General Forced Response

Capt. (Rtd.) Othman Inayatullah, PhD

Department of Mechanical Engineering
School of Engineering and Technology
University College of Technology Sarawak

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 You must able to

1. Understands the response to system, subject to a shock loading or

impulse.

2. Analyse the response of a system to a variety of different types of forces.

3. Examines the base-excitation problem using method of superposition.

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General forced response
• So far, all of the driving forces have been sine
or cosine excitations

• In this sub-topic we examine the response to

any form of excitation such as
– Impulse
– Sums of sines and cosines
– Any integrable function

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Linear Superposition allows us to break up complicated forces
into sums of simpler forces, compute the response and add to
get the total solution

If x1 , x2 are solutions of a linear homogeneous

equation, then
x = a1 x1 + a2 x2 is also a solution.
If x1 is the particular sol of x + w n2 x = f1
and x2 the particular sol of x + w n2 x = f2
Þ ax1 + bx2 solves x + w n2 x = af1 + bf2

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Impulse Response Function
Impulse excitation
F(t) rule of describing force (3.1)

F̂ ì0 t < t -e
ï Fˆ
2e F(t) = í t -e < t < t + e
ï 2e
î0 t > t +e

τ -ε τ +ε
τ
τ is a small positive number
Figure 3.1

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From sophomore dynamics The impulse imparted to an object is
equal to the change in the objects momentum

F(t) i.e. area

under impulse force; I    =  F (t )dt  F t (3.2)
pulse   
F̂ I ( )    F (t )dt   F (t )dt in N  s
2e  

Fˆ
 2  Fˆ (3.3)
2

τ -ε τ +ε
τ

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We use the properties of impulse to define the impulse function:

Dirac Delta
Equal
F(t) function
impulses

F (t   )  0, t   (3.4)

 F (t   )dt  Fˆ (3.5)

t
If Fˆ  1, this is the Dirac Delta Funcation;  (t)

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The effect of an impulse on a spring-mass-damper is related to
its change in momentum.

Just after Just before

impulse impulse
impulse= momentum change
+ -
FDt = Dmv = m[v(t0 ) - v(t0 )]
ˆ FDt
F
Fˆ = mv0 Þ v0 = =
m m
Thus the response to impulse with zero initial
condition is equal to
the free response with initial condition;
x0=0 and v0 =FΔt/m
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Recall that the free response to just non zero initial conditions is

The solution of:

mx  cx  kx  0 x(0)  x0 x(0)  v0
in underdamped case:

 v0  n x0    x0d 
2 2
x0d
x(t )  e-nt sin(d t  tan 1 )
d v0  n x0
where
d  n 1   2
n  k m
  c  2mn 
For x0 = 0 this becomes:
v0 e-zw n t
x(t) = sin w d t
wd

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 Next compute the response to x(0)=0 and v(0) =FΔt/m

The solution of:

Fˆ
mx  cx  kx  0 x(0)  x0 x(0)  F t / m 
m
in underdamped case from the previous slide is:
ˆ
Fe -n t
x(t )  sin d t (3.6)
md

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So for an underdamped system the impulse response is (x0 = 0)

ˆ nt
Fe
x(t )  sin d t (response to Fˆ ) (3.6)
md
ˆ (t )
x(t )  Fh (3.7)
e nt F̂
where h(t )  sin d t (3.8)
md
unit impulse response function x(t) m
1

0.5 k
c
h(t)

-0.5

-1
0 10 20 30 40
Time

Response to an impulse at t = 0, and zero initial conditions

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The response to an impulse is thus defined in terms of the impulse
response function, h(t).

So, the response to  (t ) is given by h(t ).

e nt
h(t )  sin d t (3.8)
md
What is the response to a unit impulse applied
at a time different from zero?
1 n t  
h(t   )  e sin d  t    t   (3.9)
md
The response to  (t - ) is h(t - ).
This is given on the following slide

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 ì 0 t <t
ï
h(t - t ) = í e-zw n (t - t )
ï mw sin w d (t - t ) t > t
î d

for the case that the impulse occurs at t note that the effects of
non-zero initial conditions and other forcing terms must be super
imposed on this solution (see Equation (3.9))
1
=0
h1
0

For example: If two -1

0 10 20 30 40
pulses occur at two 1
different times then =10
h2

0
their impulse
-1
responses will 1
0 10 20 30 40
superimpose
h1+h2

-1
0 10 20 30 40
Time
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 Consider the undamped impulse response

Setting z = 0 in the equation (3.8)

Response to unit impulse applied at t = t ,
i.e. d (t-t ) is:
1
h(t - t ) = sin w n (t - t )
mw n

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Example 3.1.2 Design a camera mount with a vibration constraint

Consider example 2.1.3 of the security camera

again only this time with an impulsive load

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Using the stiffness and mass parameters of Example 2.1.3, does the
system stay with in vibration limits if hit by a 1 kg bird traveling at 72
km/h?

The natural frequency of the camera system is

k 3Ebh 3
wn = =
mc 12mc 3
(7.1 x 10 10 N/m)(0.02 m)(0.02 m)3
= 3
= 75.43 rad/s
4(3 kg)(0.55)
From equations (3.7) and (3.8) with ζ = 0, the impulsive response is:
FDt mb v
x(t) = sin w nt = sin w nt
mcw n mcw n
The magnitude of the response due to the impulse is thus
mb v
X=
mcw n
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 Next compute the momentum of the bird to complete the
magnitude calculation:

km 1000 m hour
mb v  1 kg  72    20 kg m/s
hour km 3600 s

Next use this value in the expression for the

maximum value:
mb v 20 kg m/s
X   0.088 m
mcn 3 kg  75.45 rad/s

This max value exceeds the camera tolerance

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Example 3.1.3: two impacts, zero initial conditions (double hit).

m = 1 kg, c = 0.5 kg/s, k = 4 N/m

F̂ = 2 N × s and F(t) = 2d (t) + d (t - t )
w n = 2,z = 0.125
2e-zw n t
x1 (t) = sin w d t = 1.008e-0.25t sin(1.984t),t > 0
mw d
x2 (t) = 0.504e-0.25(t - t ) sin(1.984(t - t )),t > t

x(t) = x1 + x2
ì 1.008e-0.25(t ) sin(1.984t) 0 <t <t
=í -0.25(t - t )
î1.008e -0.25t
sin(1.984t) + 0.504e sin(1.984(t - t )) t >t

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 Example 3.1.4 two impacts and initial conditions
(cont. E3.1.3)
x + 2x + 4x = d (t) - d (t - 4), x0 = 1 mm, x0 = -1 mm/s
Solve three simple problems and add the results.
Homogeneous solution (w n = 2rad/s, z =0.5, w d = 3 rad/s)
-zw n t v0 + x0zw n
xh (t) = e [ sin w d t + x0 cos w d t]
wd
-t-1 + 1
=e [ sin 3t + cos 3t] = e-t cos 3t
3

Note, no need to redo constants of integration

for impulse excitation (others, yes)

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Computation of the response to first impulse:

Treat d (t) as x 0 = 0 and v 0 = 1, 0 < t < 4

é
-zw n t v 0
ù 1 -t
x I (t) = e ê sin w d tú = e sin 3t
ëw d û 3
0<t<4
Total Response for 0< t < 4

x1 (t) = xh (t) + x I (t)

-t 1
= e (cos 3t + sin 3t),
3
for 0 £ t < 4
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 Next compute the response to the second impulse:

-1 -t + 4
x2 = e sin 3(t - 4), t > 4
3
e-t + 4
=- sin 3(t - 4) H (t - 4)
3 Heaviside Step function

Here the Heaviside step function is used to “turn on” the response to the
impulse at t = 4 seconds.

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 To get the total response add the partial solutions:

-t + 4
1 e
x(t) = e-t ( sin 3t + cos 3t ) - sin 3(t - 4)H (t - 4)
3 initial condition 3
frist impulse second impulse
1

0.5

x t
0 2 4 6 8 10

0.5

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 Response to an Arbitrary Input
The response to general force, F(t), can be viewed as a series
of impulses of magnitude F(ti)Δt
Response at time t due to the ith impulse zero initial condition

xi(t) = [F(ti)t ].h(t-ti) for t>ti

Impulse acting during the time interval between t i and t i 1

x(t )  Fh  t  (3.7)
x  ti   F  ti  h  t  ti  t (3.10)
Total response after n intervals
n
x  tn    F  ti  h  t  ti t (3.11)
i 1

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 Response to an Arbitrary Input
The response to general force, F(t), can be viewed as a series
of impulses of magnitude F(ti)Δt
Response at time t due to the ith impulse zero initial condition

xi(t) = [F(ti)t ].h(t-ti) for t>ti xi

F(t) ti t
Impulses
If t = t I (the i th time interval)
F(ti) I
x(t I ) = å [F(ti )Dt]h(t - ti )
i =1

Dt ® 0,ti ® t Þ
t

x(t) = ò F(t )h(t - t )dt (3.12)

t1,t2 ,t3 ti t 0
convolution integral

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Properties of convolution integrals: It is symmetric meaning:

Let a = t - t ,t fixed so that t =t - a

and dt = -da . Also t : 0 ® t Þ a : t ® 0
t 0

x(t) = ò F(t )h(t - t )dt = ò F(t - a )h(a )(-da )

0 t
t

= ò F(t - a )h(a )da

0

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The convolution integral, or Duhamel integral, for underdamped
systems is:

1 -zw n t t
ò F(t )e sin w d (t - t ) ùûdt
zw n t
x(t) = e é
ë
mw d 0

1 t
=
mw d ò0
F(t - t )e-zw nt sin w dt dt (3.13)

•The response to any integrable force can be computed with

either of these forms
•Which form to use depends on which is easiest to compute

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Example 3.2.1: Step function input

 0 0  t  t0
mx  cx  kx   (3.14)
 F0 t0  t
x0  0, v0  0, 0    1

Figure 3.6 Step function To solve apply (3.13):

t
1 -zw n t 0 1 -zw n t t
ò w t t ò sin w d (t - t )dt
zw n t zw n t
x(t) = e (0)e sin (t - )d + e F e
mw d mw d
d 0
t 0
0

F0 -zw n t t zw nt
=
mw d
e òt 0
e sin w d (t - t )dt

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Integrating (use a table, code or calculator) yields the solution:

F0 F0
x(t )   e n (t t0 ) cos d (t  t0 )    , t  t0 (3.15)
k k 1  2

  tan 1
(3.16)
1  2

to  0, eq (3.15)becomes
F0 F0
x t    e n (t t0 ) cos d t    (3.17)
k k 1  2
if there is no damping ( =0)
F
x  t   0 1  cos nt  (3.18)
k

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Integrating (use a table, code or calculator) yields the solution:

Fig 3.7

𝐹𝑜
𝑥𝑠𝑠 𝑡 = 3.19
𝑘

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Example: undamped oscillator under initial condition and constant force

For an undamped system: F(t)

F0
1
h(t) = sin w nt
mw n
The homogeneous solution is t1 t2
v0 F(t)
xh = sin w nt + x0 cos w nt, t < t1
wn
Good until the applied force acts at t1, then: x(t) m
t

x1®2 = ò F(t )h(t - t )dt , t1 < t < t 2

0 k
t1 t

= ò F(t )h(t - t )dt + ò F(t )h(t - t )dt

0 t1
0
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Next compute the solution between t1 and t2

For t1 < t < t2

t
1
x1®2 = ò F0 sin w n (t - t )dt
t1
mw n
ì
F0 ï (-1)(-1)
t
üï
= í cos w n (t - t ) ý
mw n ï w n t1 ï
î þ
F0
= [1 - cos w n (t - t1 )]
mw n2

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Now compute the solution for time greater than t2

For t > t2

t1 0 t2 t
0
x2® = ò F(t )h(t - t )dt + ò F(t )h(t - t )dt + ò F(t )h(t - t )dt
0 t1 t2

ì
F0 ï 1
t2
üï
= í cos w n (t - t ) ý
mw n ï w n t1 ï
î þ
F0
= [cos w n (t - t 2 ) - cos w n (t - t1 )]
mw n2

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 Total solution is superposition:
ì v0
ï sin w n t + x0 cos w nt t < t1
ï w n

ï v0 F0
x(t) = í sin w nt + x0 cos w nt + [1 - cos w n (t - t1 )] t1 < t < t 2
ï w n m w 2
n
ï v0 F0
2 [
ï sin w n t + x0 cos w nt + cos w n (t - t 2 ) - cos w n (t - t1 )] t > t 2
w
î n m w n

m = F0 = 1, w n = 8,t1 = 2,t2 = 4, x0 = 0.1,v0 = 0

Check points: x increases after application of F. Undamped response around x = 0
0.3
Displacement x(t)

0.2

0.1

-0.1
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)
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Example 3.2.3: Static versus dynamic load

ì md g t ³ 0
mx + cx + kx = í
î 0 t <0
md g é 1 ù -zw t
Þ x(t) = ê1 - ú e n cos (w d t - q )
k êë 1-z2 úû
md g
z = 0 Þ x(t) = (1 - cos w d t)
k
md g
This has max value of xmax =2 , twice the static load
k

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 Other Case
Nonzero initial condition
𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥0 cos𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + ℎ(𝑡 − 𝜏)𝐹(𝜏)𝑑𝜏
𝑜
when t = 0
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴cos𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐵sin𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑥𝑝 (𝑡
with constant A and B
𝐴 = 𝑥𝑜 − 𝑥𝑝 (𝑡
𝑣𝑜 − 𝑥𝑝 (0
𝐵=
𝜔𝑛
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 Numerical simulation and plotting

• At the end of this chapter, numerical

simulation is used to solve the problems of
this section.
• Numerical simulation is often easier then
computing these integrals
• It is wise to check the two approaches against
each other by plotting the analytical solution
and numerical solution on the same graph

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Response to an Arbitrary Periodic
Input
x + 2zw n x + w n2 x = F(t) where F(t) = F(t + T )
• We have solutions to sine and
cosine inputs. 2

• What about periodic but non- 1.5 T

harmonic inputs? 1
• We know that periodic functions

Displacement x(t)
0.5
can be represented by a series of
sines and cosines (Fourier) 0

• Response is superposition of as -0.5

many RHS terms as you think are -1
necessary to represent the
forcing function accurately -1.5

-2
0 2 4 6
Time (s)
Figure 3.11
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Recall the Fourier Series Definition:

a0 ¥
Assume F(t) = + å ( an cosW nt + bn sinW nt ) (3.20)
2 n =1
2pn
where Wn = = nw
T
T
a0 = 2
T ò 0
F(t) dt (3.21) : twice the average
T
an = 2
T ò 0
F(t) cosWn t dt (3.22) : Oscillations around average
T
bn = 2
T ò
0
F(t) sin Wn t dt (3.23)

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The terms of the Fourier series satisfy orthogonality conditions:

T ìï 0 m¹n
ò0 sin nw T t sin mw T tdt = íïT m=n
(3.24)
î 2
T ìï 0 m¹n
ò0 cos nw T t cos mw T tdt = íïT m=n
(3.25)
î 2
T
ò0
cos nw T t sin mw T tdt = 0 ( 3.26)

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Fourier Series Example

F(t)

F0 Step 1: find the F.S.

and determine how
many terms you need
0 t1 t2=T

ì 0, t < t1
ï
F(t) = í F0
ï t - t ( t - t1 ) , t1 < t £ t 2
î2 1

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Fourier Series Example

1.2

1
F(t)
2 coefficients
0.8 10 coefficients
100 coefficients
0.6
Force F(t)

0.4

0.2

-0.2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time (s)

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Having obtained the FS of input
• The next step is to find responses to
each term of the FS
• And then, just add them up!
• Danger!!: Resonance occurs whenever
a multiple of excitation frequency equals
the natural frequency.
• You may excite at 100rad/s and
observe resonance while natural
frequency is 500rad/s!! Backwards?
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Solution as a series of sines and cosines to

x  2n x   x  F (t ) (3.27)
2
n

The solution can be written as a summation


x p (t )  x0 (t )   xcn (t )  xsn (t ) (3.28)
n 1

where x0 (t ) is a solution to
a0 a0
x  2n x   x   x0 (t ) 
2
(3.29)
2n
n 2
2 Solutions
and xcn (t ) and xsn (t ) are a solutions to calculated from
equations of
x  2n x  n2 x  an cos(nT t ) (3.30) motion (see
section Example
x  2n x  n2 x  bn sin(nT t ) (3.31) 3.3.2)

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 The particular solution of Eq. (3.29) with Fo = ao/2

Eq (3.29) is calculated in Eq (3.17)

a
x1 (t )  o (3.32)
2
Eq (3.30) is calculated in Eq (2.36)
an / m
xcn (t )  1
sin  nT t   n  (3.33)

  2  n 2 2  2 n


n  T  n T 
2 


2

and
2n nT
 n  tan 1 2
n   nT 
2

Eq (3.31) calculated to be
bn / m
xsn (t )  1
sin  nT t   n  (3.34)

  2  n 2 2  2 n


n  T  n T  
2 


2

For underdamped case (0< <1)


ao
x (t )  Ae  n t
sin  d t       xcn  t   xsn  t  
 (3.35)
2k n 1

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Transform Methods

An alternative to solving the

previous problems, similar to
section 2.3

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Laplace Transform

•Laplace transformation
¥
F(s) = ò f (t)e- st dt = L{ f (t)} (3.41)
0

Laplace transforms are very useful because they change

differential equations into simple algebraic equations

•Examples of Laplace transforms (see page 244) in

book)
f(t) F(s)

Step function, u(t) 1/s

e-at 1/(s+a)
sin(n t ) n/ ( s2 + n 2)

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Laplace Transform

•Example: Laplace transform of a step function u(t)

- st ¥
¥ é -e ù 1 u(t)
ò
- st
L{u(t)} = e dt = ê ú =
0
ë s û0 s
t
•Example: Laplace transform of e-at
¥ ¥
L{e } = ò e e dt = ò e-(s+ a)t dt
-at -at - st
e-at
0 0

-(s + a)t ¥
- até -e ù 1
L{e } = ê ú =
ë (s + a) û 0 (s + a) t

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Laplace Transforms of Derivatives
•Laplace transform of the derivative of a function

ì df (t) ü ¥ df (t) - st
Lí
î dt þ
ý= ò0 dt
e dt

Integration by parts gives,

ì df (t) ü - st ¥
¥
é ù ò
- st
Lí =
ý ë f (t)e û + s f (t)e dt
î dt þ 0 0

ì df (t) ü
Lí ý = - f (0) + sL { f (t)}
î dt þ
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Laplace Transform Procedures

•Laplace transform of the integral of a function

{ t
}1
L ò f (t)dt = L { f (t)} + ò f (t)dt
-¥ s
0

-¥

Steps in using the Laplace transformation to

solve DE’s
•Find differential equations
•Find Laplace transform of equations
•Rearrange equations in terms of variable of interest
•Convert back into time domain to find resulting
response (inverse transform using tables)

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Laplace Transform Shift Property

Note these shift properties in t and s

spaces...

e f ( t) ¾
at
¾® F ( s - a)
L

f ( t - a)F(t - a) ¾
¾® e F ( s) L -as

thus

d (t) ¾
¾®1 Þ d (t - a) ¾
L
¾® e L -as

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Example 3.4.3: compute the forced response of a spring mass system
to a step input using Laplace Transform

The equation of motion is

mx(t) + kx(t) = F(t)
Taking the Laplace Transform (zero initial conditions)
1 1 1/ m
(ms + k)X(s) = Þ X(s) =
2
=
s s(ms + k) s(s 2 + w n2 )
2

Taking the inverse Laplace Transform yields:

1/ m
x(t) = 2 (1- cos w n t ) = (1 - cos w nt )
1
wn k

Compare this to the solution given in (3.18)

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Laplace Transform in un-tabulated pairs

Intergration Eq (3.41)
1 
x(t )  
st
X ( s ) e ds (3.42)
2 j 
Taking the Laplace Transform (zero initial conditions)
X( s)  F ( s) H ( s ) (3.43)
where H(s);
1
H ( s)  2 (3.44)
s  2n s  n 2

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Fourier Transform

• From Fourier series of non- 0.1

wn=2 and M=1

periodic functions
• Allow period to go to infinity 0.05

• Similar to Laplace Transform

h(t)
0
• Useful for random inputs

X ( )   x(t ) e  jt -0.05
dt (3.45)
 -0.1
• Corresponding inverse transform 0 1 2
Time (s)
3 4

 Fourier


jt
x(t )  1
2   X ( )e d (3.46) 20
Transform

Normalized H() (dB)

10
• Fourier transform of the unit
impulse response is the frequency 0
response function
¥
H (w ) = ò h(t)e - jw t -10
dt
-¥ -20
0 1 2 3 4 5
Frequency (Hz)

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