, J. Sturman, C. Wilson and M. Young-
981
man is gratefully appreciated. The manuscript
in its various stages has benefited from reviews
by G. Curtis, R. Dorn, C. Harrington, H. Kelsey,
D. Montgomery, and T. Oberlander. Support
for this project was provided by National Sci-
ence Foundation Grants EAR84-16775 and
EAR84-51175, a grant from the Pacific Gas
and Electric Company, and a Department of
Energy postdoctoral fellowship.
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