2016 Edited Basic Writing Skills

December
2017 Basic Writing Skills (Enla. 1011

PHRASE
A phrase is a group of related words (within a sentence) without both subject and verb.
TYPES OF PHRASES
A phrase functions as a noun, verb, adverb, adjective or preposition in a sentence. The function
of a phrase depends on its construction (words it contains). On the basis of their functions and
constructions, phrases are divided into various types i.e.
Noun phrase She brought a glass full of water.(as noun/object)

The boy with brown hair is laughing. (as noun/subject)
Verb phrase She has finished her work.
He is eating an apple.
Adverb phrase They were shouting in a loud voice.(modifies verb shout)
She always drives with care. (modifies verb drive)
Adjective Phrase The girl with brown hair is singing a song. (modifies girl)
He is wearing a nice red shirt.(modifies shirt)
Prepositional phrase The man in the room is our teacher. (As adjective)
She is shouting in a loud voice. (As adverb)
Infinite phrase, He likes to read books.
To earn money is a desire of everyone.
Participle phrase and I received a letter, mentioning about my exam. (modifies letter)
The table, made of steel, is too expensive. (modifies table)
Gerund phrase. She started thinking about the problem. (As noun/object)
Sleeping late in night is not a good habit. (As noun/subject)
Absolute Phrase He looks sad, his face expressing worry.
She was waiting for her friend, her eyes on the clock.
CLAUSES
“A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a predicate”

A clause refers to a group of related words (within a sentence or itself as an independent
sentence) which has both subject and predicate.
These are clauses These are not clauses

Ecology is a science. to protect the environment
Because pollution causes cancer. after working all day
There are two kinds of clauses: Independent and Dependent.
Independent An independent clause contains a subject and a verb and expresses a

clause: complete thought. It can stand alone as a sentence by itself. An independent
clause is formed with
Dependent A dependent clause begins with a subordinator such as when, while, if, that
clause: or who. A dependent clause does not express a complete thought and cannot
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 1
December
stand alone as a sentence by itself. A dependent clause is formed with
TYPES OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
Functions of Subordinate Clause

A subordinate (dependent) clause may function as a noun, an adjective or an adverb in
sentence. On the basis of their function in a sentence, subordinate clauses can be divided into
following types
Noun Clause What he did made a problem for his family.(noun clause as a subject)
He knows that he will pass the test. (noun clause as an object)
Adjective Clause I met the boy who had helped me.
An apple that smells bad is rotten.
Adverb Clause Don’t go before he comes. (time)
He takes medicine because he is ill.(cause and effect)
Although he tried a lot, he couldn’t climb up the tree. (contrast)
Unless you study for the test, you can’t pass it. (condition)
SENTENCE
What is Sentence?
 A sentence is a group of words that tells/expresses a complete thought
 A sentence contains at least one subject and one verb..
 A sentence always tells who or what and what is or what happens.
Sentence Not a sentence

• I like to play with dogs. Running through the field
• The smart boy got an A on his test. The pretty girl
• Kelly is a great dancer. Likes to play soccer every day
• John fell asleep while watching the movie. Many mystery book
What is effective sentence?
When it is:
Clear It expresses our ideas carefully in a way that the reader can understand.
Concise It uses sufficient words to impart the message but not so many as to
obscure the meaning.
Exact It uses vocabulary correctly and follows the conventions for spelling,
punctuation, and grammar.
Appropriate It uses the correct tone for the situation and the reader.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 2
December
PARTS OF SENTENCE
Subject and Predicate

What is a subject?
The subject is the person, place, or thing that acts, is acted on, or is described in the sentence.
There are three types of subjects:-

1. Simple subject - a noun or a pronoun (she, he, cat, city)
2. Complete subject - a noun or a pronoun plus any modifiers

the black cat, the clouds in the sky, his big house, the hungry lion
3. Compound subject - two or more subjects joined by a conjunction (The compound subject
consists of two or more subjects that have the same verb and are joined by a conjunction such as
"and" or "or")
Peter or Harry, the cat and the mouse, she and I, a bat and a ball
Example: Sosina and Almaz greeted their boss.
What is a predicate?
The predicate usually follows the subject, tells what the subject does, has, or is, what is done to
it, or where it is.It is the action or description that occurs in the sentence.A predicate is the
completer of a sentence. The subject names the "do-er" or "be-er" of the sentence; the predicate
does the rest of the work. A simple predicate consists of only a verb, verb string, or compound
verb:
 The glacier melted.

 The glacier has been melting.
 The glacier melted, broke apart, and slipped into the sea.
Like subjects, there arethree types of predicates:-
1. Simple predicate - a complete verb (a verb and any helping verbs) stand, was dancing, could
have sung, is sleeping
2. Complete predicate - a simple predicate plus all modifiers. A complete predicate consists of
the verb and all accompanying modifiers and other words that receive the action of a transitive
verb or complete its meaning.
sit on the couch,

SUBJECT PLUS was singing sweetly
could have danced across the floor.
was reading loudly
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 3
December
With an intransitive verb, objects and complements are included in the predicate. (The glacier is
melting.) With a transitive verb, objects and object complements are said to be part of the
predicate. (The slow moving glacier wiped out an entire forest. It gave the villagers a lot of
problems.) With a linking verb, the subject is connected to a subject complement. (The mayor
doesn't feel good.)
3. Compound predicate – two or more predicates with the same subject. (The compound
predicate consists of two or more verbs that have the same subject and are joined by a
conjunction such as "and" or "or").
was singing quietly and sweetly.

play cards or watch television.
SUBJECT PLUS could have danced across the floor and stayed awake all night.
sit on the couch or sit on the floor.
Example:
 I came, saw, and conquered.

A predicate adjective follows a linking verb and tells us something about the subject:
 Roman is beautiful.
 His behavior has been outrageous.
 That garbage on the street smells bad.
A predicate nominative follows a linking verb and tells us what the subject is:
 Dr. Dawit is acting president of the university.
 She used to be the tallest girl on the team.
Generally all sentences need a subject and a predicate.

Simple Subject: Peter
CompleteSubject: My friend Peter
Compound Subject: Peter and I
SimplePredicate: Jumped
Complete Predicate: jumped on the bed
Compound Predicate: jumped on the bed and fell on the floor
Subject + predicate
1. Peter jumped.
2. Peter and I jumped.
3. My friend Peter jumped on the bed.
4. Peter jumped on the bed and fell on the floor.
5. Peter and I jumped on the bed.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 4
December
NOTE :-A command is the only type of sentence that has no subject. The subject (“you”) is
implied. Example:
1. Stop.
Implied subject – you Predicate– stop
2. Read the book.
Implied subject – you Predicate - read the book
3. Stand up
Implied subject – you Predicate – stand up
TYPES OF SENTENCES
Sentences and their Purpose
There are four different types of sentences. Each type has a function, but a sentence only has one
function. A sentence is used to make a statement, express feeling, give a command or ask a
question. That’s all a sentence can do and that’s the only functions it can have.
Using sentence one wants to convey a message (make a statement or express feeling), one can
say he/she’d like to inquire about something (ask a question), or one can tell someone what to
do (make a command), but there’s really nothing fancy or elusive about it. A sentence can only
have one of four functions.
We can, however, get a little technical and give these four types/functions a name; Declarative,
Imperative, Interrogative, or Exclamatory.
A Declarative Sentencemakes a statement or expresses opinion. It declares something and ends

with a period.
Example:
 I’m going to town. (I’ve declared something I’m going to do.)

 I don’t like the new mayor. (I’ve expressed opinion.)
AnImperative Sentencehas a little more responsibility; it can make a request, give a command or
direction and can end with a period or an exclamation point.
It can also sometimes be stated like a question, but a reply isn’t necessary and neither is a
question mark.
Example:
 Will you please open the door. (This is considered making a request or giving direction
and not a question so it doesn’t need a question mark.)
An Interrogative Sentenceis like an interrogation; it asks questions and ends with a question
mark- or jail if your interrogation doesn’t go well. I’m kidding, of course, but you get the idea
about a sentence being interrogative.
Example:
 Did you use a question mark?
 Did you write proper sentences?
 Don’t forget to answer wisely, or the sentence police may get you.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 5
December
An Exclamatory Sentence which is full of emotion and almost shouts from the rooftop.
Example:
 “I am an emotional, strong sentence!”
Yes, it ends with an exclamation point and contrary to popular belief, using one exclamation
point is plenty.
An exclamation point can also follow an interjection: “Ouch! You stepped on my toe.”
Kinds of Sentences According to their Structure
On the basis of numbers of clause and types of clauses present in a sentence, sentences come in
four basic varieties: simple, compound, complex, and compound complex.
Simple Sentence
A simple sentence has one main clause (a single subject and a single predicate), or it consists of
only one independent clause containing a subject and a verb and it expresses complete thought.
There is no dependent clause. “An independent clause (also called main clause) is called a simple
sentence.”
Examples.
Here’s a typical example (with the subject underlined once and the predicate verb underlined
twice):
 Helaughed.
 Sheate an apple.
 Theyare sleeping.
 I bought a book.
Compound Sentence
A Compound Sentence consists of atleast two independent clauses joined by coordinating

conjunctions. There is no dependent clause in compound sentence. The coordinating
conjunctions use to join independent clauses are “For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So”. Independent
clauses can also be joined by a semicolon (;). A comma may or may not be used before the
conjunction in compound sentence.
Examples
 I like an apple but my brother likes a mango.

 I helped him and he became happy.
 He failed two times yet he is not disappointed.
 Wageshave declined by 5 percent, and employee turnoverhas been high.
The independent clauses in a compound sentence are always separated by a comma or by a

semicolon (in which case the conjunction—and, but, or—is dropped).
 I asked him a question;he replied correctly.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 6
December
Complex Sentence
A Complex Sentence consists of one independent clause and at least one dependent clause
joined by subordinating conjunctionor relative pronoun (that, who, which etc).
Examples
 I met the boywho had helped me.

 She is wearing a shirtwhich looks nice.
 You can’t pass the testunless you study for it.
If a complex sentence begins with an independent clause, a comma is not used between clauses
in a complex sentence. If a complex sentence begins with dependent clause then a comma is use
after dependent clause in a complex sentence. See the following example.
 He is playing well although he is ill.

 Although he is ill, he is playing well.
Compound-Complex Sentence
A Compound-Complex sentence consists of at least two independents and one or more

dependent clauses. It is also sometimes called compound-complex Sentence.
Examples
 He went to college and I went to a marketwhere I bought a book.

 I like Mathematics but my bother likes Biologybecause he wants to be a doctor.
In the first sentence of above sentence, there are two independent clauses “he went to college”
and “I went to a market”, and one dependent clause “where I bought a book”. Similarly,in the
second sentence “I like Mathematics” and “my bother likes Biology” are independent clauses.
And “because he wants to be a doctor” is dependent clause
The cat lived in the backyard, but the dog, who knew he was superior, lived inside the
house.
 Independent clauses:
 The cat lived in the backyard.
 The dog lived inside the house.
 Dependent clause:
 who knew he was superior
COORDINATION, SUBORDINATION, and CORRELATION

A conjunction is a word or a group of words used to connect words, phrases, or clauses. The
precise use of conjunctions is a matter of importance in effective writing.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 7
December
COORDINATION
Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal grammatical rank.
Coordination gives equal attention to two items. Here is the complete list of coordinating
conjunctions – there are no others. To help you remember them, think of “FANBOYS”: For,
And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So.
Example:
The dog ate Marvin’s favorite tie, and the cat rubbed white hair on Marvin’s black suit.
(Both clauses could stand alone. When joined with and, they get equal attention.)
You can also coordinate with a semicolon.
The interviewer had seven Persiancats; as a result, shewould understand Marvin’s predicament.
For: is used to express causal relation – one element is a cause of the other.
He ran away, for he was frightened by what he saw.
And:is used to join elements in order to stress what they have in common.
He saw a spider, a bat, and a ghost.
Nor: is used when the alternative is negative.
He did not stop running, nor did he look back over his shoulder.
But:is used to emphasize the difference between the elements it joins.
He felt foolish, but he couldn’t help it.
Or: is used to indicate an alternative.
He must stay out of haunted houses, or he will have a stroke.
Yet:is used to emphasize the difference between the elements it joins.
Unlike but, it also suggests that the second element is something that might not ordinarily
be expected.
He was warned that the house was haunted, yet he went in anyway.
So: suggests a purpose – the second element is needed because of the first.
He was curious, so he paid no heed to the warnings.
SUBORDINATION
Subordinating conjunctions connect a subordinate clause to the main clause. Subordination
gives less attention to one idea so that the other has emphasis.
The following are some of the more common subordinate conjunctions:

because, in that, since indicates cause
although, except, though, while Indicates concession
if, once, unless, whether indicates condition
as, as if, as though indicates manner
whence, where, wherever indicates place or direction
in order that, so, so that, that indicates purpose
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 8
December
after, as long as, as soon as, before, since, when indicates time
Example:
Since Marvin tried to clean his suit, he was late to the interview.
Conjunctive Adverbs differ from ordinary grammatical connectives because they function as
devices for logical transition between sentences, or even between paragraphs. Conjunctive
adverbs require a semicolon, or a period, before them and a comma after them.
The following are some of the more common Conjunctive Adverbs:

also, besides, furthermore, likewise, moreover indicates addition
likewise, similarly indicates comparison
conversely, however, otherwise, nevertheless, still indicates contrast
accordingly, consequently, hence, subsequently, therefore, thus indicates result
CORRELATION
CORRELATIVE (PAIRED) CONJUNCTIONSemphasize the relationship set up by

coordinating conjunctions. The principal correlatives are: both … and, either … or, neither …
nor, not only … but also, and whether … or.
 Two subject connected by both..and take plural verbs
E.g. Both my mother and my sister are here.
 When two subjects are connected by not only…. but also, either…or, or neither… nor,
the subject that is closer to the verb determined whether the verb is singular or plural.
E.g. Not only my mother but also my sister is here
Not only my mother but also my parents are here
Neither my mother nor my sister is here.
Neither my mother nor my parents are here
Notice the parallel structure in the examples. The same grammatical form should follow each
part of the paired conjunction
1. Both + noun + and + noun
Example: the researcher project will take both time and money.
2. Not only + verb + but also + verb
Example: yesterday it not only rained but (also) snowed
3. either + noun + or + noun
Example: I’ll take either chemistry or physics next quarter.
4. neither + adjective + nor + adjective
Example: That book is neither interesting nor accurate.
The elements joined by correlatives must be alike instructure,or the force of the correlative will
be lost.
Incorrect: They are not only tired, but they are disgusted.
Correct: Not only are they tired, but they are also disgusted.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 9
December
In the first example, an adjective is joined with an independent clause. In The second example,
two independent clauses are joined.
BASIC SENTENCES FAULTS
1. Sentence fragments
2. Comma splices
3. Run-on or fused sentences
4. Dangling modifier
5. Misplaced modifier
6. Faulty parallelism
7. Faulty agreement
8. Illogical Shifts in Tense, Persons, Numbers and Voice:
SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
A sentence fragment is a statement that cannot stand alone as a sentence, even though it might
look like it should be able to(is punctuated as if it were a sentence.). A sentence fragment may
be lacking a subject, a verb, or both. It might even contain words that look like subjects and
verbs. A fragment is difficult to understand because it is an incomplete statement.
Go through the Confidence Check that appears on the next page to see if you can spot sentence
fragments.
Here are some examples of sentence fragments:
 Running for the bus that was turning the corner.
 The man with the large, black briefcase.
 While we waited during the rainstorm.
 In the afternoon before the meeting.
 That we had a good idea for the convention that was to be held in Houston, Texas, next
month.
Correcting Sentence Fragments

You can take two basic approaches to correcting sentence fragments:
1. Combine the fragment with a related independent clause.
 Example: We agree with your goals. Although we do not agree with your
methods.
 Revision: Although we do not agree with your methods, we agree with your goals.
2. Rewrite the fragment so that it contains an independent clause.
 Revision: We agree with your goals. We do not, however, agree with your
methods.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING FRAGMENTS.
1. We would be glad to help you solve the problem. If you would send us a letter
describing your current accounting procedures.
2. In response to your letter of May 6 concerning our hiring policies.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 10
December
Possible Answers
1. The first word group in this example is a complete sentence; however, the second is a
dependent clause because of the introductory word if. A dependent clause cannot stand
alone. One solution could be to combine the two sentences.
We would be glad to help you solve the problem if you would send us a letter describing
your current accounting procedures.
2. This word group is a phrase because it lacks a subject, a complete verb, and a sense of
completion. A revision could be the following:
Thank you for your letter of May 6 concerning our hiring policies.
RUN-ON SENTENCES
A run-on sentence is a sentence in which two or more independent clauses are written one after
another with no punctuation. A similar error happens when two independent clauses are
incorrectly joined by a comma without a coordinating conjunction. This kind of error is called a
Comma splice.
Run-on: My family went to Australia then they emigrated to Canada.
Comma splice: My family went to Australia, then they emigrated to Canada.
The ways to correct these two sentence errors are the same.
Add a period: My family went to Australia. Then they emigrated to Canada.

Add a semicolon : My family went to Australia: then they emigrated to Canada
Add a coordinator: My family went to Australia, and then they emigrated to Canada.
Add a subordinator: My family went to Australia before they emigrated to Canada.
After my family went to Australia, they emigrated to Canada.
A run-on sentence consists of two or more sentences (independent clauses) run together without
a period or a semicolon or another terminal mark of punctuation to separate them. Terminal
marks of punctuation–!, ?, ., or ;–may be used to separate two independent clauses.
There are two basic types of run-on sentences: fused and comma splice.
1. Fused Sentence
In fused sentences, two or more independent clauses “run together” with no
punctuation.
Example: The boy ate his dinner his sister played quietly in the corner.
2. Comma Splice
In comma splices, two or more independent clauses are joined by a comma only.
Example: The boy ate his dinner, his sister played quietly in the corner.
Here are some more examples of run-on sentences:
 The ship was enormous, its mast was almost 40 feet high.
 The moon moved in front of the sun the eclipse began.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 11
December
 Cara was shy she usually refused all party invitations.
 Penguins are amusing and interesting birds, their natural habitat isthe Antarctic.
 Kebede is a licensed attorney he has chosen to devote his life to his first love-teaching.
 We asked Professor Williams to look at the problem he is an expertin the field.
CORRECTING THE RUN-ON SENTENCE
To correct a run-on sentence, do one of the following:
1. Make the two independent clauses into separate sentences.

 The ship was enormous. Its mast was almost 40 feet high.
2. Insert a comma and a coordinating conjunction after the first independent clause (IC). Be
sure both word groups are complete sentences before putting a comma before the conjunction.
 The moon moved in front of the sun, and the eclipse began.
3. Insert a semicolon between the two independent clauses.
 Penguins are amusing and interesting birds; their natural habitat is the Antarctic.
4. Change one independent clause to a dependent clause.
 Because Cara was shy, she usually refused all party invitations.
5. Insert a semicolon after the first independent clause, a conjunctive adverb between the two
independent clauses, and a comma after the conjunctive adverb.
IC, for IC. IC, but IC.
IC, and IC. IC, or IC.
IC, nor IC. IC, yet IC.
IC; however, IC. IC; thus, IC.
IC; moreover, IC. IC; nevertheless, IC.
IC; therefore, IC. IC; consequently, IC.
 Kebede is a licensed attorney; however, he has chosen to devotehis life to his first love—
teaching.
6. Change one of the two independent clauses to a phrase.
 We asked Professor Dereje, an expert in the field, to look at theproblem.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING RUN-ON SENTENCES

1. Evidence continues to mount it shows that passive smoke causes diseases.
2. Dr. Yimer is the director of the hospital he also maintains a private practice.
POSSIBLE ANSWERS
Run-On Evidence continues to mount it shows that passive smoke causes diseases.
Rule-1 Evidence continues to mount showing that passive smoke causes diseases.
Rule-2 Evidence continues to mount; it shows that passive smoke causes diseases.
Run-On Dr. Yimer is the director of the hospital he also maintains a private practice.
Rule-1) Dr. Yimer is the director of the hospital; he also maintains a private practice.
Rule-2 Although Dr. Yimer is the director of the hospital, he also maintains a private
practice.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 12
December
COMMA SPLICE
A comma splice contains two main clauses illegally joined by a comma.
You can correct a comma splice in four ways.
1. Separate the independent clauses in to two separate sentences. Punctuate both sentences
with periods.
2. Replace the comma with a semicolon or with a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb
such as however or further more.( the conjunctive adverb is then normally followed by a
comma.)
3. Replace the comma with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.
4. Make one of the clauses into a subordinate clause.
Example:
Comma Splice I completed my essay, I have not submitted it.

(Rule-1) I completed my essay. I have not submitted it.
(Rule-2) I completed my essay; I have not submitted it.
(Rule-3) I completed my essay, but I have not submitted it
(Rule-4) Although I completed my essay, I have not submitted it.
DANGLING /MISPLACED MODIFIERS
Definition: A "modifier" is a word or phrase that "modifies" or changes another word or phrase.
A modifier is misplaced if it modifies the wrong word or phrase. A modifier is "dangling" if the
word or phrase that is supposed to be modified does not appear in the sentence.
Dangling modifiers are words or phrases that don’t clearly describe or explain any part of the
sentence. Dangling modifier create confusion. To avoid dangling modifiers, make sure each of
your modifying phrases or clauses has a clear antecedent.
A dangling modifier is an error caused by not placing the noun being modified next to
itsmodifier (or failing to use the noun being modified in the sentence).
Example:
Having seen Black pool Tower, the Eiffel Tower is more impressive.
modifier the noun being modified

The example above intimates that the Eiffel Tower has seen the Black pool Tower. A correct
version would be:
Having seen Blackpool Tower, I am more impressed with the Eiffel Tower.
This version is correct, because "I" is logically attached to "Having seen Blackpool Tower".
(Note: "I" is a pronoun: a type of noun.)
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 13
December
Example:
Being born in Bahir Dar, it is understandable that I miss the sea so much.
modifier pronoun being modified

In this example, "it" was not born in Bahir Dar. Better versions would be:
Being born in Bahir Dar, I understand why I miss the sea so much.
As I was born in Bahir Dar, it is understandable why I miss the sea so much.
("As I was born in Bahir Dar " is not a modifier.)
A dangling modifier is a modifier that does not relate sensibly to any word in the sentence. A
modifier that begins a sentence must be followed immediately by the word it is meant to
describe. Otherwise, the sentence takes on an unintended meaning.
Dangling While reading a magazine, my cat sat with me on the porch swing. (Huh? Who was
reading the magazine? )
Correct: While I was reading a magazine, my cat sat with me on the porch swing.
Also correct:
While reading a magazine, I sat with my cat on the porch swing.
Dangling Asked to join the club, we were disappointed by his refusal. (Who was asked to join
the club? )
Asked to join the club, he disappointed us because he refused.
Also correct:
When he was asked to join the club, we were disappointed that he refused.
Tips for Spotting Dangling Modifiers

Dangling modifiers almost always include action verbs.
In the previous examples, one modifier includes the word reading, and the other includes the
verb asked.
Not all dangling modifiers occur at the beginnings of sentences, but many of them do.
1. Find the modifier.
2. Make sure the modifier has something to modify.
3. Make sure the modifier is as close as possible to the word, phrase, or clause it modifies.
4. If the modifier has nothing to modify, add or change words so that it does.
How to Check for Dangling Modifiers

While talking on the phone, the doorbell rang.
Dangling Example
Step one: Find the modifier.

The modifier is while talking on the phone.
Step two: Make sure the modifier has something to modify.
The modifier cannot logically modify the doorbell
Step three: Give the modifier something to modify.
Who or what can it modify?
Correct: While talking on the phone, the doorbell rang.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 14
December
In the sentence below, we cannot have a car changing its own oil.
 Changing the oil every 3,000 miles, the car seemed to run better (confusion)
 Changing the oil every 3,000 miles, Yared found he could get much better gas mileage.
Select the correctly written sentence in the following groups
1. A. Spending way too much money on his old car, Yared’s salary wasn’t enough.
B. Spending way too much money on his old car, Yared soon found he’d used up his salary.
Ans.B. in “A”Yared salary can’t spend too much money.
2. A.I like to listen to rock music doing my home work
B.I like to listen to rock music while I do my home work.
Ans. “B” rock music can’t do your home work.
3. A. The soccer team only won four games in the last three years.
B. The soccer team won only four games in the last three years.
Ans “B” what does to “only won something”
From the following pairs of sentences select the one which is correct.
1. A. piled up next to the washer, I began doing the laundry.

B. I begin doing the laundry piled up next to the washer.
2. A. While Abebe was talking on the phone, the doorbell rang.
B. While talking on the phone, the doorbell rang.
3. A. Standing on the balcony, the ocean view was magnificent.
B. Standing on the balcony, we had magnificent ocean view.
4. A. As I was running across the floor, the rug slipped and I lost my balance
B. Running across the floor, the rug slipped and I lost my balance.
5. A. While taking out the trash, the sack broke.
B. While Aster was taking out the trash, the sack broke.
ANSWERS 1.B, 2.A, 3.B, 4.A, 5. B
MISPLACED MODIFIER
Misplaced Modifier are words or phrases that don’t describe or explain the words the way the
writer intended them to. Instead, modifiers make a sentence unclear. Therefore, modifiers need
to be close enough to the things they modify to prevent misunderstandings or lack of clarity.
Misplaced Modifiers (mm)

Misplaced modifiers are words that, because of awkward placement, do not describe what the
writer intended them to describe. A misplaced modifier can make a sentence confusing or
unintentionally funny.
Misplaced Modifier
To avoid misplaced modifiers, place words as close as possible to what they describe.
Examples:1
Misplaced: He served pancakes to the children on paper plates.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 15
December
(were the children on paper plates?)
Correct: He served the children pancakes on paper plates
Misplaced: I saw a rabbit and a raccoon on the way to the airport. (Were the rabbit and the
raccoon on the way to the airport?)
Correct: On the way to the airport, I saw a rabbit and raccoon.
Misplaced: He nearly brushed his teeth for ten minutes every night. (Did he come close to
brushing his teeth but not actually brush them?)
Correct: He brushed his teeth for nearly ten minutes every night.
Psst! Words like almost, even, exactly, hardly, just, merely, nearly, only, scarcely, and simply
should come immediately before the word they modify.
The following sentences have different meanings because of the placement of only.
Only AtoAbebe offered me thirty birr to mow his lawn.

(AtoAbebe was the only person to offer thirty birr.)
AtoAbebeonly offered me thirty birr to mow his lawn.
(AtoAbebeoffered, but did not pay thirty birr.)
AtoAbebe offered me only thirty birr to mow his lawn.
(AtoAbebe offered thirty birr, but I was expecting forty birr.)
Example,2
Misplaced After completing the exercise, modifier use will be better understood.
Correct After completing the exercise, students will better understand how to use modifiers.
Misplaced I want to smoothly drive home
Correct I want to drive home smoothly
Example-2
Misplaced Abebe bought a chair at the used furniture shop that was large and dark. (was
the chair large and dark or furniture shop?)
Correct Abebe bought a large, dark chair at the used furniture shop.
Misplaced The instructor announced that the term paper was due on April 25 at the
beginning of class. (Are the term paper was due at the beginning of class on
April 25th or did the instructor make announcement at the beginning of class?)
You can easily avoid misplaced modifier if you place the modifier
immediately before or after the word it modifies. Notice how these sentences
have been revised by following this rule
Correct At the beginning of class, the instructor announced that the term paper was due
on April 25
FAULTY PARALLELISM
Parallelism concerns the balance of a sentence, or the similarity of words, phrases, or clauses in a
list or series. Sound complicated? It’s not, really
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 16
December
The following sentences have parallelism of words:
Hiwot enjoys baking cakes, cookies, and brownies.

She doesn’t like washing dishes, ironing clothes, or mopping the floor.
This sentence does not:

Hiwot enjoys baking cakes, cookies, and to make brownies.
See the difference? The parallel sentences contain a list of gerunds. The incorrect sentence
sounds awkward because it contains a mixture of two verbal nouns (gerunds) and an infinitive
phrase.
This sentence contains an unparallel mixture of a gerund and a noun:

She doesn’t like washing clothes or housework.
But this sentence contains two gerunds:

She doesn’t like washing clothes or doing housework.
Parallelism is necessary in phrases, as well:

The British Museum is a wonderful place to see ancient Egyptian art, you can explore African
artifacts, and beautiful find textiles from around the world.
This sentence sounds jerky and out of balance, doesn’t it? That’s because the phrases are not
parallel. Now read this:
The British Museum is a wonderful place where you can find ancient Egyptian art, explore
African artifacts, and discover beautiful textiles from around the world.
Notice that each phrase has a verb and a direct object. Parallelism is necessary when a series of
words, thoughts, or ideas appears in one sentence. If you encounter a sentence that just sounds
wrong or clunky, look for conjunctions like and, or, but, and yet to determine whether the
sentence is off balance.
Select the sentence that illustrates the use of proper parallel construction.
1. A. Almaz has wit, charm, and she has an extremely pleasant personality.
B. Almaz has wit, charm, and a pleasing personality.
2. A. In English class, Tsehay learned to read poems critically and to appreciate good
prose.
B.In English class, Tsehay learned to read poems critically and she appreciated good
prose.
3. A. Yared's QPA is higher than Rahel.
B.Yared's QPA is higher than Rahe's
ANSWERS 1.B 2.A 3.C
1.4.FAULTY AGREEMENT
This handout gives you several guidelines to help your subjects and verbs agree.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 17
December
1. When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected
by and, use a plural verb.
Example: She and her friends are at the fair.
2. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a singular
verb.
Example: The book or the pen is in the drawer.
3. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by
or or nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is nearer the verb.
Example: The boy or his friends run every day.
His friends or the boy runs every day.
4. Doesn't is a contraction of does not and should be used only with a singular subject. Don't
is a contraction of do not and should be used only with a plural subject. The exception to
this rule appears in the case of the first person and second person pronouns I and you. With
these pronouns, the contraction don't should be used.
Example: He doesn't like it.
They don't like it.
5. Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees
with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.
Example: One of the boxes is open
The people who listen to that music are few.
The team captain, as well as his players, is anxious.
The book, including all the chapters in the first section, is boring.
The woman with all the dogs walks down my street.
6. The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, nobody,
somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.
Example: Each of these hot dogs is juicy.
Everybody knows Mr. Jones.
Either is correct.
7. Nouns such as civics, mathematics, dollars, measles, and news require singular verbs.
Example: The news is on at six.
Note: the word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of money, it
requires a singular verb, but when referring to the dollars themselves, a plural verb is
required.
Five dollars is a lot of money.

Dollars are often used instead of rubles in Russia.
8. Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs. (There are two
parts to these things.)
Example: These scissors are dull.
Those trousers are made of wool.
9. In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb. Since there is
not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows.
Example: There are many questions.
There is a question.
10. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but that are considered
singular and take a singular verb, such as group, team, committee, class, and family.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 18
December
Example: The team runs during practice.
The committee decides how to proceed.
The family has a long history.
My family has never been able to agree.
In some cases in American English, a sentence may call for the use of a plural verb when
using a collective noun.
The crew are preparing to dock the ship.
This sentence is referring to the individual efforts of each crew member. The Gregg
Reference Manual provides excellent explanations of subject-verb agreement (section 10:
1001).
11. Expressions such as with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as
well do not change the number of the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb is too.
Example: The President, accompanied by his wife, is traveling to India.
All of the books, including yours, are in that box.
AVOIDING ILLOGICAL SHIFTS IN TENSE, PERSONS, NUMBERS AND VOICE:
An illogical shift in tense occurs when a writer shifts from one tense to another for no apparent
reason.
Illogical Shift The dog walked to the fireplace. Then, he circles twice and lies down in front of the
in Tense: fire. (past to present)
Revised: The dog walked to the fireplace. Then, he circled twice and lay down in front of the
fire. (consistent past)
Revised: The dog walks to the fireplace. Then, he circles twice and lies down in front of the
fire. (consistent present)
Illogical Shift She was surprised when she receives the news.
in Tense:
Revised: Last year, she was a captain on the force. Now, she is a chief of police
AVOIDING ILLOGICAL SHIFTS IN PERSON:

An illogical shift in person occurs when a writer shifts from one person to another for no apparent
reason. Most errors occur in the second and third person.
Illogical Shift in The hikers were told that you had to stay on the trail. (3rd to 2nd person)
person:
Revised: The hikers were told that they had to stay on the trail. (consistent use of 3rd
person)
Illogical Shift: Anyone can learn to cook if you practice. (3rd to 2nd person)
Revised: You can learn to cook if you practice. (consistent use of 2rd person)
Revised: Anyone can learn to cook if he or she practices. (consistent use of 3rd
person)
Illogical Shift in Before a person finds a job in the fashion industry, you have to have some
person: experience. (3rd to 2nd person)
Revised: Before you finds a job in the fashion industry, you have to have some
experience.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 19
December
Revised: Before a person finds a job in the fashion industry, he or she have to have
some experience.
AVOIDING ILLOGICAL SHIFTS IN NUMBER:

An illogical shift in number occurs when a writer shifts from singular to plural (or the other way
around) for no apparent reason.
Illogical Shift:
Each visitor to the museum must check their cameras at the entrance.
(singular to plural)
Revised: Each visitor to the museum must check his or her camera at the entrance.
(consistent singular)
Revised: Visitors to the museum must check their cameras at the entrance.
(consistent plural)
Illogical Shift: Each attorney first makes their opening speech. (singular to plural)
Revised: A good juror takes his or her time in making a decision.
Revised: Good jurors take their time in making a decision.
AVOIDING ILLOGICAL SHIFTS IN VOICE:

When the subject of a sentence performs the action, the sentence is in the active voice.
Active Voice: Nat Turner organized a slave rebellion in August 1831. (Subject Nat Turner
performs the action.)
Passive A slave rebellion was organized by Nat Turner in 1831. (Subject rebellion
Voice: receives the action.
An illogical shift in voice occurs when a writer shifts from active to passive voice or from
passive to active voice for no apparent reason.
Cliff Prem wrote Soccer Success, and How Not to Break a Skateboard was
Illogical Shift also written by him. (active to passive)
in Voice:
Revised: Cliff Prem wrote Soccer Success, and he also wrote How Not to Break a
Skateboard. (consistent active voice)
Illogical Shift Musicology was discovered by Ian Denson, and Grace Taquard invented a
in Voice: new acting technique. (passive to active)
Revised: Ian Denson discovered Musicology, and Grace Tacquard invented a new
acting technique. (consistent active voice)
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 20
December
What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a group of sentences that convey an idea. Each sentence works together as part of
a unit to create an overall thought or impression. A paragraph is the smallest unit or cluster of
sentences in which one idea can be developed adequately. Paragraphs can stand alone or
function as part of an essay, but each paragraph covers only one main idea.
The most important sentence in your paragraph is the topic sentence, which clearly states the
subject of the whole paragraph. The topic sentence is usually the first sentence of the paragraph
because it gives an overview of the sentences to follow. The supporting sentences after the topic
sentence help to develop the main idea. These sentences give specific details related to the topic
sentence. A final or concluding sentence often restates or summarizes the main idea of the topic
sentence.
A good paragraph has:

 a topic sentence stating the main point of the paragraph,
 supporting sentences with details and specific examples as proof of your point,
 logical, coherent thoughts that are developed in order from one sentence to the next, and
 A concluding idea that wraps up the point of the paragraph.
2.1. Major Elements of a Paragraph
A stand-alone paragraph is made up of three sections:
 Topic Sentence: states the topic and your view about the topic
 Supporting Sentences: provide support for your topic sentences
 Concluding Sentence: brings the paragraph to a close
What is a topic sentence?
The topic sentence is usually the first sentence in a paragraph. Occasionally, it may be found in
the body of the paragraph or it may be the last sentence. No matter where it is, it is the main idea
or controlling idea.
A topic sentence has several important functions:
 The purpose of a topic sentence is to tell the reader a general statement about a topic.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 21
December
 It unifies the content of a paragraph and directs the order of the sentences; and
 It advises the reader of the subject to be discussed and how the paragraph will discuss it.
 It is the one sentence that tells the reader what you are writing about.
Generally speaking, topic sentences are:
 Short
 Simple
 Clear
 Give a strong idea
It often uses phrases such as:
 One of the main reasons for …..

 One of the major factors in ………… is…………….
 Generally speaking, ………
 One of the strongest arguments against/ in favor of………is ….
 One of the main advantages / disadvantages of ………….is ……
A topic sentence has four main characteristics

 It is a sentence.
 It is a part of a paragraph, usually the first sentence.
 It has the topic of the paragraph
 It has the controlling idea of the paragraph.
 A topic sentence is the main idea of a paragraph. So…
 A topic sentences is a sentence that has a topic and a controlling idea and is the first
sentence of a paragraph.
A topic sentence Can not Be:
 An incomplete sentence
 The best coffee.
 Cell phones for emergencies.
 A fact
 The U.S. imports coffee from Columbia.
 California is located on the West Coast.
 Abraham Lincoln was the 16th president of the United States.
 A question
 Why do people drink coffee?
 Why do people choose Southern California as a place to live?
 Why do Americans celebrate Lincoln’s birthday?
The Topic
A topic tells the reader the subject of the paragraph.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 22
December
Examples of topics for a paragraph…. Coffee, Getting a Tattoo, Cell Phone, Fullerton
In American writing…
 A reader expects to have an idea of the topic and the focus of a paragraph.
 Each time the reader sees a new paragraph, he/she expects the topic (or focus) to change.
Here are three paragraphs in an essay about Lincoln’s difficult childhood.
 (Par 1) One of the greatest difficulties young Lincoln faced was the death of his mother.
 (Par 2) Young Lincoln did not have many friends growing up.
 (Par 3) Finally, Lincoln could not attend school..
A topic sentence has two essential parts: the topic and the controlling idea. The topic names
the subject, or main idea, of the paragraph. The controlling idea makes a specific comment about
the topic, which indicates what the rest of the paragraph will say about the topic. It limits or
controls the topic to a specific aspect of the topic to be discussed in the space of a single
paragraph.
TOPIC CONTROLLING IDEA

convenience foods are easy to prepare
In this example, the topic is named: convenience foods. A specific comment is then made about
the topic: They are easy to prepare. From this sentence, the reader immediately knows that the
supporting sentences in the remainder of the paragraph will explain or prove how quick and easy
it is to prepare convenience foods and perhaps give some examples (frozen dinners, canned
soups, etc.)
Controlling Idea Topic

The native foods of America’s immigrant population are reflected in American cooking.
In this example, the topic is American food. The controlling idea of this topic sentence is that
Americans eat many foods from other countries. Therefore, the reader should expect the
paragraph to give examples of popular ethnic foods such as fried rice (Chinese), tacos (Mexican),
sauerbraten (German), sukiyaki (Japanese), spaghetti (Italian), and so on.
Broad >>>>>Narrow Topics
Let’s look at a topic for a paragraph:

 First think about a narrow topic. Let’s take the topic Communication. It is too broad; it
needs to be limited. Communicating by cell phone is a more limited topic.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 23
December
 Then decide what you want to say about the topic. This will be your limited or
controlling idea. Communicating by cell phone is very convenient. This example tells
the reader the point you want to make.
 To write a topic sentence start by stating a limited topic, then state a specific opinion
or argument.
Here are a few examples:
 The television show Criminal Minds is very captivating.
 Texting is a more convenient means of communication than telephoning.
 Opening a savings account is the easiest and fastest way to ensure future
financial stability.
• Sometimes a topic is too big to write about in one paragraph. A paragraph is only 12-20
sentences. Look at the following broad topics.
• marriage
• Fullerton College
• computers
It would be impossible to write about these topics in ONE paragraph!
How can topics be narrowed?
• marriage
– teen marriage
– cross-cultural marriage
– age differences in marriage
• Fullerton College
– Student services at FC
– Fullerton College soccer team
– Applying to FC
• computers
– Your turn…..how can you narrow this topic?
CONTROLLING IDEAS
A controlling idea tells the reader what the writer is going to say about the topic. It might be an
opinion about the topic, or it might be the focus or the direction that the writer is going to take
the topic.
Examples of controlling ideas… great, dangerous, favorite, popular, exciting, funny
A topic sentence implies a question that the paragraph is going to answer….
• WHY? Why is it popular? the best? Why should we….? Why was it terrible?
• HOW? How is it attractive? How did it change? How is it terrible?
• WHERE? Where should we go?
• WHICH ONES? Which do you think are the most important, biggest, etc.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 24
December
• WHAT? What reasons? What effects?
Topic Sentences
Example Topic Sentences
I'll never forget the events that occurred the first night Oscar moved into our apartment.
 Topic: the first night
Controlling Idea: the events that took place. You should list three or four in your
paragraph.
 This topic sentence introduces the idea of a short story about the events of a particularly
memorable night.
Oscar is now well accustomed to the routine of getting dressed.
 Topic: getting dressed
Controlling Idea: the routine of getting dressed. You should sequence steps involved
when you write your paragraph.
 This topic sentence introduces a description of the process of Oscar getting dressed.
What question do you expect to be answered in a paragraph with the following topic
sentences?
 Fullerton College has great student services.
 Parking at Fullerton College is a horrible experience.
 People get tattoos for three main reasons.
 Tattoos should be illegal.
 Green tea is becoming a popular drink in the U.S.
 Cell phones make our life easier.
 Cell phones are annoying.
 Lincoln had a difficult childhood.
Example:
Educationmirrors the society.

TS CI
SUPPORTING SENTENCE
The supporting sentence is the developing part which improves major ideas. While writing supporting sentence,
controlling idea must be fully explained, discussed and exemplified.
Example:
Nature has a perfect system for recycling water. That is, water is used again and again. It falls as rain. Then it
goes one of the three places, it may seep slowly into the thick soil as it soaks through into the natural reservoirs
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 25
December
quickly. It might run off into streams to rivers to the oceans. In short, the chain of changes goes on and on
systematically.
Demirezen, Mehmet. From Sentence to Paragraph Structure
CONCLUDING SENTENCE
Generally, a concluding sentence is a restatement of the topic sentence, it gives the same information as the topic
sentence but it is expressed in a different way. While writing concluding sentence, we can use adverbs such as “all
in all, consequently, in conclusion, in short, in summary”.
Example:
My special treasure is a picture of my mother on her fifteenth birthday. This picture is always in my house
when I was growing up. Years later when I got married and moved to Montreal, my mother gave it to me so that I
would always remember her. Now, it sits on my table next to my bed. I look at it and, imagine my mother’s life on
that day. I think she was excited because her eyes are shining with happiness. Her smile is shy as if she were
thinking about a secret. She is standing next to rose bush, and the roses are taller than she is. She is wearing a
beautiful white lace dress and black shoes. Her hair is long and curly. She looks lovely in this peaceful place, and I
feel calm when I gaze into her eyes at the end of my busy day. This picture of my mother is my most valuable
possession.
Savage, Alice, ShafieiMasound. Effective Academic Writing 1
Writing paragraphs
Organization: Identifying Topic and Support Sentences in Paragraphs
A paragraph is a group of sentences about a topic. The topic is often explained in one sentence
and developed in the rest of the sentences. The sentence that announces the main point of the
paragraph is called the topic sentence. Though the topic sentence usually is the first sentence of
the paragraph, it can appear anywhere in the paragraph. It is also possible for a paragraph to
have no explicit topic sentence. However, even if a paragraph has no identifiable topic sentence,
it must still have a clear main focus, and the reader should sense the connection among the
sentences in the paragraph.
In the following paragraphs, identify the topic sentence and the key words in the topic
sentence that the other sentences support.
1. John Bookmeyer is a versatile, well-rounded boy. In addition to singing in his church

choir, he is a drummer in a small combo. He maintains a high average in his subjects at
school and still manages to play football and run on the track team. Although he is very
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 26
December
popular with other young people, he does not let his social life interfere with his weekend
job at the drugstore.
2. The first thing I noticed about the school was the litter in the schoolyard. Trash and paper
were scattered everywhere. The building, which could have been very attractive despite
its age, was dingy and dirty beyond belief. A window -pane was broken out of the main
door, and the door itself led into a dark, for bidding hall. As I walked down the hall, I
noticed the messy bulletin board and, in several places, writing on the wall. No one
greeted me when I entered the outer office, although a receptionist was sitting there
noisily chewing a huge wad of gum and putting on fingernail polish. All in all, I couldn't
help feeling that the school was poorly cared for.
3. Through the fog the arc lights high above the stadium looked like small moons from the
field below. The lights were reflected all over the marshy field in pools of water, an
accumulation of twenty four hours of steady drizzle. Despite lengthy warm-up drills, the
players now felt the cold and dampness beginning to penetrate. They were either huddled
together or dancing up and down to keep warm-- that is, all except our first-string
quarterback and our all-state offensive end, both of whom were out of the game with
injuries. They sat glumly on the bench wrapped in soggy woolen blankets, Conditions
could hardly have been worse for this crucial game.
Exercise 3
Identify the topic sentences in the following paragraphs.
Paragraph 1
The maintenance of order in prestate societies is rooted in a commonality of material interests.

The greater the amount of common interests, the less need there is for law-and-order specialists.
Among band-level cultures law and order stem directly from the relations between people and
the natural habitat from which subsistence is derived. All adults usually have open access to this
habitat: the rivers, lakes, beaches, oceans; all the plants and animals; the soil and the subsoil. In
so far as these are basic to the extraction of life-sustaining energy and materials they are
communal "property." (Marvin Harris, (1975), Culture, people nature, p. 356)
Paragraph 2
Though the United States has spent billions of dollars on foreign aid programs, it has captured
neither the affection nor esteem of the rest of the world. In many countries today Americans are
cordially disliked; in others merely tolerated. The reasons for this sad state of affairs are many
and varied, and some of them are beyond the control of anything this country might do to try to
correct them. But harsh as it may seem to the ordinary citizen, filled as he is with good intentions
and natural generosity, much of the foreigners' animosity has been generated by the way
Americans behave. (Edward Hall, (1973), The silent language, p. xiii)
Paragraph 3
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 27
December
Anthropology is the study of humankind, especially of Homo sapiens, the biological species to
which we human beings belong. It is the study of how our species evolved from more primitive
organisms; it is also the study of how our species developed a mode of communication known as
language and a mode of social life known as culture. It is the study of how culture evolved and
diversified. And finally, it is the study of how culture, people, and nature interact wherever
human beings are found. (Marvin Harris, (1975), Culture, People Nature, p. 1)
Topic Sentences
Exercise 1.1
1. Adventure Tourism
Adventure tourism is a different way for tourists to see New Zealand. This type of
tourism uses the plentiful natural resources - mountains, rivers, lakes, wilderness areas
and historical sites to provide adventure, thrills and challenges which are low risk but
high in excitement. For example, the coastal areas in New Zealand are great for canoeing
and kayaking. White-water rafting is another popular water adventure tour. However, if
you would rather keep your feet on the ground, New Zealand has over 100 developed
walkways in addition to the tracks in the 12 National Parks. Because more and more
tourists are interested in learning about New Zealand by doing exciting and unusual
activities, adventure tourism will continue to grow.
2. Time Management
No matter how you slice it, there are only 24 hours in a day. To be successful at
university, students need to learn good time-management skills. The first skill is not
taking on more than you can handle. If you are a working part-time, have a family and
are involved in a community organization, then taking a full course-load at university will
be too much. Another time management skill is reasonably estimating the time required
to perform each of the tasks at hand. For example, deeply reading a chapter from a course
text cannot be completed in between television programmes. Finally, actually doing what
needs to be done seems obvious, but is a very difficult skill. You may find that cleaning
out your wardrobe becomes vital when you are avoiding study. Procrastination is a time
manager's enemy. By learning time management skills your university study will be
successful and most importantly enjoyable.
3. Have Heart
The heart weighs about 11 ounces and is the size of a clenched fist. The heart of a man
performs at about 60 to 80 beats a minute. In a year it beats some 40 million times. At
each beat it takes in nearly a quarter of a pint of blood; in a single day it pumps 2,200
gallons of blood, and in the course of a single lifetime about 56 million gallons. Is there
any other engine capable of carrying on such heavy work over such a long period of time
without needing to be repaired? Obviously the human heart is a small yet highly efficient
piece of equipment.
Identifying the Topic Sentence
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 28
December
Directions: Click the appropriate button to identify the topic sentence of each paragraph. Hit the
Submit button when you are done. You will receive a score and find explanations in boxes to the
right of the choices.
1. Alfred A. Tomatis (1920-2001) was one of the first educational researchers to be

interested in the "Mozart effect." Tomatis used the phrase to describe the increase in
intellectual ability that supposedly occurs when children listen to the music of eighteenth-
century composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Although for a while now, the media has
celebrated the Mozart Effect as if it were proven fact, there is little hard evidence it
exists. The idea that there really was such a thing as a Mozart Effect originated with
physicist Gordon Shaw and learning researcher Frances Rauscher. Working with students
from the University of California at Irvine, Rauscher and Shaw played Mozart to a few
dozen subjects. Then they administered intelligence tests. The tests suggested a
temporary increase in I.Q., which was attributed to the music listened to before testing.
As a result of their work, Shaw and Rauscher have become famous. They are so well-
known that they have founded their own institute, the Music Intelligence Neural
Development Institute. The media, never quick to examine the scientific evidence for
sensational claims, has made it seem as if belief in the Mozart Effect is widely shared by
the scientific community. It isn’t. That’s because no one has ever been able to repeat
Shaw and Rauscher’s results. (Source of information: Robert Todd Carroll. The Skeptic's
Dictionary. New Jersey: Wiley, 2003, p.233)
Topic Sentence:
A. Alfred A. Tomatis (1920-2001) was one of the first educational researchers to be

interested in the "Mozart effect."
B. Tomatis used the phrase to describe the increase in intellectual development that
supposedly occurs when children listen to the music of eighteenth-century composer
Wolfgang Mozart.
C. Although for a while now, the media has celebrated the Mozart Effect as if it were a
proven fact, it turns out that there is little hard evidence it exists.
2. When Kentucky Derby winner, Barbaro, shattered his leg at the start of the Preakness
Stakes in 2006, everyone in horse racing appeared stunned. Barbaro, a two-year-old
racing wonder, had been expected to win. Instead he suffered irreparable injuries and had
to withdraw. Yet when one considers the damage racing inflicts on young horses, it’s
hard to imagine why everyone, from the owners to the fans, seemed so shocked. Horse
racing is a dangerous and deadly sport for the horses, no matter how eager and spirited
the animals might look at the starting gate. According to Susan Stover, a horse
veterinarian at the University of California at Davis, horses sustain fatal injuries in 1.5 of
every 1000 starts. The only wonder is that they do not suffer more injuries. These are
young horses, whose bodies undergo almost unimaginable stress. As Jim Orsini, who
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 29
December
treated Barbaro pointed out, "...at high speed, a horse’s leg bones can actually deform,
and keep deforming until they or the ligaments or tendons eventually fail." Orsini ought
to know. He is a professional horse surgeon. He works at Pennsylvania’s New Bolton
Center, where Barbaro was sent to recover. Add to the stress of regular racing the fact
that race horses are bred to be thin-boned—the thin bones help them break out from the
starting gate more quickly—and you have a recipe for disaster. No wonder, Elliot Katz, a
former veterinarian and president of In Defense of Animals, a San-Francisco-based
animal-rights group, calls horse racing a "killer sport." (Source of information: Alfred
Lubrano. "Horse Racing is Still Saddled by Cruelty Issue." Philadelphia Inquirer, May
27, 2006, p.10)
Topic Sentence:
A. When Kentucky Derby winner, Barbaro, shattered his leg at the start of the Preakness
Stakes in 2006, everyone in horse racing appeared stunned.
B. Horse racing is a dangerous and deadly sport for the horses, no matter how eager and
spirited the animals might look at the starting gate.
C. According to Susan Stover, a horse veterinarian at the University of California at Davis,
horses sustain fatal injuries in 1.5 of every 1000 starts.
3. Mount Everest, the towering mountain located between the two countries of Tibet and
Nepal, is Earth’s highest point above sea level. The mountain’s challenging and awe-
inspiring height is one reason why so many people have been obsessed by the desire to
climb it and died trying. In 1924, British explorers George Mallory and Andrew Irvine
cheerily set off to climb Everest’s heights, disappeared from view, and were never seen
again. Mallory’s body was discovered in 1999, but there was no indication of whether or
not he had made it to the top. Since that time, it’s estimated that around 2,000 climbs
have been attempted with 180 people dying as a result. The worse year for deaths was
1996, when twelve people lost their lives while trying to summit. The next year was not
much better. Eight people died trying to reach Everest’s icy peak. Most recently, in May
of 2006, a New Zealander named David Sharp made it to the top in his third summit
attempt, but he died of cold and oxygen deprivation around 1,000 feet into his descent.
(Source of information:www.factmonster.com/spot/everest2.html)
Topic Sentence:
A. Mount Everest, the towering mountain located between the two countries of Tibet and
Nepal, is Earth’s highest point above sea level.
B. The mountain’s challenging and awe-inspiring height is one reason why so many people
have been obsessed by the desire to climb it and died trying.
C. In 1924, British explorers George Mallory and Andrew Irvine cheerily set off to climb
Everest’s height, disappeared from view, and were never seen again.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 30
December
4. In 1974, Congress passed the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act. Also known as
the Buckley amendment, the new legislation specified who was allowed to view student
records. The Buckley amendment also defined the conditions under which the records
might be seen. Not surprisingly, parents of school-age children were the biggest winners
from the passage of the amendment, which gave them access to their children’s records
and evaluations. Previously they had been kept from seeing the official judgments that so
powerfully affected their children’s lives. For example, prior to the new legislation,
parents had not been allowed to see paperwork justifying why children were held back or
placed in a special education class. After the legislation was passed, any school denying
parents the right to review their children’s records could lose federal funding.
Topic Sentence:
A. In 1974, Congress passed the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act.
B. Also known as the Buckley amendment, the new legislation specified who was allowed
to view student records.
C. Not surprisingly, parents of school-age children were the biggest winners from the
passage of the Buckley amendment, which gave them access to their children’s records
and evaluations.
5. Web logs, or as they are more commonly known, "blogs" regularly record in cyberspace
the personal and political views of the people who post them. To hear diehard bloggers
tell it, their regular, sometimes daily, postings have brought about a cultural revolution.
Whether the blogger is conservative or progressive, the message seems to be the same:
Traditional news sources are no longer of interest. People are getting their news from
blogs instead. While there is some small truth to that claim, it’s still pretty obvious that
newspapers continue to sell and that many Americans still watch the nightly news.
However, that’s not to say that bloggers haven’t had a powerful impact. On the contrary,
blogs have enormously enlarged public access to information about key current events.
For instance, in 2004, it was a blogger who proclaimed, correctly as it turned out, that a
news story about George W. Bush’s national guard record was based on doctored
evidence. In another incident that showed blogger ingenuity, book editor Russ Kick beat
out experienced journalists after he read that the U.S. military was clamping down on
press photos of coffins arriving in the states from Iraq. Outraged by what he saw as
censorship, Kick immediately filed a Freedom of Information Act request. As a result of
his request, Kick got a CD from the air force showing photos of the coffins coming home.
He then posted the photos on his web log to the embarrassment of members of the
national press, who were forced to beat a path to his door. No one among conventional
news journalists had thought to ask whether the military had pictures. It took a blogger to
do it. (Source of information:
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 31
December
http://www.federalrepublic.net/?p=21;
http://www.time.com/time/personoftheyear/2004/poymoments.html)
Topic Sentence:
A. Web logs or, as they are more commonly known, "blogs" regularly record in
cyberspace the personal and political views of the people who post them.
B. Whether the blogger is conservative or progressive, the message seems to be the
same: Traditional news sources are no longer of interest.
C. On the contrary, blogs have enormously enlarged public access to information about
key current events
Writing paragraphs
Exercise 1
Divide the following text into paragraphs. Remember that each paragraph should develop a
particular theme.
How to stop yourself snoring.
Snoring is caused when the airway at the back of the nose and throat becomes partially
obstructed. This is usually due to the loosening of the surrounding oropharyngeal muscles, but
the reasons why this should occur are varied. The most common are smoking, obesity and the
consumption of relaxants such as alcohol and sleeping pills. As with any common ailment, there
are a host of "miracle" cures advertised - but you should first try a few simple steps to see if you
can halt the snoring before adopting more drastic measures. Lifestyle changes can be the most
effective. If you are overweight, a loss of weight will help to reduce the pressure on your neck.
You should also stop smoking and try not to drink alcohol at least four hours before you go to
bed. Beyond this, try to change your regular sleeping position. Raise the head of your bed with a
brick, or tie something uncomfortable into the back of your pyjamas to encourage you to sleep
on your side. Both of these will help to alter the angle of your throat as you sleep, and may thus
make breathing easier for you. It is also important to keep your nasal passage clear and
unblocked. Allergies, colds and hay fever can temporarily cause you to snore; nasal
decongestants may help, but you are not advised to use such remedies for long periods. Nasal
strips, as worn by sportspeople, have been proven to reduce nasal airway resistance by up to 30
per cent, so consider these as a long-term alternative. If this fails, then you may wish to look at
the varied snoring aids that are on the market. They range from neck collars that stop your neck
tilting, through to mandibular-advancement devices (such as gumshields) which reduce upper
airway resistance, and tongue-retaining devices. You can also buy essential-oil products that are
added to warm water and infused or consumed before bedtime. They claim to tone up your palate
and unblock your nasal passage. Finally, if your symptoms persist, visit your GP or contact the
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 32
December
British Snoring and Sleep Apnoea Association (01737 557 997) for advice. If you do not, your
partner might.
Understanding the Elements of the Paragraph
Paragraphs vary widely in length and form, but most contain three basic elements: a topic
sentence, support sentences that develop the topic, and transitional words and phrases.
Topic Sentence Every properly constructed paragraph is unified; it deals with a single topic. The
sentence that introduces that topic is called the topic sentence. The topic sentence gives readers
a summary of the general idea that will be covered in the rest of the paragraph. In business
writing, the topic sentence is usually explicit and is often the first sentence in the paragraph. The
following examples show how a topic sentence can introduce the subject and suggest the way
that subject will be developed:
The medical products division has been troubled for many years by public relations
problems. [In the rest of the paragraph, readers will learn the details of the problems.]
Relocating the plant in New York has two main disadvantages. [The disadvantages
will be explained in subsequent sentences.]
Support Sentences In most paragraphs, the topic sentence needs to be explained, justified, or
extended with one or more support sentences. These related sentences must all have a bearing on
the general subject and must provide enough specific details to make the topic clear:
The medical products division has been troubled for many years by public relations
problems. Since 2002 the local newspaper has published 15 articles that portray the
division in a negative light. We have been accused of everything from mistreating
laboratory animals to polluting the local groundwater. Our facility has been described
as a health hazard. Our scientists are referred to as “Frankensteins,” and our profits are
considered “obscene.”
The support sentences are all more specific than the topic sentence. Each one provides another
piece of evidence to demonstrate the general truth of the main thought. Also, each sentence is
clearly related to the general idea being developed, which gives the paragraph its unity. A
paragraph is well developed when
1. it contains enough information to make the topic sentence convincing and interesting and
2. it contains no extraneous, unrelated sentences.
Transitional Elements In addition to being unified and well supported, effective paragraphs are
coherent; that is, they are arranged in a logical order so that the audience can understand the train
of thought.You achieve coherence by using transitions that show the relationship between
paragraphs and among sentences within paragraphs. Transitions are words or phrases that tie
ideas together by showing how one thought is related to another. They not only help readers
understand the connections you’re trying to make but also smooth your writing. Ideally, you
begin planning these transitions while you’re outlining, as you decide how the various ideas and
blocks of information will be arranged and connected.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 33
December
You can establish transitions in a variety of ways:

 Use connecting words: and, but, or, nevertheless, however, in addition, and so on.
 Echo a word or phrase from a previous paragraph or sentence: “A system should be
established for monitoring inventory levels. This system will provide . . .”
 Use a pronoun that refers to a noun used previously: “Ms. Arthur is the leading
candidate for the president’s position. She has excellent qualifications.”
 Use words that are frequently paired: “The machine has a minimum output of . . . Its
maximum output is . . .”
Some transitional elements serve as mood changers; that is, they alert the reader to a change in
mood from the previous paragraph. Some announce a total contrast with what’s gone on before,
some announce a causal relationship, and some signal a change in time.
Here is a list of transitions frequently used to move readers smoothly between sentences and
paragraphs:
Additional detail: moreover, furthermore, in addition, besides, first, second, third, finally
Causal relationship: therefore, because, accordingly, thus, consequently, hence, as a result, so
Comparison: similarly, here again, likewise, in comparison, still
Contrast: yet, conversely, whereas, nevertheless, on the other hand, however, but, nonetheless
Condition: although, if
Illustration: for example, in particular, in this case, for instance
Time sequence: formerly, after, when, meanwhile, sometimes
Intensification: indeed, in fact, in any event
Summary: in brief, in short, to sum up
Repetition: that is, in other words, as I mentioned earlier
Consider using a transition whenever it might help the reader understand your ideas and follow
you from point to point. You can use transitions inside paragraphs to tie related points together
and between paragraphs to ease the shift from one distinct thought to another. In longer reports,
transitions that link major sections or chapters are often complete paragraphs that serve as
summaries of the ideas presented in the section just ending or as mini-introductions to the next
section.
Choosing a Method of Development
Methods of development are patterns of organization that writers use to organize their ideas
about a topic. Although a lot of writing you will come across does not rely solely on one method
of development, an understanding of these patterns will help you organize your ideas and get you
writing more quickly.
An understanding of different methods of development and when to use them can save you
valuable time in starting and organizing your essay. Many, if not most, essays by professional
writers will contain elements of several types of development. A piece in the travel section of a
newspaper could include narration, description, compare and contrast, classification, and
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 34
December
illustration or example. A typical article on new cars in the auto section will likely be developed
using both a classification and compare and contrast approach.
Take some time to decide what you want to say and then decide which method of development
will be the most effective in presenting your ideas. You don't have to slavishly adhere to a single
form of development. Think of methods of development as writing tools to help you organize
and focus your writing. Following are some common methods of development with some tips on
how to organize and develop your essay.
Narration
A narrative paragraph or essay:
 Tells a story
 Explains how something happened
Generally, when writing a narrative paragraph you will usually relate events in the order in
which they occurred. Your topic sentence should identify the situation or event and prepare the
reader for a story. An effective narrative is more than just a chronological run through of the
things that happen to you in a typical day. It should contain some element of drama and
tension.
You can write an engaging narrative about topics like losing your wallet, discovering that a
friend has lied to you, or finding or getting fired from your first job. Keep in mind that in a
narrative essay your readers are not looking for information; they are looking for some dramatic
interest or conflict in your story. They want to be entertained or emotionally engaged.
Most narratives are written from the first person (the "I") point of view as in the following
example.
Sample Narrative Paragraph
My New Career
The morning of my big job interview started like any other. I awoke with a good night's sleep
under my belt determined and confident in getting a new job as a swamper for Williams Moving
and Storage. The night before the interview, I practiced moving the furniture from one end of the
house to the other. My roommates thought I was crazy. Arising from bed, I felt stronger, like a
rodeo bull waiting to get out of his cage. Sitting at the kitchen table eating my Wheaties, I
started looking at the furniture around me in a new light. The hide-a-bed in the living room was
a 300 pound finger-eating monster opening and closing snapping at me. Looking out onto the
covered patio, the wicker furniture was floating, almost drifting by itself to the front door. Then
and there I knew that moving furniture was my calling. Walking to the front door, I gave the
hide-a-bed a good stiff kick.
Description
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 35
December
A descriptive paragraph or essay:
 Describes a person, thing, place or situation.
Unlike a narrative writing, descriptive writing does not tell a story but rather tries to convey a
clear impression of what something is like. Effective descriptive writing relies on specific words
and phrases that create a clear picture in the reader's mind. Describing a house as unusual
looking doesn't help the reader visualize the house. However, if you note the lime green paint
and fake Greek columns, the reader will start to form a mental picture.
Avoid words like interesting, nice, great, etc. which reveal nothing about the real nature of the
topic. Look for specific words to describe sights, sounds, smells and both physical and
emotional feelings. Try to make your reader see and feel the object or situation you are
describing. Compare these two sentences:
Music came from the car as it drove by.
Full volume Led Zepplin screamed from the old Camaro as it sped by.
The second version provides specific details about the music and the car that help the reader
picture the scene more clearly.
Look for a pattern to help you organize your description. When describing a room you might
talk about the size and shape of the room, and then about the furniture, and then about the
possessions of the occupant. When describing people you could look at their dress, their general
body type, and their facial features. In a descriptive essay about a person you might deal with
personality, physical features, and lifestyle as a way of organizing your ideas.
When brainstorming or making a list for descriptive writing, look at your list of points and try to
find ways to make them more specific.
For example: A pile of junk becomes a pile of worn out shoes, broken tennis rackets and cracked
ski goggles.
Sample Description Paragraph
My First Apartment
My first apartment was a third floor walk-up on a busy street in downtown Vancouver. The
building was a faded brown characterless box. My apartment was down a dimly-lit narrow
hallway covered in worn fifties style dark green carpeting. When I say apartment, I really mean
room, because there was just one small square room with a tiny bathroom. The air was humid
and musty. One small window provided a perfect view of the brown stucco wall of the building
next door. A small "avocado" colored stove and fridge highlighted the kitchen which consisted of
a few shabby painted wood cupboards that projected into the room. Along one wall was an older
pale blue sofa, which was also my bed. A small red card table with two chairs served as my
kitchen and dining room table. A few feet away, several large cardboard moving boxes
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 36
December
contained all of my clothes and personal possessions. The one bright spot was a large poster of a
winter mountain scene which I had hung on the dull gray wall. It helped me survive the eight
months I called this dump home.
Process (also called how to, time order, process analysis)
A process paragraph or essay:
 explains how to do something in a series of steps

 explains how something works
Process writing need not be limited to concrete practical subjects such as building a doghouse or
installing drywall. A process paragraph or essay might tell you how to plan a budget holiday,
prepare for final exams, get a deal on a used car, or revive a sputtering romance. Pick a subject
you know about and explain the process in logical steps.
Consider all the information your reader would need in order to follow your instructions.
Avoid topics like how to tie your shoes or how to bake an apple pie which are unlikely to excite
a reader. If you work out regularly, you might write about the steps to improved physical
fitness. If you fish, you might offer advice on how to prepare yourself for a fishing trip. Write
about what you know, and search for a unique slant on your topic.
Process essays that give instructions are most often written in the second person.
Address the reader directly as you, but recall that there is an implied you in imperative
(command) sentences. For example in the sentence, "Remove the lid.", the subject you is
understood but not directly stated. Note how the reader is addressed and how the steps are
organized in the following process paragraphs.
Sample Process Paragraph 1
Executing an Ollie
Being able to Ollie on a skateboardjumping in such a way that the skateboard sticks to your
feetis not as hard as most people think, as long as you learn some basic steps. The first step is
the positioning of your feet. Your back foot should be on the tail of your board. Meanwhile, your
front foot should be just behind the screws of the front trucks (wheels). You should be standing
mostly on your toes, with your heel and toes pointed outwards. Once your feet are in proper
position, start to bend your knees to approximately ninety degrees and prepare to jump. There
are three things you now needthe three C's: comfort, control, and confidence. Without these you
will be eating a lot of pavement. Now kick down and back with your back foot so that the board
pops into the air. Immediately afterward, slide the front foot up towards the nose to level out the
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 37
December
board. Finally, bend your knees again and prepare for impact. The only step remaining is
practice and lots of it. So, if doing an Ollie doesn't sound so tough, wait until you actually try
one.
Sample Process Paragraph 2
Building Great Pecs
Having a great looking chest is easier than most people think. It starts with a few simple steps.
First, begin with a flat bench press. Start with approximately 60% of your body weight. While
lying on your back on the bench, grab the bar firmly with both hands so they line up with the
ends of your shoulders. Push the bar up to release it form the holder and extend your arms.
Avoid fully locking your arms. Then, bring the bar down slowly until it touches your chest. Push
the bar back up at twice the speed it was brought down. Do ten repetitions and then take a two-
minute rest. This completes one set. Add more weight if needed and complete three more sets.
Within several weeks, your chest muscles will increase dramatically in size and you'll be ready
for the beach.
Classification
A classification paragraph or essay:
 explains a subject by dividing into types or categories
Although we may not think about it much, we are constantly classifying things by breaking them
into types, groups or categories. By classifying things, we better understand the distinct qualities
of two subjects in the same general group. If we are shopping for a new bicycle, we have
probably gone through a process of classification.
Do we want a road bike, a mountain bike, or a hybrid bike? By breaking down the larger
category of bikes into different types of bikes, we are better able to understand the key features
of different types of bikes and choose the type that best suits our needs.
Begin your classification paragraph or essay by breaking down your subject into at least three
distinct groups or categories.
Examples: types of parenting styles could include strict, liberal, and permissive; types of video
games could include role-playing, simulation, and shoot-em-up; types of dogs could include
family pets, show dogs, and working dogs. However you break down your topic you should
identify the basis for the classification. What are the qualities that distinguish each of your
categories?
If you are classifying drivers you might group them into reckless, sensible, and overly cautious.
Your basis for classification then would be how they drive. You might point to some specific
examples to illustrate some of their driving behaviours and you might make the link between
driving styles and personality.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 38
December
Note how the writer in "Tattoo You" has used classification to provide a humorous picture of
annoying clientele in her tattoo studio.
Sample Classification Paragraph
Tattoo You
Having worked in a tattoo studio for the past year, I have come to recognize three types of
annoying customers that invariably stroll through the door. The first is the Time Waster.
Generally the Time Waster is not serious about getting a tattoo now, or probably ever, but
nevertheless is hell-bent on wasting the artist's time with a barrage of inane questions. They
often talk big and have grandiose plans for the ultimate back piece. But when it comes time to
put down a deposit for the work, they suddenly say something like, "That sounds great. I'll be
back in six months when my next student loan comes in." Meanwhile, the artist has started
drawing the design while three serious clients went to another less "busy" studio. The next type
of annoying client is the Know-it-all. These people usually have a friend with a tattoo, or maybe
even a small one themselves, and therefore consider themselves to be experts on the subject.
They contradict the artist on everything, and insist on using words they've heard in a movie
because they think it makes them sound in the know. What they don't realize, however, is that
those in the know would never use a word like "tatty" to describe the art. Finishing up the list of
types of annoying tattoo studio customers is the Bargain Hunter. The Bargain Hunters clearly
believe that when having a design committed to their skin for life, getting the lowest price is the
top priority. Bargain Hunters often have a "buddy" from some disreputable sourcelike their
kitchen tablewho "would do it much cheaper." What all these people don't seem to realize is that
tattooing is a serious art form that artists dedicate their lives to learning and executing. A little
respect and some manners would be appreciated.
Division
A division paragraph or essay:
 explains a subject by dividing it into its essential parts
Division is sometimes confused with classification, but it works a little differently. For example,
if you were classifying restaurants, you might group them into fast food, ethnic, family, and
gourmet. Approaching the subject of restaurants with a view to developing your essay through
division, you would look at the qualities or the parts of a good restaurant such as food, service
and atmosphere.
In a division essay you identify and explain the essential qualities that make up the whole. What
are the qualities of the ideal city, job or friend? For some, the characteristics of the ideal city
might include a pleasant climate, an attractive physical setting, and an active cultural scene,
while for others ideal characteristics might include an active night life, cheap rents, good
beaches, and a high numbers of single young people. Your ideal job might directly use your
education and skills, present constant new challenges, and allow you to work independently. An
ideal friend would be loyal, fun to be with, and mentally stimulating. You can use the same
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 39
December
approach for any number of topics. Once you have defined the essential parts, you have the
basic structure of your essay laid out.
An essay about what makes a great action movie could be organized effectively using a division
model. Your introduction could point out that in order for an action movie to be great, three
elementsacting, screenplay, and special effectsmust be convincing and work well together. Each
of your body paragraphs would focus on one of these elements.
Sample Division Paragraph
Great Action Flicks
Hollywood continues to produce a constant stream of expensive, big effects action movies, but
most of these lack the ingredients of a great film. For a start, any film worth watching needs
good actors who can deliver their lines convincingly. The wooden monotones of many muscle
bound heroes have sunk many an action film. Secondly, action films today need to have truly
spectacular special effects. But these need to be creatively developed, rather than just featuring
an endless series of computer-generated explosions and battles. The last and probably most
important ingredient is a convincing screenplay. If the audience can't buy into the story, neither
Arnold nor the Lucas Film Special Effects Team can save the film. Yet, when a good story is
supported by solid acting and dazzling special effects, we can't help but be seduced by the magic
of Hollywood.
Comparison and Contrast
A comparison and contrast paragraph or essay:
 explains how two subjects are similar or different
In our daily lives we constantly make comparisons. We compare breakfast serials, TV shows,
teachers, music, girlfriends and boyfriends, jobs, etc. In fact we compare almost everything to
something else. Then we make choices about what we like or don't like and about what we want
or definitely don't want. We often don't give much thought as to how we are making these
comparisons, but usually there is an underlying logic.
By making comparisons carefully, we can make can make better choices. For example, if we are
looking for a new computer we will probably look at several manufacturers and models and then
make our decision. We may compare on the basis of price, features, brand reputation, and
service quality. Once we have weighed all these points, we'll decide what model to buy and
where to buy it. We've all been through this process, but rarely have we had to write about it.
Writing out our thoughts not only helps us better understand the reasons for making a decision,
but can help others make more informed choices.
A comparison and contrast composition is a formal way of organizing our thoughts. It explains
the differences and similarities between two subjects and helps us evaluate subjects to
understand their advantages and disadvantages, or strengths and weaknesses.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 40
December
If we're looking for an apartment, we compare and contrast the cost, size, location, and condition
of various apartments before we make a choice. When you really think about it, most
consumerism is one big exercise in comparison and contrast. When purchasing a car, a toaster, a
computer, or even a bottle of shampoo, most people compare several makes, models, or
manufacturers.
To compare two subjects, you first have to decide what the basis of your comparison is. When
comparing two cars you are thinking about buying, you might look at styling, dependability
record, performance, standard features, and comfort. When you have completed your
comparison you can make a more informed choice.
A good way to begin organizing a comparison and contrast paragraph is by dividing your page
into two columns and writing the name of your two points of comparison at the top of each
column. The Divide and List approach will make it easier to decide upon the organization
pattern that will work best for your paragraph.
Suppose you want to compare the advantages and disadvantages of commuting by bus rather
than by car under the general title of "Transportation Choices". Place a title at the top of the
page and divide the page into two columns, one for car and one for bus.
Comparison and Contrast using Point-by-Point Method Sample Paragraph
Transportation Choices
When faced with the choice of driving their own car or using the bus, the majority of North
Americans opt for cars. They are not put off by the fact that owning and running a car is
expensive when compared to the cost of monthly or annual transit passes in most cities. In
addition to the initial cost of a car there is gas, repairs, insurance and parking which add up to
thousands a year while a typical bus pass is about $50 a month. Yet most people are willing to
pay this price for the convenience of owning a car. They enjoy the freedom of coming and going
according to their own whims. They are simply not willing to put up with waiting for buses that
stop far from their homes and are often packed with unkempt strangers. Cars are comfortable
and personal spaces, in contrast to the grungy and impersonal feeling of many buses. But as
they motor happily along, few car owners even think about what their personal vehicle use is
doing to the environment. Do they know that a loaded bus creates much less pollution per
person than a car? Unfortunately, until there is a huge change in the attitude of car owners
towards using public transit, cars will continue to rule the roads and our environment and our
cities will pay the price.
In the block method, you deal with the points of comparison relating to one subject, and after a
transition move on to your next subject.
Block Method Paragraph Organization:
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 41
December
Comparison and Contrast Using the Block Method
Transportation Choices
North Americans clearly prefer driving their own cars to using public transport. In many ways,
the desire to own a car is easy to understand. True, cars are expensive to buy and run. Car
payments, gas, insurance, and repairs can cost thousands per year. But people love the
convenience of cars that they see as an expression of personal freedom. Cars provide a
comfortable small personal space in which people can drink coffee and listen to music. Most car
owners give little thought to the damage to the environment all these cars are doing even as they
sit in traffic complaining about too many cars on the road. Unlike car owners, bus riders are
prepared to make some sacrifices to save money. Bus schedules are not always convenient and
buses don't take you to your door. Standing on a jerky bus is no fun either. Riders can, however,
take some small pleasure in the knowledge that using a bus is the environmentally responsible
way to get around town. Unfortunately, until there is a huge change in the attitude of car owners
towards using public transit, cars will continue to rule the roads and our environment and our
cities will pay the price.
Sample Comparison and Contrast Paragraph 2 Using Point by Point Method
Synthetic Engine Oils: Worth the Price?
Drivers who want the best protection for their engines will find that synthetic oil offers several
advantages over conventional oil. First of all, it's better year round. Synthetic oil flows freely at
all temperatures and circulates immediately at start up. Conventional oil thickens at low
temperatures and takes time to warm up. Synthetic oil is also more stable at high temperatures,
making it more dependable in hot weather. Second, synthetic oil is much cleaner than
conventional oil. It contains the finest detergents, rust inhibitors, and other additives that reduce
friction and make the engine run smoother and cleaner. Third, and perhaps most important, is
that synthetic oil lasts longer. Conventional oil must be changed every three months or 5000
kilo meters, whereas synthetic oil can last up to six times longer. Only the filter has to be
changed over this period of time. Even though synthetic oil is much more expensive, it's worth
the extra cost if you value the life and performance of your engine.
Cause and Effect
Cause and effect:
 explains the reasons (causes) why something happened

 describes the results (effects) of an event, action, or condition
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 42
December
There are many times when you are asked to examine a cause and effect relationship. When we
visit a doctor, the doctor usually questions us carefully to determine the cause of our illness.
Causes are the reasons that something happened; the causes of pollution, divorce, heart disease,
anorexia, etc., can be identified and presented so that the reader gains a better knowledge of how
the causes brought about certain results. Similarly, when we think of effects, we often think of
benefits or advantages such as the benefits of exercise or the advantages of self-employment. Or
we could look at the negative effects of a cause such as divorce, alcoholism, or global warming.
Generally, in a paragraph or short essay, it is better to deal with either causes or effects. Before
you start writing, you should be clear on whether you will be dealing mostly with causes or
effects. We often examine causes so that we can learn how to prevent things from happening
again. Researchers look at causes of heart disease so that they can educate people on how to
avoid behaviors such as high fat diets and sedentary lifestyles that contribute to heart disease.
We may focus on effects to convince someone that something becoming a vegetarian for
example is a good idea because of the health benefits.
In a paragraph focusing on effects you should clearly indicate the cause an earthquake, for
example and then spend the rest of the paragraph detailing and explaining the specific effects.
these might include damage to buildings, injuries to people, and mass psychological trauma. In a
paragraph focusing on cause, state the effect (or result) in your opening and then go on to explain
why this result came about. For example, in a paragraph on divorce or marriage breakdown you
might look at causes such as incompatibility, infidelity, substance abuse, and neglect among
others.
Sample Cause and Effect Paragraph:
Focus on the Cause
The Misuse of Credit Cards
While credit cards are convenient and easy to use, the misuse of credit cards can lead to serious
problems. Today, many consumers are spending beyond their ability to pay. This often leads to
serious financial difficulties or even personal bankruptcy. One of the reasons for consumer
over-spending is aggressive promotion by credit card companies. Fancy commercials and
advertisements are everywhere and they create the image that using credit cards is easy and
trendy and gives people class. They offer tempting low introductory rates and other benefits.
Instead of worrying about payment with high interest rates, card users tend to get carried away
and find immediate satisfaction in fulfilling their desires. Incredibly, many people seem unaware
that credit cards are not free; people may not feel like they are spending money, but they are
creating debts that have to be paid. They often lose track of how much they are spending. And
they don't realize how quickly many little purchases can add up until they receive their next
credit card bill. To avoid problems with credit card debt, people need to become educated in
personal financial management. Unfortunately, this kind of information isn't as easily available
to consumers as credit card advertisements that promote the freedom and benefits of credit card
use.
Sample Cause and Effect Paragraph:
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 43
December
Focus on the Effects
How Drugs Can Destroy People's Lives
Drug addiction is a serious health issue that affects addicts, their families and society. First of
all, drug addiction has severe physical effects on the addict's body. Drug users can experience
many physical symptoms including sickness, fevers, sweats and shakes, loss of appetite, and
weight loss. They also face the danger of contracting serious diseases such as AIDS, hepatitis,
and other communicable diseases, not to mention the risk of overdose. Families and friends of
drug addicts are inevitably also affected by their addiction. Addiction can lead to serious
financial problems, loss of trust, and eventually family breakup and divorce. Society as well
pays a cost: crime rates go up, and more security and hospital care is needed which are all paid
for by taxpayers. Drug addiction is a destructive way to live. Maybe more would be done about
it if it were looked at not just as a problem that addicts face alone, but as something that affects
society as a whole.
Example (also called Illustration)
An example paragraph or essay:
 makes a point about a topic by providing examples to support it
An article about growing violence in kids' sports might include several examples which illustrate
how violence has gotten out of hand in some situations. An essay about the dangers of drinking
and driving could be made stronger by including several examples of the results of drinking and
driving.
Sample Illustration Paragraph
Plastic People
Today, men and women of all ages undergo surgery to achieve the looks they desire. Cosmetic
surgery is so common that to some it is a lifestyle. Some of the most popular procedures are
breast implants, liposuction, facelifts, and hair transplants. Because many prefer fuller, bigger
breasts, a good number of women from all walks of life undergo the painful and costly procedure
of breast implants. Even though the risks are well known, many still take their chances. And
what goes better with bigger breasts than a flat abdomen? Liposuction is a quick fix for those
who find good diet and exercise ineffective and time consuming. Another popular procedure for
both men and women is the surgical facelift. This process promises men and women a younger
and fresher look. For men who are worried about baldness, there is hair replacement. Thanks to
medical advances, men can avoid the harsh reality of balding by undergoing a long lasting hair
transplant procedure. Many value plastic surgery even though it's costly and can have a number
of negative side effects. In spite of the many plastic surgery disasters, those obsessed with
having the perfect face and body will keep the business alive and well.
Persuasion (also called Argument)
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 44
December
A persuasive paragraph:
 tries to persuade the reader to accept your point of view or even to change his or
her point of view
In persuasive writing you take a clear position and then present evidence to support your
position. If, for example, you believe that the penalties for drinking and driving are too light,
then your basic organization might look something like this:
Topic: Penalties for drinking and driving are too light
Points to support your argument:
 people should be responsible for their actions when they drink

 cars are weapons in the hands of a drunk driver drunk driving is a form of assault
 all situations involving drunk drivers have the potential for serious consequences
 drunk drivers responsible for most accidents
 drunk drivers often get a slap on the wrist while victims suffer for a long time
 stiff penalties would reduce drunk driving
 other drivers pay through increased insurance costs
Sample Persuasive Paragraph
Time to Get Tough with Drunk Drivers
It's time for the courts to crack down on drunk drivers. Often even repeat offenders get small
fines when caught driving with alcohol levels above the legal limit. But, drunk driving is a
serious crime and should be treated as such. Drunk drivers cause most serious accidents, but all
situations involving drunk drivers have the potential for serious consequences. Drunk drivers
threaten the safety of everyone on the road; cars are weapons, and drunk driving is a form of
assault. People should be responsible for their actions, and if they choose to drink and drive
then they should pay the price. Often the victims of accidents caused by drunk drivers suffer long
after these drivers have "paid their debt to society". The law should be changed so that all cases
of drinking and driving would result in jail time and vehicles would be confiscated. Then
perhaps more people would think twice about drinking and driving.
What is the topic sentence in each paragraph?
Once you have found the correct answer, you can click on the other answers to see the function of other
sentences in the paragraph.
1. (A) In Chinese families in new Hong Kong, both wife and husband usually work outside the
home. (B) Yet, they still preserve traditional roles within their family. (C) The wife will usually see
to the meals and cleaning, and the children are her special concern. (D) In contrast, the husband
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 45
December
makes the major decisions, such as what schools the children will attend and what family
investments should be made. (E) Thus, the Hong Kong family combines both old and new in its
lifestyle.
2. (A) I excitedly began my stay in Rome at an international airport. (B) However, my first day in
Italy was traumatic. (C) As I left the plane, I saw many signs in Italian, only a few of which made
sense. (D) I followed a mob to the Baggage Claim, and waited until the carousel stopped, but I
didn't see my luggage. (E) My bags had been mistakenly delivered to the Lost and Found Office.
(F) After hours of waiting, I got through Customs, and I was really relieved to see my friend
Angela, who took me to her home.
3. (A) When I was a kid, we used to make what we called "pie a la mud." (B) It wasn't a complicated
process, but nonetheless, it took patience and a keen sense of backyard etiquette. (C) Mud, of
course, was the main ingredient. (D) We carefully squashed the mud into mom's pie pan and let
it dry in the hot afternoon sun. (E) Once the texture was acceptable, we carefully removed the
marvelous cuisine and covered it with garlic and salt and grade A gravel. (F) What an afternoon
snack!
4. (A) George's nose made an impression that you never forgot. (B) I don't mean he stuck it in the
butter or the pudding, but considering how big it was, it's hard to see how he didn't. (C) For
George had a nose that made other noses look tiny and inadequate. (D) His nose could have
been a ship's prow. (E) When he ran, his nose ran interference. (F) It parted the air and the
indifference before him. (G) It was magnificent.
5. (A) Two days ago, I experienced one of the most terrible days of my life. (B) Early in the morning
my car wouldn't start, so I was late to work. (C) Later that day, around lunch time, I lost my
briefcase. (D) Then that evening at dinner, my dog decided to join the Foreign Legion. (E) I think
I'll move to the South Pole.
6. (A) All night, especially after our campfire went out, the stars brightened, packed together,
erupted in hard, bright light that was white and sometimes blue and even red. (B) Finally toward
dawn, the sky began to lose its stars. (C) Then the lip of the sky paled. (D) Next the surrounding
peaks of the mountains whitened and then dissoved into roses. (E) At last, slowly, the sun
goldened everything. (F) Dawn in the Sierras was almost a religious experience.
7. (A) The food service on this campus is pretty terrible. (B) The cafeteria is always crowded. (C)
There is not much of a choice of food. (D) It's the same old eggs for breakfast and hamburgers
for lunch and dinner. (E) They never have rice dishes or pasta. (F) Finally, and worst of all,
everything tastes the same. (G) The soup tastes like the potatoes, which taste like the cakes. (H)
It's too bad there's nowhere else to eat on campus.
8. (A) When I bought a car, I thought my problems in getting to school were over. (B) However, the
first thing I discovered was that a parking permit costs almost as much as a year's bus fare. (C)
Then I found out that I had to leave home 10 minutes earlier so that I could find a parking place.
(D) Next, my car broke down just when I had no money to fix it, so I had to sell it at a loss. (E)
Now I'm sure that buying a car doesn't solve the problem of getting to school; instead, it only
creates new problems.
Practice with Topic Sentences
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 46
December
Instructions: Figure out what a possible topic sentence would be for the following paragraphs,
and write it in the box provided. Then check your answer.
The backyard is a small paradise.
The writing process consists of four main stages: gather, organize, write, revise.
Making French Toast involves three easy steps.
Ants have an elaborate way of life that is often unknown to many people.
Becoming techno-savvy is essential for survival in today's business world.
1. There are three large banana trees and two coconut trees that give shade. Besides trees, there
are numerous well-manicured shrubs that outline the backyard and give it some aesthetic shape.
In addition to the shrubs, countless flowers are positioned along each dirt well, magnifying the
whole scene with resplendent color. This greenery adds a priceless peace and tranquility to an
otherwise crowded and noisy city. (The backyard is a small paradise.)
2. The gathering stage consists of researching, brainstorming, and analyzing in order to come up
with a thesis. The next stage, organization, requires you to think about a logical and persuasive
arrangement for your various ideas. The writing stage requires you to sit down and, following
and outline, construct your essay. The fourth and final stage involves endless revision: going
over and over what you've written to make it better. (The writing process consists of four main
stages: gather, organize, write, revise.)
3. First, get a couple of eggs from the fridgerator, and after cracking them open, stir them
together with a fork until evenly blended. Second, add a little milk and vanilla, and then begin
dipping your toast in the mixture until the egg soaks into the bread. Third, cook the pieces on a
low temperature in the skillet for five minutes, standing close by to ensure that it doesn't burn.
When finished, serve with syrup, whip cream, and your favorite jam. (Making French Toast
involves three easy steps.)
4. The Queen directs and orchestrates the actions, instincts, and characters of all other ants in the
colony. She controls how much each ant develops, and into what kind of worker--drone,
protector, warrior, etc. In addition to the clearly defined social system, ants also have an
advanced chemical communication system in which they trade scents and smells with each other
through chemicals to communicate. This is why any olfactory interruption in an ant-line
disorients the ants. Those persons who nonchalantly step on ants miss out on this fascinating
micro universe. (Ants have an elaborate way of life that is often unknown to many people.)
5. Not only do you have to know and understand how to work many complex programs to be a
marketable, employable worker in the job market, you also--as a consumer--need to know how to
navigate online shopping carts, auctions, and other e-commerce strategies. It is no longer just a
technical enhancement to what you're doing--knowing the technical side is a requirement to
staying afloat. The e-learning requires knowing how to navigate the net to find necessary
information online, to communicate with people from afar using proper netiquette to interact and
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 47
December
exchange data, and organizing oneself in an online web space in an efficient and trustworthy
way.( Becoming techno-savvy is essential for survival in today's business world)
Examples of Topic Sentences
A topic sentence is the most important sentence in a paragraph. Sometimes referred to as a focus
sentence, the topic sentence helps organize the paragraph by summarizing the information in the
paragraph. In formal writing, the topic sentence is usually the first sentence in a paragraph
(although it doesn't always have to be).
Purpose of the Topic Sentence
A topic sentence essentially tells what the rest of the paragraph is about. All sentences after it
have to give more information about the sentence, prove it by offering facts about it, or describe
it. For example, if the topic sentence concerns the types of endangered species that live in the
ocean, then every sentence after that needs to expound on that subject.
Topic sentences also need to relate back to the thesis of the essay. The thesis statement is like a
road map that will tell the reader or listener where you are going with this information or how
you are treating it.
Topic Sentences and Controlling Ideas
Every topic sentence will have a topic and a controlling idea. The controlling idea shows the
direction the paragraph will take.
Here are some examples:
 Topic Sentence: There are many reasons why pollution in ABC Town is the worst in the
world.
 The topic is “pollution in ABC Town is the worst in the world” and the controlling idea is
“many reasons.”
 Topic Sentence: To be an effective CEO requires certain characteristics.

 The topic is “To be an effective CEO” and the controlling idea is certain characteristics.
 Topic Sentence: There are many possible contributing factors to global warming.
 The topic is "contributing factors to global warming" and the controlling factor is "many
reasons."
 Topic Sentence: Fortune hunters encounter many difficulties when exploring a

shipwreck.
 The topic is “exploring a shipwreck” and the controlling idea is “many difficulties.”
 Topic Sentence: Dogs make wonderful pets because they help you to live longer.
 The topic is "dogs make wonderful pets" and the controlling idea is "because they help
you to live longer."
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 48
December
 Topic Sentence: Crime in poverty-stricken areas occurs as a result of a systemic
discrimination.
 The topic is "crime in poverty stricken areas" and the controlling idea is "systemic
discrimination."
 Topic Sentence: Teen pregnancy may be prevented by improved education.

 The topic is "teen pregnancy may be prevented" and the controlling idea is "improving
education."
 Topic Sentence: Cooking requires a number of different skills.

 The topic is "cooking" and the controlling idea is "many different skills."
 Topic Sentence: It is important to be ready before buying a house.

 The topic is "before buying a house" and the controlling idea is the importance of being
ready.
 Topic Sentence: Graduating from high school is important for many different reasons.
 The topic is "graduating from high school" and the controlling idea is "many different
reasons."
 Topic Sentence: Having a first child is difficult because of the significant adjustments in
your life.
 The topic is "having a first child" and the controlling idea is "significant adjustments in
your life."
 Topic Sentence: Remodeling a kitchen successfully requires research and a good eye.
 The topic is "remodeling a kitchen" and the controlling idea is "requires research and a
good eye."
As you can see, the topic sentence provides a focus for the reader or listener. It tells what the
paragraph is about. The controlling idea helps the audience understand what you are saying.
Topic sentences can be about almost anything, as long as they set the tone for the paragraph and
relate back to the thesis or the main idea of the paper.
Practice in Composing Topic Sentences
Commonly appearing at (or near) the beginning of a paragraph, a topic sentence expresses the
main idea of a paragraph. What usually follows a topic sentence are a number of supporting
sentences that develop the main idea with specific details.
This exercise offers practice in creating topic sentences that will attract the interest of your
readers.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 49
December
Each passage below contains a series of sentences with specific examples of a single character
trait: (1) patience, (2) a frightful imagination, and (3) a love of reading. What each passage lacks
is a topic sentence.
Your job is to complete each paragraph by creating an imaginative topic sentence that both
identifies the particular character trait and creates enough interest to keep us reading. The
possibilities, of course, are limitless. Nonetheless, when you're done, you may want to compare
the topic sentences you have created with the ones (on page two) originally composed by the
student authors.
Passage A: Patience
Create a topic sentence.
For example, recently I began taking my two-year-old dog to obedience school. After four weeks
of lessons and practice, she has learned to follow only three commands--sit, stand, and lie down--
and even those she often gets confused. Frustrating (and costly) as this is, I continue to work
with her every day. After dog school, my grandmother and I sometimes go grocery shopping.
Inching along those aisles, elbowed by hundreds of fellow customers, backtracking to pick up
forgotten items, and standing in the endless line at the checkout, I could easily grow frustrated
and cranky. But through years of trying times I have learned to keep my temper in check.
Finally, after putting away the groceries, I might go out to a movie with my fiance, to whom I
have been engaged for three years. Layoffs, extra jobs, and problems at home have forced us to
postpone our wedding date several times. Still, my patience has enabled me to cancel and
reschedule our wedding plans again and again without fuss, fights, or tears.
Passage B: A Frightful Imagination

For instance, when I was in kindergarten, I dreamed that my sister killed people with a television
antenna and disposed of their bodies in the woods across the street from my house. For three
weeks after that dream I stayed with my grandparents until they finally convinced me that my
sister was harmless. Not long afterwards, my grandfather died, and that sparked new fears. I was
so terrified that his ghost would visit me that I put two brooms across the doorway of my
bedroom at night. Fortunately, my little trick worked. He never came back. More recently, I was
terribly frightened after staying up late one night to watch The Ring. I lay awake until dawn
clutching my cell phone, ready to ring 911 the moment that spooky little girl stepped out of my
TV. Just thinking about it now gives me goosebumps.
Passage C: A Love of Reading

When I was a young girl, I would make a tent out of my blankets and read Nancy Drew
mysteries late into the night. I still read cereal boxes at the breakfast table, newspapers while I
am stopped at red lights, and gossip magazines while waiting in line at the supermarket. In fact,
I'm a very talented reader. For example, I've mastered the art of talking on the phone while
simultaneously reading Dean Koontz or Stephen King. But what I read doesn't matter all that
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 50
December
much. In a pinch, I'll read junk mail, an old warranty, a furniture tag ("DO NOT REMOVE
UNDER PENALTY OF LAW"), or even, if I'm extremely desperate, a chapter or two in a
textbook.
Original Topic Sentences
A. My life may be a box full of frustrations, but learning how to overcome them has given me
the gift of patience.
B. My family is convinced that I inherited my imagination from Edgar Allan Poe.
C. I envy you terribly because at this very moment you're doing what I have always loved doing
more than anything else: you're reading.
Paragraph Unity
By Richard Nordquist
“Consider the postage stamp," advised humorist Josh Billings. "Its usefulness consists in the
ability to stick to one thing until it gets there.”
The same might be said about an effective paragraph. Unity is the quality of sticking to one idea
from start to finish, with every sentence contributing to the central purpose and main idea of that
paragraph.
As we've seen, a topic sentence contains the main idea upon which a paragraph is developed. In a
unified paragraph, all of the supporting sentences serve to illustrate, clarify, and/or explain the
main idea set forth in the topic sentence.
The best way to demonstrate the importance of unity is to show how the intrusion of irrelevant
information can disrupt our understanding of a paragraph. The original version of the following
passage, taken from The Names: A Memoir, by N. Scott Momaday, vividly illustrates how people
in the Pueblo of Jemez in New Mexico prepare for the Feast of San Diego. We've upset the unity
of Momaday's paragraph by adding one sentence that's not directly connected to his main idea.
See if you can spot that sentence.
The activity in the pueblo reached a peak on the day before the Feast of San Diego, November
twelfth. It was on that day, an especially brilliant day in which the winter held off and the sun
shone like a flare, that Jemez became one of the fabulous cities of the world. In the preceding
days the women had plastered the houses, many of them, and they were clean and beautiful like
bone in the high light; the strings of chilies at the vigas had darkened a little and taken on a
deeper, softer sheen; ears of colored corn were strung at the doors, and fresh cedar boughs were
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 51
December
laid about, setting a whole, wild fragrance on the air. The women were baking bread in the
outdoor ovens. Here and there men and women were at the woodpiles, chopping, taking up loads
of firewood for their kitchens, for the coming feast. Year round, the artisans of Jemez, known
internationally for their crafts, would create beautiful basketry, embroidery, woven cloths,
exquisite stone sculpture, moccasins, and jewelry. Even the children were at work: the little boys
looked after the stock, and the little girls carried babies about. There were gleaming antlers on
the rooftops, and smoke arose from all the chimneys.
The third-to-last sentence ("Year round, the artisans of Jemez . . .") is our distracting addition to
Momaday's passage. The added sentence upsets the unity of the paragraph by offering
information that is not directly relevant to the main idea (as stated in the first sentence) or to any
of the other sentences in the paragraph. Whereas Momaday focuses specifically on activities
taking place "the day before the Feast of San Diego," the intrusive sentence refers to work that's
done "year round."
By moving irrelevant information to a new paragraph--or by omitting that information

altogether--we can improve the unity of our paragraphs when we come to revise them.
PRACTICE EXERCISE: Paragraph Unity
The following paragraph, which has also been adapted from The Names: A Memoir, by N. Scott
Momaday, describes the very end of the busy day before the Feast of San Diego. Again, we have
added a sentence that's not directly connected to the author's main idea. See if you can identify
this sentence, which upsets the unity of the paragraph, and then compare your response with the
answer at the bottom of the page.
1
Later in the dusky streets I walked among the Navajo camps, past the doorways of the town,
from which came the good smells of cooking, the festive sounds of music, laughter, and talk.
2
The campfires rippled in the crisp wind that arose with evening and set a soft yellow glow on
the ground, low on the adobe walls. 3A natural building material used for several thousand
years, adobe is composed of sand and straw, which is shaped into bricks on wooden frames and
dried in the sun. 4Mutton sizzled and smoked above the fires; fat dripped into the flames; there
were great black pots of strong coffee and buckets full of fried bread; dogs crouched on the rim
of the light, the many circles of light; and old men sat hunched in their blankets on the ground, in
the cold shadows, smoking. . . . Long into the night the fires cast a glare over the town, and I
could hear the singing, until it seemed that one by one the voices fell away, and one remained,
and then there was none. On the very edge of sleep I heard coyotes in the hills.
Practice Exercise: Answer

The third sentence in the paragraph ("A natural building material used for several thousand
years, adobe . . .) is the odd one out: the information about adobe bricks is not directly relevant to
the night scene described in the rest of the passage. To restore the unity of Momaday's
paragraph, delete this sentence.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 52
December
Practice in Supporting a Topic Sentence with Specific Details
By Richard Nordquist,
As shown in Drafting a Descriptive Paragraph, a topic sentence contains the main idea upon
which a paragraph is developed. Often it appears at (or near) the beginning of a paragraph,
introducing the main idea and suggesting the direction that the paragraph will take. What follows
a topic sentence are a number of supporting sentences that develop the main idea with specific
details.
Instructions:
Here is an effective topic sentence for a descriptive paragraph:
My most valuable possession is an old, slightly warped, blond guitar--the first instrument that I
ever taught myself how to play.
This sentence not only identifies the prized belonging ("an old, slightly warped, blond guitar")
but also suggests why the writer values it ("the first instrument that I ever taught myself how to
play"). Some of the sentences below support this topic sentence with specific descriptive details.
Others, however, offer information that would be inappropriate in a unified descriptive
paragraph. Read the sentences carefully, and then pick out only those that support the topic
sentence with precise descriptive details. When you're done, compare your responses with the
suggested answers on page two.
1. It is a Madeira folk guitar, all scuffed and scratched and finger-printed.

2. My grandparents gave it to me on my thirteenth birthday.
3. I think they bought it at the Music Lovers Shop in Rochester where they used to live.
4. At the top is a bramble of copper-wound strings, each one hooked through the eye of a
silver tuning key.
5. Although copper strings are much harder on the fingers than nylon strings, they sound
much better than the nylon ones.
6. The strings are stretched down a long slim neck.
7. The frets on the neck are tarnished, and the wood has been worn down by years of fingers
pressing chords.
8. It was three months before I could even tune the guitar properly, and another few months
before I could manage the basic chords.
9. You have to be very patient when first learning how to play the guitar.
10. You should set aside a certain time each day for practice.
11. The body of the Madeira is shaped like an enormous yellow pear, one that has been
slightly damaged in shipping.
12. A guitar can be awkward to hold, particularly if it seems bigger than you are, but you
need to learn how to hold it properly if you're ever going to play it right.
13. I usually play sitting down because it's more comfortable that way.
14. The blond wood has been chipped and gouged to gray, particularly where the pick guard
fell off years ago.
15. I have a Gibson now and hardly ever play the Madeira any more.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 53
December
Suggested Answers:
The following sentences support the topic sentence with precise descriptive details:
1. It is a Madeira folk guitar, all scuffed and scratched and finger-printed.
4. At the top is a bramble of copper-wound strings, each one hooked through the eye of a silver
tuning key.
6. The strings are stretched down a long slim neck.
7. The frets on the neck are tarnished, and the wood has been worn down by years of fingers
pressing chords.
11. The body of the Madeira is shaped like an enormous yellow pear, one that has been slightly
damaged in shipping.
14. The blond wood has been chipped and gouged to gray, particularly where the pick guard fell
off years ago.
The original version of this paragraph, titled "The Blond Guitar," appears in our collection of
Model Descriptive Paragraphs.
Cohesion Strategies: Transitional Words and Phrases
By Richard Nordquist
Here we'll consider how transitional words and phrases can help make our writing clear and
cohesive.
A key quality of an effective paragraph is unity. A unified paragraph sticks to one topic from
start to finish, with every sentence contributing to the central purpose and main idea of that
paragraph.
But a strong paragraph is more than just a collection of loose sentences. Those sentences need to
be clearly connected so that readers can follow along, recognizing how one detail leads to the
next. A paragraph with clearly connected sentences is said to be cohesive.
The following paragraph is unified and cohesive. Notice how the italicized words and phrases
(called transitions) guide us along, helping us see how one detail leads to the next.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 54
December
Why I Don't Make My Bed
Ever since I moved into my own apartment last fall, I have gotten out of the habit of making my
bed--except on Fridays, of course, when I change the sheets. Although some people may think
that I am a slob, I have some sound reasons for breaking the bed-making habit. In the first place,
I am not concerned about maintaining a tidy bedroom because no one except me ever ventures in
there. If there is ever a fire inspection or a surprise date, I suppose I can dash in there to fluff up
the pillow and slap on a spread. Otherwise, I am not bothered. In addition, I find nothing
uncomfortable about crawling into a rumpled mass of sheets and blankets. On the contrary, I
enjoy poking out a cozy space for myself before drifting off to sleep. Also, I think that a tightly
made bed is downright uncomfortable: entering one makes me feel like a loaf of bread being
wrapped and sealed. Finally, and most importantly, I think bed-making is an awful way to waste
time in the morning. I would rather spend those precious minutes checking my email or feeding
the cat than tucking in corners or snapping the spread.
Transitional words and phrases guide readers from one sentence to the next. Although they most
often appear at the beginning of a sentence, they may also show up after the subject. Here are the
common transitional expressions, grouped according to the type of relationship shown by each.
1. Addition Transitions
And, also, besides first, second, third, in addition.in the first place, in the second place, in the
third place, furthermore, moreover, to begin with, next, finally
Example
In the first place, no "burning" in the sense of combustion, as in the burning of wood, occurs in a
volcano; moreover, volcanoes are not necessarily mountains; furthermore, the activity takes
place not always at the summit but more commonly on the sides or flanks; and finally, the
"smoke" is not smoke but condensed steam.
(Fred Bullard, Volcanoes in History)
2. Cause-Effect Transitions
Accordingly, and so, as a result, consequently, for this reason, hence, so, then, therefore, thus
Example
The ideologue is often brilliant. Consequently some of us distrust brilliance when we should
distrust the ideologue.
(Clifton Fadiman)
3. Comparison Transitions
by the same token, in like manner, in the same way, in similar fashion, likewise, similarly
Example
When you start with a portrait and search for a pure form, a clear volume, through successive
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 55
December
eliminations, you arrive inevitably at the egg. Likewise, starting with the egg and following the
same process in reverse, one finishes with the portrait.
(Pablo Picasso)
4. Contrast Transitions
But, however, in contrast, instead, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, yet
Example
Every American, to the last man, lays claim to a “sense” of humor and guards it as his most
significant spiritual trait, yet rejects humor as a contaminating element wherever found. America
is a nation of comics and comedians; nevertheless, humor has no stature and is accepted only
after the death of the perpetrator.
(E. B. White)
5. Conclusion and Summary Transitions

and so, after all, at last, finally, in brief, in closing, in conclusion, on the whole, to conclude, to
summarize
Example
Reporters are not paid to operate in retrospect. Because when news begins to solidify into current
events and finally harden into history, it is the stories we didn’t write, the questions we didn’t ask
that prove far, far more damaging than the ones we did.
(Anna Quindlen)
6. Example Transitions
as an example, for example, for instance, specifically, thus, to illustrate
Example
With all the ingenuity involved in hiding delicacies on the body, this process automatically
excludes certain foods. For example, a turkey sandwich is welcome, but the cumbersome
cantaloupe is not.
(Steve Martin, "How to Fold Soup")
7. Insistence Transitions
in fact, indeed, no, yes
Example
The joy of giving is indeed a pleasure, especially when you get rid of something you don’t want.
(Frank Butler, Going My Way)
8. Place Transitions
Above, alongside, beneath, beyond, farther along, in back, in front, nearby, on top of, to the left,
to the right, under, upon
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 56
December
Example
What did it matter where you lay once you were dead? In a dirty sump or in a marble
tower on top of a high hill? You were dead, you were sleeping the big sleep, you were not
bothered by things like that.
(Raymond Chandler, The Big Sleep)
9. Restatement Transitions
in other words, in short, in simpler terms, that is, to put it differently, to repeat
Example
Anthropologist Geoffrey Gorer studied the few peaceful human tribes and discovered one
common characteristic: sex roles were not polarized. Differences of dress and occupation
were at a minimum. Society in other words, was not using sexual blackmail as a way of
getting women to do cheap labor, or men to be aggressive.
(Gloria Steinem, "What It Would Be Like If Women Win")
10. Time Transitions

Afterward, at the same time, currently, earlier, formerly, immediately, in the future
in the meantime, in the past, later, meanwhile, previously, simultaneously, subsequently
then, until now
Example
At first a toy, then a mode of transportation for the rich, the automobile was designed as man's
mechanical servant. Later it became part of the pattern of living.
Cohesion Strategies: Repetition of Key Words & Structures
By Richard Nordquist,
Here we will consider how careful repetition of key words and sentence structures can help to
make our writing clear and cohesive.
As we've seen, an important quality of an effective paragraph is unity. A unified paragraph sticks
to one topic from start to finish, with every sentence contributing to the central purpose and main
idea of that paragraph.
But a strong paragraph is more than just a collection of loose sentences. Those sentences need to
be clearly connected so that readers can follow along, recognizing how one detail leads to the
next. A paragraph with clearly connected sentences is said to be cohesive.
Repetition of Key Words
Repeating key words in a paragraph is an important technique for achieving cohesion. Of course,
careless or excessive repetition is boring--and a source of clutter. But used skillfully and
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 57
December
selectively, as in the paragraph below, this technique can help to hold sentences together and
focus the reader's attention on a central idea.
We Americans are a charitable and humane people: we have institutions devoted to every good
cause from rescuing homeless cats to preventing World War III. But what have we done to
promote the art of thinking? Certainly we make no room for thought in our daily lives. Suppose
a man were to say to his friends, "I'm not going to PTA tonight (or choir practice or the baseball
game) because I need some time to myself, some time to think"? Such a man would be shunned
by his neighbors; his family would be ashamed of him. What if a teenager were to say, "I'm not
going to the dance tonight because I need some time to think"? His parents would immediately
start looking in the Yellow Pages for a psychiatrist. We are all too much like Julius Caesar: we
fear and distrust people who think too much. We believe that almost anything is more important
than thinking.
(Carolyn Kane, from "Thinking: A Neglected Art," in Newsweek, 14 December 1981)
Notice that the author uses various forms of the same word--think, thinking, thought--to link the
different examples and reinforce the main idea of the paragraph.
Repetition of Key Words and Sentence Structures
A similar way to achieve cohesion in our writing is to repeat a particular sentence structure along
with a key word or phrase. Although we usually try to vary the length and shape of our
sentences, now and then we may choose to repeat a construction to emphasize connections
between related ideas.
Here's a short example of structural repetition from the play Getting Married, by George Bernard
Shaw:
There are couples who dislike one another furiously for several hours at a time; there are couples
who dislike one another permanently; and there are couples who never dislike one another; but
these last are people who are incapable of disliking anybody.
Notice how Shaw's reliance on semicolons (rather than periods) reinforces the sense of unity and
cohesion in this passage.
Extended Repetition
On rare occasions, emphatic repetitions may extend beyond just two or three main clauses.
Recently, the Turkish novelist OrhanPamuk provided an example of extended repetition in his
Nobel Prize Lecture, "My Father's Suitcase":
The question we writers are asked most often, the favorite question, is: Why do you write? I
write because I have an innate need to write. I write because I can’t do normal work as other
people do. I write because I want to read books like the ones I write. I write because I am angry
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 58
December
at everyone. I write because I love sitting in a room all day writing. I write because I can partake
of real life only by changing it. I write because I want others, the whole world, to know what sort
of life we lived, and continue to live, in Istanbul, in Turkey. I write because I love the smell of
paper, pen, and ink. I write because I believe in literature, in the art of the novel, more than I
believe in anything else. I write because it is a habit, a passion. I write because I am afraid of
being forgotten. I write because I like the glory and interest that writing brings. I write to be
alone. Perhaps I write because I hope to understand why I am so very, very angry at everyone. I
write because I like to be read. I write because once I have begun a novel, an essay, a page I want
to finish it. I write because everyone expects me to write. I write because I have a childish belief
in the immortality of libraries, and in the way my books sit on the shelf. I write because it is
exciting to turn all life’s beauties and riches into words. I write not to tell a story but to compose
a story. I write because I wish to escape from the foreboding that there is a place I must go but--
as in a dream--can’t quite get to. I write because I have never managed to be happy. I write to be
happy.
(The Nobel Lecture, 7 December 2006. Translated from the Turkish, by Maureen Freely. © THE
NOBEL FOUNDATION 2006)
Two well-known examples of extended repetition appear in our Essay Sampler: Models of Good
Writing: Judy Brady's essay "Why I Want a Wife" (included in part three of the Essay Sampler)
and the most famous portion of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.'s "I Have A Dream" speech (in part
two of the Essay Sampler).
Final Reminder:Needless repetition that only clutters our writing should be avoided. But the
careful repetition of key words and phrases can be an effective strategy for fashioning cohesive
paragraphs.
Cohesion Exercise: Building and Connecting Sentences
Using Transitional Words and Phrases
Instructions
Combine the sentences in each set into two clear sentences. Add a transitional word or phrase
(from the lists in Cohesion Strategies: Transitional Words and Phrases) to the second sentence to
show how it relates to the first. Here's an example:
 Retirement should be the reward for a lifetime of work.

 It is widely viewed as a sort of punishment.
 It is a punishment for growing old.
Sample Combination:
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 59
December
Retirement should be the reward for a lifetime of work. Instead, it is widely viewed as a
sort of punishment for growing old.
If you run into problems while working on this exercise, review the following pages:
 Cohesion Strategies: Transitional Words and Phrases

 Cohesion Strategies: Revising Paragraphs with Transitional Words and Phrases
 Introduction to Sentence Combining
When you are done, compare your sentences with the sample combinations on page two.
TIP: To view this exercise without ads, click on the printer icon near the top of the page.
Exercise: Building and Connecting Sentences with Transitional Words and Phrases
1. To be self-centered does not mean to disregard the worth of other people.

We are all self-centered.
Most psychologists would probably accept this position.
2. There are differences in math performance between boys and girls.
These differences cannot be attributed simply to differences in innate ability.
If one were to ask the children themselves, they would probably disagree.
3. We do not seek solitude.
If we find ourselves alone for once, we flick a switch.
We invite the whole world in.
The world comes in through the TV or Internet.
4. Little girls, of course, don't take toy guns out of their hip pockets.
They do not say "Pow, pow" to all their neighbors and friends.
The average well-adjusted little boy does this.
If we gave little girls the six-shooters, we would soon have double the body count.
5. We know very little about pain.
What we don't know makes it hurt all the more.
There is ignorance about pain.
No form of illiteracy in the United States is so widespread.
No form of illiteracy in the United States is so costly.
6. We drove the wagon close to a corner post.
We twisted the end of the wire around it.
We twisted the wire one foot above the ground.
We stapled it fast.
We drove along the line of posts.
We drove for about 200 yards.
We unreeled the wire on the ground behind us.
7. The historical sciences have made us very conscious of our past.
They have made us conscious of the world as a machine.
The machine generates successive events out of foregoing ones.
Some scholars tend to look totally backward.
They look backward in their interpretation of the human future.
8. Rewriting is something that most writers find they have to do.
They rewrite to discover what they have to say.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 60
December
They rewrite to discover how to say it.
There are a few writers who do little formal rewriting.
They have capacity and experience.
They create and review a large number of invisible drafts.
They create and review in their minds.
They do this before they approach the page.
Cohesion Exercise: Building and Connecting Sentences (page two)
Sample Combinations
Here are sample combinations for the exercises on page one: Building and Connecting
Sentences with Transitional Words and Phrases. Keep in mind that in most cases more than one
effective combination is possible.
1. To be self-centered does not mean to disregard the worth of other people. In fact, most
psychologists would probably accept the position that we are all self-centered.
2. The differences in math performance between boys and girls cannot be attributed simply
to differences in innate ability. Still, if one were to ask the children themselves, they
would probably disagree.
3. We do not seek solitude. In fact, if we find ourselves alone for once we flick a switch and
invite the whole world in through the TV or Internet.
4. Little girls, of course, don't take toy guns out of their hip pockets and say "Pow, pow" to
all their neighbors and friends like average well-adjusted little boys. However, if we gave
little girls the six-shooters, we would soon have double the body count.
(Anne Roiphe, "Confessions of a Female Chauvinist Sow")
5. We know very little about pain and what we don't know makes it hurt all the more.
Indeed, no form of illiteracy in the United States is so widespread or costly as ignorance
about pain.
(Norman Cousins, "Pain Is Not the Ultimate Enemy")
6. We drove the wagon close to a corner post, twisted the end of the wire around it one foot
above the ground, and stapled it fast. Next, we drove along the line of posts for about 200
yards, unreeling wire on the ground behind us.
(John Fischer, "Barbed Wire")
7. The historical sciences have made us very conscious of our past, and of the world as a
machine generating successive events out of foregoing ones. For this reason, some
scholars tend to look totally backward in their interpretation of the human future.
(Loren Eiseley, The Unexpected Universe)
8. Rewriting is something that most writers find they have to do to discover what they have
to say and how to say it. There are, however, a few writers who do little formal rewriting
because they have the capacity and experience to create and review a large number of
invisible drafts in their minds before they approach the page.
(Donald M. Murray, "The Maker's Eye: Revising Your Own Manuscripts")
Exercise in Identifying Transitional Expressions
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 61
December
A transitional expression is a word or phrase that shows readers how the meaning of one
sentence is related to the meaning of the previous sentence. Used appropriately, transitions
contribute to cohesion in a paragraph or essay. (For a list of transitional expressions, see
Cohesion Strategies: Transitional Words and Phrases.) In this exercise, you will practice
identifying transitional expressions.
Instructions:
In the following short passages, pick out the transitional words and phrases that are used to
provide cohesion. When you're done, compare your answers with those on page two.
TIP: To view this exercise without ads, click on the printer icon near the top of the page.
1. Very often I must wait weeks and weeks for what you call "inspiration." In the meantime
I must sit with my quill pen poised in the air over a sheet of foolscap, in case the divine
spark should come like a lightning bolt and knock me off my chair on to my head.
("How I Create," by Robert Benchley)
2. For nonconformity the world whips you with its displeasure. And therefore a man must
know how to estimate a sour face.
("Self-Reliance," by Ralph Waldo Emerson)
3. Well, what I mean by Education is learning the rules of this mighty game. In other words,
education is the instruction of the intellect in the laws of Nature, under which name I
include not merely things and their forces, but men and their ways . . ..
("A Liberal Education," by Thomas Henry Huxley)
4. What has been gained for the systematic teaching of composition and literature will not, I
trust, be lost. Besides, the older grammatical teaching must give way to something more
accurate, more interesting, and more effective.
("The Teaching of English Grammar," by Oliver Farrar Emerson)
5. Time had not been kind to the shepherdess, nor to her charges, whose waterlogged wool
was stained with the evidence of a long and unforgiving winter. Farther along the road
these homes gave way to tents and campers equipped with pop-up roofs and jury-rigged
awnings made of plastic and fronted by mosquito netting.
("Naked," by David Sedaris)
6. Occasionally, out of sheer human pity, we ignore our high and mighty standard and pass
them. Usually, however, the standard, and not the candidate, commands our fidelity.
("The Ph.D. Octopus," by William James)
7. Though they live in the very thick of the human race, they are forever isolated from it.
They are fated to go through life, congenial pariahs. They live out their little lives,
mingling with the world, yet never a part of it. They are, in short, Good Souls.
("Good Souls," by Dorothy Parker)
8. McSorley's bar is short, accommodating approximately ten elbows, and is shored up with
iron pipes. It is to the right as you enter. To the left is a row of armchairs with their stiff
backs against the wainscoting.
("The Old House at Home," by Joseph Mitchell)
9. Aristotle, in his sketch of the magnanimous man, tells us that his voice is deep, his
motions slow, and his stature commanding. In like manner, the elocution of a great
intellect is great.
(The Idea of a University, by John Henry Newman)
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 62
December
10. Who gives quickly, says the old proverb, gives twice. For this reason I have purposely
delayed writing to you, lest I should appear to thank you more than once for the small,
cheap, hideous present you sent me on the occasion of my recent wedding.
("How Shall I Word It?" by Max Beerbohm)
11. It does seem as if rather a richer flavor were given to a book by knowing the
circumstance of its composition. Consequently readers, as they grow older, turn more and
more to biography.
("The Writing of Essays," by Charles S. Brooks)
12. If you own things, what's their effect on you? What's the effect on me of my wood?
In the first place, it makes me feel heavy. Property does have this effect.
("My Wood," by E.M. Forster)
13. There exists, it appears, a class of persons who, either through ignorance or indifference,
or often through both combined, are doing all in their power to corrupt the English
tongue. Their efforts are too largely successful. There is accordingly no salvation for the
speech unless heroic measures are taken to guard it from the perils threatening its purity.
("The Standard of Usage in English," by Thomas R. Lounsbury)
14. [Margaret Fuller] often passes in one breath from forcible reasoning to dreamy
vagueness; moreover, her unusually varied culture gives her great command of
illustration. Mary Wollstonecraft, on the other hand, is nothing if not rational; she has no
erudition, and her grave pages are lit up by no ray of fancy.
("Margaret Fuller and Mary Wollstonecraft," by George Eliot)
15. There are, indeed, many other jobs that are unpleasant, and yet no one thinks of
abolishing them--that of the plumber, that of the soldier, that of the garbage-man, that of
the priest hearing confessions, that of the sand-hog, and so on. Moreover, what evidence
is there that any actual hangman complains of his work? I have heard none. On the
contrary, I have known many who delighted in their ancient art, and practiced it proudly.
("The Penalty of Death," by H.L. Mencken)
Exercise in Identifying Transitional Expressions
Answers to the Exercise
Here are the answers to the Exercise in Identifying Transitional Expressions.
1. In the meantime
2. And therefore
3. In other words
4. Besides
5. Farther along
6. however
7. in short
8. to the right
To the left
9. In like manner
10. For this reason
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 63
December
11. Consequently
12. In the first place
13. accordingly
14. moreover
on the other hand
15. Moreover
On the contrary
Identify the kinds of problems each sentences has by saying (Misplaced, Fragment, Run on, Dangling,
Unparallel, Comma splice&Subject verb disagreement) and write the problems in the space provided in
front of the questions.
1. Children need limits they respect adults who supply them. RO

2. When trying on bathing suits, I always vow to begin a diet. OK
3. We read that Janet was married in her last letter. Misplaced
4. The students who do well attend class, they do their homework, and practice speaking in English.
Unparallel.
5. Moisture gets inside computers their chips begin to break down. RO
6. Darkness falls quickly at the edges of the forest. OK
7. Sharing the burden of domestic chores has become more common in American marriages. OK
8. The faulty alarm nearly sounded five times yesterday. Misplaced.
9. Although, some husbands may resist at first. FR
10. The language skills of the students in the evening classes are the same as the day. Un parallel
11. Since studies show that even working women feel they must do most of the house work. FR
12. Growing impatiens takes very little patience at all. OK
13. Knowing we would arrive on Thursday. FR
14. I can't tell you, I wasn't there. CS
15. My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus it is very garlicky. Run on
16. The teacher wanted to know which country we came from and our future goals. unparallel
17. Ethiopians eat ‘Enjera’ and bread every day. OK
18. That dress was too small, I gave it to Corinne. CS
19. Women's football has earned the world's attention this summer, Ethiopians have every reason to
be proud. CS
20. The player who signed a multi-million-dollar contract with a breakfast cereal company. FR
21. To study the effects of alcohol, a dozen mice were fed beer. Dangling
22. While I was trying on dresses, the saleswoman kept bothering me. Correct
23. Hungry and frustrated, the child’s tears were inevitable. Dangling.
24. He was staring at the girl by the vending machine wearing dark glasses. Misplaced
25. My English conversation class is made up of Chinese, Spaniards, and some are from Bosnia.
Unparallel
Practice in Organizing a Descriptive Paragraph
fter studying our basic model for organizing a descriptive paragraph, you may find it helpful to
apply the strategies in this short exercise.
Here's the topic sentence of a descriptive paragraph titled "The Candle":
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 64
December
I treasure my candle not for its beauty, its sentimental value, or even its usefulness, but for its
simple, stark ugliness.
The rest of the paragraph appears below. However, the sentences have been rearranged so that
the descriptions appear in no logical order. Reorder the sentences to create a clear, well-
organized paragraph.
1. Rising crookedly out of the cup and collar is the candle, a pitifully short, stubby object.
2. Abandoned by a previous occupant of my room, the candle squats on the window sill,
anchored by cobwebs and surrounded by dead flies.
3. This ugly little memorial consists of three parts: the base, the reflector, and the candle
itself.
4. This aluminum flower is actually a wrinkled old Christmas light collar.
5. The base is a white, coffee-stained Styrofoam cup, its wide mouth pressed to the sill.
6. And by lighting the wick, any time I choose, I can melt this ugly candle away.
7. From the bottom of the cup (which is the top of the base) sprouts a space-age daisy: red,
green, and silver petals intended to collect wax and reflect candle light.
8. The candle is about the same size and color as a man's thumb, beaded with little warts of
wax down the sides and topped by a tiny bent wick.
Practice in Organizing a Descriptive Paragraph (page two)
Suggested Rearrangement of Sentences:
2. Abandoned by a previous occupant of my room, the candle squats on the window sill,
anchored by cobwebs and surrounded by dead flies.
3. This ugly little memorial consists of three parts: the base, the reflector, and the candle itself.
5. The base is a white, coffee-stained Styrofoam cup, its wide mouth pressed to the sill.
7. From the bottom of the cup (which is the top of the base) sprouts a space-age daisy: red, green,
and silver petals intended to collect wax and reflect candle light.
4. This aluminum flower is actually a wrinkled old Christmas light collar.
1. Rising crookedly out of the cup and collar is the candle, a pitifully short, stubby object.
8. The candle is about the same size and color as a man's thumb, beaded with little warts of wax
down the sides and topped by a tiny bent wick.
6. And by lighting the wick, any time I choose, I can melt this ugly candle away.
Compiled by:
MogesDagne 65

2016 Edited Basic Writing Skills

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

2016 Edited Basic Writing Skills

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

December

2017 Basic Writing Skills (Enla. 1011

Noun phrase She brought a glass full of water.(as noun/object)

“A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a predicate”

These are clauses These are not clauses

Independent An independent clause contains a subject and a verb and expresses a

TYPES OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

Functions of Subordinate Clause

Sentence Not a sentence

What is effective sentence?

Subject and Predicate

There are three types of subjects:-

2. Complete subject - a noun or a pronoun plus any modifiers

Example: Sosina and Almaz greeted their boss.

 The glacier melted.

Like subjects, there arethree types of predicates:-

sit on the couch,

was singing quietly and sweetly.

 I came, saw, and conquered.

Generally all sentences need a subject and a predicate.

Sentences and their Purpose

A Declarative Sentencemakes a statement or expresses opinion. It declares something and ends

 I’m going to town. (I’ve declared something I’m going to do.)

Kinds of Sentences According to their Structure

A Compound Sentence consists of atleast two independent clauses joined by coordinating

 I like an apple but my brother likes a mango.

The independent clauses in a compound sentence are always separated by a comma or by a

 I met the boywho had helped me.

 He is playing well although he is ill.

A Compound-Complex sentence consists of at least two independents and one or more

 He went to college and I went to a marketwhere I bought a book.

COORDINATION, SUBORDINATION, and CORRELATION

The following are some of the more common subordinate conjunctions:

The following are some of the more common Conjunctive Adverbs:

CORRELATIVE (PAIRED) CONJUNCTIONSemphasize the relationship set up by

BASIC SENTENCES FAULTS

Correcting Sentence Fragments

Add a period: My family went to Australia. Then they emigrated to Canada.

CORRECTING THE RUN-ON SENTENCE

To correct a run-on sentence, do one of the following:

1. Make the two independent clauses into separate sentences.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING RUN-ON SENTENCES

Comma Splice I completed my essay, I have not submitted it.

DANGLING /MISPLACED MODIFIERS

modifier the noun being modified

modifier pronoun being modified

Tips for Spotting Dangling Modifiers

How to Check for Dangling Modifiers

Step one: Find the modifier.

1. A. piled up next to the washer, I began doing the laundry.

ANSWERS 1.B, 2.A, 3.B, 4.A, 5. B

Misplaced Modifiers (mm)

Only AtoAbebe offered me thirty birr to mow his lawn.

Hiwot enjoys baking cakes, cookies, and brownies.

This sentence does not:

This sentence contains an unparallel mixture of a gerund and a noun:

But this sentence contains two gerunds:

Parallelism is necessary in phrases, as well:

Five dollars is a lot of money.

The crew are preparing to dock the ship.

AVOIDING ILLOGICAL SHIFTS IN TENSE, PERSONS, NUMBERS AND VOICE:

AVOIDING ILLOGICAL SHIFTS IN PERSON:

AVOIDING ILLOGICAL SHIFTS IN NUMBER:

AVOIDING ILLOGICAL SHIFTS IN VOICE: