Proceedings of the 2014 22nd International Conference on Nuclear Engineering

ICONE22
July 7-11, 2014, Prague, Czech Republic

ICONE22-30844

COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS MODELING OF TWO-PHASE BOILING FLOW

AND CRITICAL HEAT FLUX

Adrian Tentner, Elia Merzari, Prasad Vegendla

Argonne National Laboratory
Argonne, Illinois, USA

ABSTRACT
This paper presents recent advances in the modeling of
two-phase boiling flow and critical heat flux that have been
implemented in the Extended Boiling Framework (EBF) [1, 2,
3]. The EBF code was developed as a customized module built
on the foundation of the commercial Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD) code STAR-CD, which provides general two-
phase flow modeling capabilities, for the detailed analysis of
the two-phase flow and heat transfer phenomena that occur in
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) fuel assemblies. These
phenomena include coolant phase changes and multiple flow
regimes that directly influence the coolant interaction with the
fuel pins and, ultimately, the reactor performance. An effort to
expand the EBF two-phase models and to explore their
applicability to other CFD codes is currently underway.
The paper presents results of recent CFD analyses of
Critical Heat Flux (CHF) experiments that have measured the
axial distribution of wall temperature in two-phase upward flow
in a vertical channel with a heated wall. The experiments were
designed to produce the onset of CHF in the upper half of the
heated channel. The simulated axial distribution of wall
temperature is compared with experimental data, illustrating the
ability of the extended EBF model to capture the onset of CHF
for a wide range of thermal-hydraulic conditions relevant for
BWRs. The paper concludes with a discussion of results and
plans for future work.
INTRODUCTION
The Extended Boiling Framework (EBF) was
developed for the fine-mesh, 3-dimensional simulation of the
two-phase flow phenomena that occur in a Boiling Water
Reactor (BWR) fuel assembly. These phenomena include
coolant phase changes and multiple flow topologies that
directly influence the reactor performance. The EBF was
developed as a specialized module built on the foundation of
the CFD code STAR-CD [4]. An effort is underway to port the
EBF to the high-fidelity CFD code NEK-5000 [5] which is
being extended to provide general two-phase flow modeling
capabilities. A first generation of models describing the inter-
phase mass, momentum, and energy transfer phenomena
specific for various flow regime topologies have been
previously implemented in the CFD code STAR-CD [5]. The
EBF boiling models, which describe the inter-phase mass,
momentum, and energy transfer phenomena specific for various
local flow topologies, allow the simulation of a wide spectrum
of flow regimes expected in a BWR fuel assembly [1, 2, 3]. An
overview of these models is included below in Section 1.
This paper reviews the current status of key two-phase
flow phenomenological models and focuses on the extension
and validation of models that describe the cladding-to-coolant
heat transfer and the onset of CHF. The EBF module uses a
local inter-phase surface topology map in conjunction with
models for the inter-phase mass, momentum, and energy
exchanges for the bubbly, droplet, and transition flow
topologies. It also calculates the conjugate heat transfer using a
wall heat transfer model that describes the heat exchange
between the heated wall and the two-phase or single-phase
coolant. It is shown that the wall heat transfer model used in
conjunction with various local flow topologies allows the
prediction of the onset of CHF for a wide range of thermal-
hydraulic conditions relevant for BWRs without the use of
empirical correlations traditionally used in sub-channel codes.
NOMENCLATURE
Latin
e internal energy, enthalpy, J/kg
gravitational acceleration, 9.806 m/s2
G flow rate, kg/(m2s)
h heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2K)

1 Copyright © 2014 by ASME

k turbulence kinetic energy, m2/s2 determines the local flow configuration as a function of flow
m mass transfer rate, kg/m3 conditions and prescribes which models and properties are
sum of the inter-phase forces, N/m3 relevant for each computational cell. The sub-cooled bubbly
pressure, Pa flow topology, with vapor bubbles flowing in a continuous
q heat flux, W/m2 liquid has an established base of CFD modeling experience.
Q inter-phase heat transfer, W/m3 The Extended Boiling Framework uses an inter-phase surface
topology map that includes, in addition to the bubbly topology,
t time, s a droplet or mist topology and a transition topology. The
T temperature, K droplet topology consists of liquid droplets flowing in a
Tsat saturation temperature, K continuous vapor stream. An additional wall-cell topology is
velocity vector, m/s used for cells adjacent to walls, as described below.
w axial velocity scalar m/s The direct simulation of the transition from bubbly flow,
through slug and churn flow, to annular flow was not pursued
Greek for practical reasons. To resolve large bubbles of size
volume fraction comparable to channel diameter would consume large computer
 void fraction difference resources on the necessarily fine grids and short timescales, and
 characteristic mesh size above all on the extraction of suitable time-averaged results
from the simulation of a chaotic process. Instead, for transition-
dissipation rate of turbulence kinetic energy, m2/s3
topology cells we use a topology-based combination of the
 thermal conductivity, W/(mK) terms appropriate for the basic topologies, bubbly and mist.
 area fraction This can be interpreted as having a transition topology cell
density, kg/m3 where a fraction of the cell volume presents the bubbly
, t
laminar and turbulence shear stresses, N/m2 topology while the remaining volume presents the mist
topology. An alternative interpretation is that the map is
Subscripts prescribing the probability of being in one topology or the other
bn bubble nucleation while solving equations for the time-averaged flow.
drop liquid droplets
x phase interface II. Transport Equations
k phase subscript
l liquid The STAR-CD Eulerian two-phase solver tracks the mass,
g gas momentum, and energy of the liquid and vapor phases in each
q quenching computational cell. Full details of the Eulerian two-phase flow
sat saturation state models in STAR-CD can be found in [4, 6]. The main equations
w wall solved are the conservation of mass, momentum and energy for
each phase.

1. TWO-PHASE FLOW MODEL OVERVIEW The conservation of mass equation for phase k is:

k 
k   . k  k k   m ki  m
(1)
I. Approach t ik
The conservation of momentum equation for phase k is:
The CFD-LWR code, also referred to as the Extended

    .    .   t  (2)
Boiling Framework (EBF) was initially developed as a t k k k kkkk k k k

customized module built on the foundation of the commercial  k    k  k 

CFD-code STAR-CD which provides general two-phase flow of energy equation for phase k is:

The conservation
modeling capabilities. It is now being expanded with the goal   e   .  e   .  T   Q (3)
of implementing it in the open-source CFD code NEK-5000.
t kkk kkkk k k k
The NEK-5000 code is a high-fidelity single-phase fluid flow
An extended k -  model containing extra source terms that
code which is currently being expanded to model two-phase
boiling flows. During the NEK-5000 transition from single- arise from the inter-phase forces present in the momentum
phase to two-phase modeling capabilities the extension and equations is used to model turbulence in the flow [6].
validation of the EBF is being pursued in the framework of the
original STAR-CD implementation. The model development III. Inter-phase Surface Topology Map and Local Flow
strategy adopted for the simulation of boiling flow phenomena Configuration
in a BWR fuel bundle was described in [1]. A central concept Inter-phase interactions in multiphase fluids depend on
is that of a local inter-phase surface topology map which both the area and the topology of the phase interface. Sub-

2 Copyright © 2014 by ASME

channel thermal-hydraulic codes rely on flow regime maps to fraction. This 1-dimensional topology map is illustrated in Fig.
evaluate the interface topology using cross-section-averaged 2 together with the associated flow topologies.
flow parameters. CFD codes, which divide the flow space into
much finer computational cells cannot rely on the traditional
sub-channel flow regimes, but must evaluate instead the local
inter-phase surface topology. The ensemble of many
computational cells with relatively simple inter-phase surface
topologies can provide complex global topologies that include
all the traditional sub-channel flow regimes.
Most of the advanced CFD codes currently allow the
simulation of dispersed flows only (bubbly or mist flows)
where the flow topology is originally defined and remains the
same in both space and time. This approach is applicable only
to flows without topology changes and without sharp interfaces.
Flow topology changes are typical for boiling flows in BWR
fuel assemblies as illustrated schematically in Figure 1a.
Moreover, local sharp interfaces often exist in boiling flows, Figure 2 Inter-phase Surface Topology Map used for the
e.g., between Taylor bubbles and the near-wall film in slug Extended Boiling Framework
flow, or between the gas core and the liquid film in annular-
mist flow in heated pipes or rod bundles. The changing IV The wall-cell sharp-interface topology
topology conditions typical for boiling flows in BWR fuel
assemblies, including sharp-interface topologies such as the The topology map discussed above does not address
annular-mist flow regime, cannot be modeled accurately with directly the presence of cells that contain a sharp single-
topology-independent correlations used for inter-phase connected interface, such as wall cells that contain a thin liquid
interactions in such flows. Meanwhile, it is essential to film. Wall cells that satisfy specific conditions imposed on both
adequately describe these regimes in BWR channel the local void fraction and void fraction gradient are treated in
simulations, since they govern near-wall film formation and the EBF boiling model as a special liquid film topology
evolution, which, in turn, determines important fuel assembly illustrated in Figures 3a and 3b.
characteristics such as CHF and wall dryout. The wall cells can contain both a liquid film and liquid
droplets. As the liquid volume fraction decreases the liquid
film, which initially covers the entire wall surface (Figure 3a) is
assumed to become unstable and to cover the wall surface only
partially (Figure 3b).

Figure 3a Full liquid film topology

Figure 1 Schematic view of upward flow in vertical channel
with heated walls

The EBF boiling model uses a locally calculated topology

variable to allow the following topologies: a) a bubbly flow
topology with spherical vapor bubbles in a continuous liquid, b)
a droplet or mist topology with spherical liquid droplets
flowing in a continuous vapor field, and c) a transition topology
which combines the features of the two previous topologies in
various proportions. The local topology is determined in this
model using a local topology map based on the local void Figure 3b Partial liquid film topology

3 Copyright © 2014 by ASME

 Because only one liquid velocity and one liquid
temperature are defined for each cell, the droplet and film
velocities and temperatures are the same. However, the
partition of the liquid between the liquid film and droplets has
important implications for the heat transfer between the heated
wall and the two-phase coolant. The explicit modelling of the
film entrainment and the partition of liquid between the film
and droplets in the wall cells have been the focus of recent
work aimed at improving the prediction of CHF. These models
are described in Section 2.
V. Inter-phase mass, momentum, and energy transfer models
The inter-phase surface topology map is used to evaluate
the interfacial area and inter-phase interactions. Three basic
local flow configurations with specific interface topology are
identified (bubbly flow, mist flow and sharp interface) and the
interfacial area and inter-phase mass, momentum, and energy
transfer models are defined for these configurations.
In the domain identified in Fig. 2 as transitional topology it
is assumed that a combination of basic flow configurations is
present, and the quantities required for closure are found by
determining the appropriate combination of mass, momentum,
and energy exchange terms for the local flow topology. The
most general transitional topology is illustrated in Fig. 4, and
various other transitional topologies are obtained by retaining
only a sub-set of the master-cell features.
Figure 4 Master-cell topology
As demonstrated in [7], the use of the local inter-phase
surface topology map allows the modeling of complex sub-
channel-scale topologies that emerge from combinations of
many computational cells with one of the local topologies
shown in Figures 2 and 3. E.g., the typical sub-channel annular
flow regime could be resolved into a distinct core flow region
in which the gas phase is continuous and the local mist
topology is used, separated by transition topology cells from a
liquid film on the wall where the local bubbly topology and the
wall-cell topology are used.

VI, Two-Phase Flow Model validation
 
Rigorous validation efforts during the EBF model development
phase have analyzed numerous two-phase flow experiments
4 Copyright © 2014 by ASME
focused on separate boiling effects [1, 2, 8]. The integral model
validation was focused on the analysis of the OECD-NEA/US-
NRC Benchmark based on NUPEC BWR Full-size Fine-mesh
Bundle Tests (BFBT) [9]. The initial validation of the cladding-
to-coolant heat transfer model discussed in Section 2 below was
presented in [10].
2. CLADDING-TO-COOLANT HEAT TRANSFER
MODEL
The calculation of wall heat flux is based on partitioning of
heat flux between the following four heat transfer components:
a) qg, the convective heat flux from wall to the gas or vapor
phase, over the wall area not covered by the liquid film; a) ql,
the convective heat flux from wall to the liquid phase, over the
area covered by the liquid film but excluding the bubble
nucleation area; c) qi, the evaporation heat flux from wall to the
boiling interface, over the bubble nucleation area; and d) qq, the
quenching heat flux from the wall to the liquid over the
nucleation area. These heat flux components are specified per
unit wall area and they decrease or become zero as the
corresponding wall-contact area decreases. The wall heat flux is
given by:
q w = qg + q l + q i + qq (4)
The heat flux components are calculated using the
appropriate heat transfer coefficients and heat transfer area
based on the local wall-cell topology:
qg = hg 8dry (Tw — Tg) (5)
qS = hS (1 — 8dry) (1— 8bn) (Tw — TS) (6)
qi = hI (1 — 8dry) 8bn (Tw — Tcat) (7)
qq = hq(1 — 8dry) 8bn(Tw — TS) (8)
Where 8dry is the ratio of the wall-area covered by vapor to the
total wall area, and 8bn is the ratio of the area covered by
bubble nucleation sites to the area covered by liquid.
The evaluation of the heat transfer coefficients and area
ratios 8dry and 8bn used in equations (5) through (8) was
presented in [1] and [10]. The heat transfer model enhancement
presented in this paper has focused on improving the evaluation
the wall area ratio 8dry which determines the heat flux
transferred to the liquid film and the bubble nucleation sites,
and thus plays a central role in the simulation of CHF
conditions. The previous model for the evaluation of 8dry in
wall-cells with a thin liquid film used in [10] was:
   
 max 0, min1,   
 
DRY
 g 1
(9)
   DRY   DRY  

DRY
 
2 1
 Where the recommended breakpoints were αDRF 1 = 0.9 and
αDRF
2 = 0.95. This model assumes that the wall area covered by
the liquid film decreases rapidly as the vapor volume fraction
increases between αDRF and αDRF. It does not account
1 2
explicitly for the presence of both liquid droplets and film in
the wall-cells. Although the model using equation (9) was able
to predict the occurrence of CHF reasonably well in two
experiments analyzed in [10], subsequent analyses of CHF
experiments with higher flow rates and lower power-to-flow
ratios showed the model using equation (9) cannot predict
accurately the CHF location over a wider range of flow
conditions. To improve the EBF capability to predict the
occurrence of dryout conditions, the wall-to fluid heat transfer
model was modified to account for the simultaneous presence
of liquid droplets and a liquid film in the wall-cells, based on
the wall-cell topologies shown in Figures 3a and 3b. The liquid
in a wall-cell divided between the film and droplets:
αS = αfiSm + αdrop (10)
The model used to evaluate 8dry is modified to account for the
presence of liquid droplets in the vapor field:
described in this section lead to a significantly improved
prediction of CHF conditions over a wide range of flow
parameters relevant for BWRs, as described below in Section 4.
Future work will explore the replacement of the droplet
entrainment correlation (13) with mechanistic models of the
droplet entrainment and deposition processes.
3. CRITICAL HEAT FLUX EXPERIMENTS ANALYZED
To validate the wall heat transfer models included in the
EBF we analyzed several static dryout experiments conducted
by Becker, et al., [11]. These experiments were designed to
study CHF and post-dryout heat transfer in vertical circular
pipes. The loop consisted of a 7 m long test section, a
condenser, feed water and main recirculation pumps, flow
measuring devices and a preheater. Subcooled water was fed at
the bottom of the test section. The wall was heated uniformly
and all typical BWR flow regimes were produced in the upward
water/steam flow. In the experiments the outer wall temperature
was measured, and the inner wall temperature was calculated
assuming an adiabatic boundary condition. The experimental
data are presented as axial distributions of the inner wall

    
temperature.
   DRY  A schematic of the experimental test section is presented in
    g drop 1  (11) Figure 5. Six experiments in a vertical channel 0.01 m in
max 0, min1,  
DRY
   2DRY   DRY  
diameter and 7 m in length with a uniformly heated wall were
  1 used as verification test-cases. Pressure was approximately
7 MPa and the inlet subcooling was approximately 5 - 10 K in
When using equation (11) the fraction of wall-area covered by all the experiments analyzed. The experiments differed in inlet
the film is determined by the liquid associated with the film, mass flux G and wall heat flux qw as shown in Table 1, which
excluding the liquid droplets. To use this new modelling also includes the ratio qw/G for each experiment.
capability we need to describe the partition of the liquid in the
wall-cells between the liquid film and liquid droplets. The
model implemented partitions the liquid using the entrainment
velocity wE defined as the difference between the vapor
velocity in the bulk flow and the vapor velocity in the wall-cell:

wE = wBULK
g
— wMÆLL
g
(12)

The bulk-flow vapor velocity is obtained from the cell next to

the wall-cell in the radial direction. The liquid volume fraction
assigned to the liquid droplets is Ecalculated as follows:
  w  w 1  
E
 drop   l  max0, min1, 
w E  w E  (13)

  2 1  


Where the recommended breakpoints are wE1 = 2.5 m/s and

w2E = 5.5 m/s. Equation (13) reflects the assumption that an
increasing fraction of the liquid film is entrained by the vapor
stream in the form of liquid droplets as the entrainment velocity
wE increases. It is noted that the liquid film and the liquid
droplets in a wall-cell retain the same velocity and temperature
as the two-fluid model implemented in the STAR-CD code
allows only one liquid and one vapor component in each cell.
However, the changes in the wall-to-coolant heat transfer model Figure 5 Schematic of the experimental test section

5 Copyright © 2014 by ASME


Table 1 Parameters of the CHF experiments analyzed
Experiment G [kg/(sm2] qw [W/m2] qw/G
A 497.0 35.0e4 704
B 1009.6 40.1e4 397
C 1008.9 49.9e4 495
D 1495.0 79.7e4 533
E 1994.9 79.6e4 399
F 2482.9 80.0e4 322
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The calculated void fraction distributions are shown for the
six experiments analyzed in Figures 6a through 6f. The
characteristic sub-channel flow regimes in a pipe with heated
walls are simulated. Since the inlet temperature was only
slightly below saturation the bubbly flow regime was limited to
the near-inlet region of the pipe, but the slug, annular-mist and
mist flow regimes are clearly observed. The corresponding
calculated wall temperature is shown in Figures 7a through 7f.
We discuss first the experiments A through C, which had lower
heat flux values than the experiments D through F.
For the experiments A and C the location of the calculated
sharp rise in the wall temperature agrees reasonably well with
the location of the measured wall temperature rise as shown in
Figures 7a and 7c. In both cases the calculated sharp rise in the
wall temperature coincides with the disappearance of the
calculated liquid film (Figures 6a and 6c), indicating that there
are few droplets at the dryout location and the liquid droplet
entrainment does not play a significant role in these cases. The
slope of the calculated wall temperature in the post-dryout
region is similar to the corresponding measured temperature
slope, but the calculated temperatures are lower than the
measured values by approximately 50 - 70 K. The dryout
location in experiments A and C moves further away from the
pipe inlet as the ratio qw/G - shown in Table 1 - decreases. For
experiment B, which has a lower qw/G ratio than experiment C
(heat flux lower than C but a similar flow rate) the calculated
wall temperature does not exhibit a sharp rise, in agreement
with the measured temperatures indicating that film dryout did
not occur in this case.
In the simulation of the experiments A through C wavy
film regions can be observed in Figures 6a through 6c. These
waves are unlikely to be a numerical effect, since: a) the peak-
to-peak distance is about 7-10 times the longitudinal cell size,
b) the waves do not disappear with mesh refinement, and c) the
waves do not change noticeably with the number of iterations.
These wavy film regions could be the effect of physical liquid
film instability (“vapor chimney” mentioned by Sugawara [12])
and appear to be associated with the lower heat flux conditions.
6 Copyright © 2014 by ASME
There are no wavy film regions in the simulation of
experiments D through F (see Figs.6) which were performed at
higher heat flux. The actual topology of the liquid film cannot
be determined from the pipe wall temperatures measured in the
Becker experiments. These experiments did not allow visual
observation of the flow conditions.
For the experiments D through F, which were conducted with a
significantly higher heat flux the location of the sharp rise in
the wall temperature agrees well with the location of the
location of the measured wall temperature rise, as shown in
Figures 7d through 7f. The dryout location in these experiments
moves further away from the pipe inlet as the ratio q w/G -
shown in Table 1 - decreases. The wall temperature rise and
general shape of the wall temperature curve in the post-dryout
region agree remarkably well with the corresponding measured
results for these experiments. For experiment D the location of
the sharp increase in the wall temperature shown in Figure 7d
coincides with the disappearance of the liquid film/droplet
region near the wall as observed in Figure 6d. This indicates
that the volume fraction of the liquid droplets in the wall cells
at the dryout location is small or zero. For experiments E and F
the liquid film/droplet region near the wall continues well
beyond the dryout location. In these cases the film has
disappeared due to entrainment and evaporation, but the higher
liquid fraction region persists due to the presence of the
entrained droplets. The extended cladding-to-coolant heat
transfer model described in Section 2 plays a key role in the
correct prediction of the wall dryout conditions and wall
temperature changes in these cases.
In the experiments E and F the calculated wall temperature
peaks near the dryout location and decreases afterwards, in
good agreement with the experimental temperature (Figures 7e
and 7f). Acording to Hoyer [13], the wall temperature decrease
in the post-dryout region is caused by evaporation of water
droplets in superheated steam above the dryout elevation. This
evaporation produces steam and therefore the vapor velocity
increases rapidly. This in turn increases the wall-steam heat
transfer coefficient and decreases wall temperature. This is
consistent with the presence of droplets generated by film
entrainment in the wall-cells at and above the dryout location,
as shown in Figures 6e and 6f. For experiment D, where the
calculated amount of droplets in the wall-cells at the dryout
location is low, the post-dryout wall temperature decrease is
much smaller (Figure 7d). A slight increase in the calculated
wall temperature is observed near the end of the pipe,
indicating that the amount of liquid droplets at the dryout
location may be slightly under-predicted in this case. However,
the overall agreement between the calculated and measured
wall temperatures in the six experiments analyzed is considered
satisfactory. Planned analyses of additional CHF experiments
will provide additional about the EBF performance in
predicting the CHF conditions under a wide range of conditions
of interest for LWR analyses.
Figure 6a Experiment A - Vapor volume fraction Figure 7a Experiment A - Twall versus z

Figure 6b Experiment B - Vapor volume fraction Figure 7b Experiment B - Twall versus z

Figure 6c Experiment C - Vapor volume fraction Figure 7c Experiment C - Twall versus z

7 Copyright © 2014 by ASME

Figure 6d Experiment D - Vapor volume fraction Figure 7d Experiment D - Twall versus z

Figure 6e Experiment E - Vapor volume fraction Figure 7e Experiment E - Twall versus z

Figure 6f Experiment F - Vapor volume fraction Figure 7f Experiment F - Twall versus z

8 Copyright © 2014 by ASME

5. CONCLUSIONS
We presented recent advances in the modeling of cladding-
to-coolant heat transfer and critical heat flux that have been
implemented in the Extended Boiling Framework. The
validation and extension of the EBF CHF models is performed
in the context of the CFD code STAR-CD. The cladding-to-
coolant heat transfer model is used in conjunction with the local
wall-cell topology, which has been extended to allow the
simultaneous presence of a liquid film and liquid droplets. The
extended cladding-to-coolant heat transfer model accounts for
the entrainment of liquid droplets and corresponding reduction
of the liquid film.
Six experiments involving upward boiling water flow and
dryout in a heated circular channel were analysed. Comparisons
of the calculated wall temperatures with the corresponding
measured values show that the EBF including the extended
cladding-to-coolant heat transfer model provides a reasonably
accurate prediction of the onset of Critical Heat Flux (CHF) for
a wide range of flow rates and wall heat fluxes relevant for
BWRs, without the use of the traditional CHF correlations used
in sub-channel codes. Future work will focus on the analysis of
additional CHF experiments relevant for LWR conditions and
further extension of the EBF CHF models.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
Drs. S. Lo and A. Splawski from CD-adapco and Drs. A. Ioilev,
M. Samigulin, and V. Ustinenko from Sarov Labs to the initial
development and validation of the Extended Boiling
Framework (EBF). Support for the initial development of the
EBF was provided by the U.S. DOE GIPP Program.
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