MBAMK 601 – Buyer Behaviour 1

The Impact of Culture on Marketing

By

Uditha Wijegunawardhana

Semester III – First Half

January, 2010

Postgraduate and Mid-Career Development Unit

Faculty of Management and Finance

University of Colombo
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Table of Content

Abstract…………………………………….……………………………………...…………….....4

1.0 Introduction………………………………........……………………………………….....5

2.0 Definition of Culture………………………….…………………………….……….....…7

3.0 Significance of Cultural Aspects………….………..……………………………………10

3.1 Major Cultural Aspects of Sri Lanka ……….………..………….……….........…12

3.1.1 Language……………...…….……..………………..………………………..13

3.1.2 Religion……………...…….……..………………..………..………………..14

3.1.3 Values and Attitudes……………...…….……..……………………...……....15

3.1.4 Education ..…………...…….……..………………..……………...….…..15

3.1.5 Law and Politics ……...…….……..………………..………………………..16

3.1.6 Aesthetics ..…………...…….……..………………..………………………..16

3.1.7 Social Organizations ....…….……..………………..……...…………….…..16

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3.1.8 Technology and Material Culture ...………………..………………………..17

4.0 The Influence of Cultural Aspects on Strategic Marketing..……………….…..…......…18

4.1 Influence of Religion on Strategic Marketing for the Sri Lankan Market.…18

4.2 Influence of Values on Strategic Marketing for the Sri Lankan Market……19

5.0 Conclusion…………………………………….…………………………….……….......20

6.0 References…………………………………….…………………………….……….......21
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Abstract

Indeed, the importance of cultural issues has been escalating rapidly over the past few

decades, driven by new technologies and increased globalization that allows marketers to

reach consumers across country boundaries. The following briefly looks at the various

definitions of culture, as well as one’s own perspective of the same. The study examines

some of the major Sri Lankan cultural factors, while examining the extent to which cultural

elements affect the operations marketing, and investigate how these problems are tackled.
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1.0 Introduction

Within the past few decades, we see a rapid expansion of the ‘global village’, bringing the

various countries and cultures of the world further contact. This brings into fore the

imperativeness in clear communication and understanding of other cultures, in order to deal

with them. Although word ‘culture’ seems to be a much bandied and used indiscriminately by

many due to this scenario, in reality, there is a variety of different definitions

The definitions of culture have gone through various changes throughout the years. When the

concept first appeared in Europe in the 18th – 19th centuries, it had the very basic connotation

with improvement or cultivation, usually in reference to agriculture etc. However, in the late

19th century, it became to be associated with improvement or refinement of an individual or a

society, especially through education. This led to the rather elitist thinking that ‘culture’

referred to an ideal associated with such activities as art, classical music, gourmet cuisine,

haute couture etc. Then in the 20th century, the word further evolved to emerge as a vital

concept in anthropology, as a unifying theory which encompasses all human phenomena that

are not purely results of human genetics. American anthropologists gave two meanings to the

word ‘culture’:

(1) The evolved human capacity to classify and represent experiences with symbols,

and to act imaginatively and creatively; and

(2) The distinct ways that people living in different parts of the world classified and

represented their experiences, and acted creatively.

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Early German sociologist, Simmel (1917), saw culture as "the cultivation of individuals

through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history".

However, the 2009 Encyclopedia Britannica sees it as an, “Integrated pattern of human

knowledge, belief, and behaviour that is both a result of and integral to the human capacity

for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations. Culture thus consists of

language, ideas, beliefs, customs, taboos, codes, institutions, tools, techniques, works of art,

rituals, ceremonies, and symbols. It has played a crucial role in human evolution, allowing

human beings to adapt the environment to their own purposes rather than depend solely on

natural selection to achieve adaptive success. Every human society has its own particular

culture, or socio-cultural system. Variation among cultures is attributable to such factors as

differing physical habitats and resources; the range of possibilities inherent in areas such as

language, ritual, and social organization; and historical phenomena such as the development

of links with other cultures. An individual's attitudes, values, ideals, and beliefs are greatly

influenced by the culture (or cultures) in which he or she lives. Culture change takes place as

a result of ecological, socioeconomic, political, religious, or other fundamental factors

affecting a society.”

Considering the more recent times, Umoren (1996) defined a cultured person as, “one who

behaves in a becoming way according to his society's standard of behavior; one who has

cultivated taste for what society judges admirable and worthy of the human spirit." Robbins

(2000) understood the increasing importance that concept and understanding of culture,

especially with regard to the concerns faced by those who deal across the global market: "By

understanding a nation's national culture, the global manager understands how the inhabitants

of that country behave and form opinions and therefore can anticipate changes in sales and

make important decisions based on these understandings."

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2.0 Definition of Culture

In a broad point of view, we can refer to culture as a complex whole, which includes a vast

variety of shared aspects such as knowledge, religion and beliefs, laws, languages, code of

manners, morals, rituals, customs, skills, Art and aesthetics and other capabilities/ habits

learned by an individual as a member of his or her society. It determines the behavior of

group members. Culture is contextually based, and plays a very large part in an individual’s

perception.

Culture, in a way, can be considered as being of having a circular influence on a society. On

one hand, it is a product of the actions of the society; while on the other hand, it acts as

conditioning influences upon further action and so on.

Culture in broader sense is cultivated behavior. This means that it is the totality of an

individual’s learned and accumulated experience which is socially transmitted, or more

briefly, behavior through social learning. Specifically, culture can be acquired by:

 Imitation – by copying of patterns of activity and thought of the other members

 Indoctrination – by being instructed, albeit in a rather ideological or biased point of

view

 Conditioning – by adapting oneself to the society through learning the patterns of

activity and thought which would lead to reward or punishment

 Acculturation – adopting the cultural traits or social patterns of another group

We can further look at culture through two main segments:

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Material culture – the physical objects created and used by a society. The awareness of the

kind of objects created as well as how people use them, gives a greater understanding of the

culture of a society.

 Non- material culture – considered as the carrier of culture, it consists of elements

such as the norms, values, beliefs, language, knowledge etc. shared by the members of

a society.

Furthermore, in some areas of study, culture can be considered along the terms of its

consumption patterns, and further classified into:

 Popular culture [Mass culture] – also known as ‘Pop Culture’, this consists of the

ideas, perspectives, attitudes, images and other phenomena that can be considered as

preferred by the majority of a culture

 High culture – this consists of the consumption of a set of cultural products, mainly in

the arts, which are held in the highest esteem by a culture. In practicality, it is a rather

elitist culture of the aristocracy or academia.

 Low culture –equated to popular culture in some instances, this can be considered the

opposite of high culture

 Folk culture – this can be considered as the lifestyle of a culture. This is historically

handed down through oral tradition, and demonstrates the ‘old ways’ of the

community. This is usually connected with a sense of place. For instance, if elements

of a certain folk culture are copied by, or moved to, another region, they will still

carry strong undertones of their original place.

Taking a global/organizational point of view, culture can be narrowed down from Trans-

national level to Individual level:

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i. Trans-national Culture

ii. National Culture

iii. Industry Culture

iv. Professional Culture

v. Organizational Culture

vi. Subcultures

vii. Individual

However, even within the same culture, one individual can carry several layers of mental

subcultures within oneself. Such different layers of culture can exist at the following levels:

i. The National level: Associated with the nation as a whole.

ii. The Regional level: Associated with ethnic, linguistic, or religious differences that

exist within a nation.

iii. The Gender level: Associated with gender differences (female vs. male)

iv. The Generation level: Associated with the differences between grandparents and

parents, parents and children.

v. The Social class level: Associated with educational opportunities and differences

in occupation.

vi. The Corporate level: Associated with the particular culture of an organization.

Applicable to those who are employed.

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3.0 Cultural Aspects

Culture is symbolic communication. Some of its symbols or aspects include a group's skills,

knowledge, attitudes, values, and motives. The meanings of the symbols are learned and

deliberately perpetuated in a society through its institutions. While a culture can be a made up

of a mix of many such symbols, there are a few main aspects that have the major impact on

its creation.

Culture can manifest itself in different ways and differing levels of depth. Symbols, Heroes,

and Rituals can be considered as the tangible or visual aspects of a culture. However, the true

cultural meaning of the practices is intangible.

Symbols

Heroes

Rituals

Value
s

Figure 2.1: Cultural Awareness and Extent of Global Involvement: differing levels of a culture

 Symbols: these are words, gestures, pictures, or objects that carry a particular

meaning which is only recognized by those who share a particular culture. New
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symbols can easily develop, while old ones disappear. Symbols from one particular

group are regularly and easily copied by others.

 Heroes: these are the persons, past/present, real/fictitious, who embody some

characteristics which are highly prized in a culture. They also serve as models for

behavior for the others.

 Rituals: these are collective activities, sometimes superfluous in reaching desired

objectives, but are considered as socially essential. They are therefore carried out

most of the times for their own sake (ways of greetings, paying respect to others,

religious and social ceremonies, etc.).

 Values and Attitudes: these are at the core of a culture. They are general tendencies

for the preference of certain state of affairs to others. Therefore they determine the

culture’s perception i.e. good vs. evil, right vs. wrong, natural vs. unnatural. Many

values remain unconscious to those who hold them. Therefore they often cannot be

discussed, nor can they be directly observed by others. These can only be inferred

from the way they act under different circumstances.

Symbols, heroes, and rituals are the tangible or visual aspects of the practices of a culture.

The true cultural meaning of the practices is intangible; this is revealed only when the

practices are interpreted by the insiders.

However, an individual from one culture would find it difficult to objectively asses the

culture of another society. Hofstede (1997) devised a composite-measure technique to

measure cultural differences among different societies:

 Power Distance Index: measures the degree of inequality that exists in a society.

 Uncertainty Avoidance Index: measures the extent to which a society feels threatened

by uncertain or ambiguous situations.

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 Individualism Index: measures the extent to which a society is individualistic.

Individualism refers to a loosely knit social framework in a society in which people

are supposed to take care of themselves and their immediate families only. The other

end of the spectrum would be collectivism that occurs when there is a tight social

framework in which people distinguish between in-groups and out-groups; they

expect their in-groups (relatives, clans, organizations) to look after them in exchange

for absolute loyalty.

 Masculinity Index (Achievement vs. Relationship): measures the extent to which the

dominant values are assertiveness, money and objects (achievement), not caring for

others or for quality of life. The other end of the spectrum would be femininity

(relationship).

3.1 Major Cultural Aspects of Sri Lanka

Looking at Sri Lanka from a cultural perspective, it is safe to say that its long and varied

history has culminated in a unique culture with touches of eclectic mix of various different

cultures.

The Terpstra and Sarathy Cultural Framework can be used to analyze the Sri Lankan culture

through eight aspects. The Eight aspects are Language, Religion, Values and Attitudes,

Education, Social Organizations, Technology and Material Culture, Law and Politics and

Aesthetics.
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Figure 3.1: Terpstra and Sarathy Cultural Framework

3.1.1 Language

According to Hall & Hall (1986), when looking at Language, it should be considered whether

the culture is predominantly a High Context culture or a Low Context culture, since each

culture has its unique balance between verbal and non-verbal communication.

In a Low Context culture, the spoken language carries the emphasis of the communication i.e.

what is said is what is meant. Examples include Australia and the Netherlands.

In a High Context culture, the verbal communications tend not to carry a direct message i.e.

what is said may not be what is meant. So with a High Context culture, the hidden cultural

meaning needs to be considered, as does body language. Examples include Japan and some

Arabic nations. Sri Lanka as a whole also shows a tendency towards a High Context culture.
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Sinhalese and Tamil are the most widely spoken languages in Sri Lanka, with around 74% of

population can speak in Sinhalese, while more than 18% can speak Tamil. These are the two

official languages of Sri Lanka.

The colonization by the Dutch, the Portuguese and the British has had a marked impact on

the languages, as well as the by the extensive history in international trade. English is fluently

spoken by approximately 10% of the population, and is widely used for education, scientific

and commercial purposes. Members of the Burgher community speak dialects formed of

Portuguese Creole and Dutch languages with varying proficiency, while members of the

Malay community speak a form of Creole Malay that is unique to the island.

3.1.2 Religion

The nature and complexity of the different religions which could be encountered even within

one country is pretty diverse. The religious influences will have impact on each section of the

society which follows them. Adherents to different religions will find different images or

ideas offensive, unlawful or distasteful.

Sri Lanka has a multi-ethnic and multi-religious population. Buddhism constitutes is the

religious faith of about 69.1% of the population, followed predominantly by the Sinhalese.

Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any predominately Buddhist

nation, with the clergy having existed in a largely unbroken lineage – by repeated revivals

and resurgences - since its introduction in the 2nd century BC.

Hinduism the second most prevalent religion in Sri Lanka, with devotees of around 7.1% of

the population. Also gifted by India, Hinduism too has a long and rich history in the country.
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Today, most Hindus are Tamil and they constitute a majority in Northern Sri Lanka, as well

as in the Eastern, Western and Central regions of the country.

In addition, there are around 7.6% adherents of Islam, with a majority in the Eastern and

Western regions; as well as around 6.2% adherents of Christianity, who are more scattered

across the island, with larger gatherings along the coastal regions.

3.1.3 Values and Attitudes

Values and attitudes vary between nations, and even vary within nations.

In Sri Lanka, the Eastern influences still hold sway over most of society, though rapid

changes can be seen due to communication from more Western countries. The fact that Sri

Lanka is a multi-ethnic and multi-religious society also has had an influence on its cultural

makeup.

3.1.4 Education

The level and nature of education will vary from nation to nation, as well as within each

nation. This has a direct impact on the level and modes of communication.

With a literacy rate of 92%, and 83% of the total population having had Secondary

Education,[ Sri Lanka has one of the most literate populations amongst developing nations.

The free education system, which dictates 9 years of compulsory schooling for every child,

has greatly contributed to this.

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3.1.5 Law and Politics

The underpinning social culture of the nation drives the political and legal landscape. The

political ideology on which the society is based will have an impact. For example, the United

Kingdom has a largely market-driven, democratic society with laws based upon precedent

and legislation, whilst Iran has a political and legal system based upon the teachings and

principles Islam in the Sharia tradition.

The complex ethno-religious mix of the Sri Lankan society has resulted in a highly complex

mixture of English common law, Roman-Dutch, Kandyan, and Jaffna Tamil law.

3.1.6 Aesthetics

Aesthetics relate to the senses, and the appreciation of the artistic nature of something,

including its smell, taste or ambience. For example, the perception whether something

beautiful, whether it has a fashionable design, whether the color, music or architecture

relating to an experience aesthetically pleasing etc. will depend on conditioning.

While Sri Lanka seems to have a higher appreciation for more Easternized influences and

outlook, the Western influences are increasing at an exponential rate, particularly in the more

urban areas. In addition, when looking at ethnic/ religious groups as a whole, the appeal of

something might vary from one group to another as well.

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3.1.7 Social Organizations

This aspect relates to how a national society is organized. For example, what is the role of

women in a society? How is the country governed - centralized or devolved? The level

influence of class or casts upon a society needs to be considered. The social mobility could be

restricted wherever caste and class systems are in place.

Traditional society in Sri Lanka was governed by ideological norms within which sex roles

were differentiated, though with relative tolerance. It was more or less a feudal social order,

influenced by Buddhist and Hindu values and characterized by occupation-based caste group

system prevalent in South India. However, it passed through many stages of evolution,

including the colonial period, new Western religious ideas, and education and health

initiatives etc. Throughout these changes, the interaction between social norms and new

influences had heavy implications. In addition, these changes have occurred in the context of

considerable ethnic and religious differences. In each of these groups, religious ideology,

socio-economic factors, and ethnic traditions etc. the patterns relating to the roles of women

and the family in society. Furthermore, the regional subcultures, such as those of the Indian

Tamils on the plantations, the hill-country Sinhalese, the more urbanized mixed social groups

along the coast etc. have added even greater diversity.

3.1.8 Technology and Material Culture

Technology is a term that includes a large number of other elements such as more qualitative

factors like energy, transport infrastructure, as well as more qualitative factors like how

quickly any innovations diffuse, the level of materialism of the society etc.
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4.0 The Influence of Cultural Aspects on Strategic Marketing

Recent research has found that culture-based differences show up when information is

processed in a cursory and spontaneous manner. This leads to culture having an effect on the

impact of marketing communication and buying behavior of consumers. If a business does

not familiarize itself with the culture of its target group, it’s likely that its advertising

expenditure and product sales will suffer.

4.1 The Influence of Religion on Strategic Marketing for the Sri Lankan Market

Due to the highly diverse religious backgrounds of the country, the organizations needs to

make sure that their products and services are not offensive, illegal or distasteful to each

group. This includes marketing promotion and branding as well. At the concept stage itself,

the organization has to carefully consider the verbal/ non-verbal/ image etc. implications by

the product or communication.

For instance, the Muslim population finds the pig an unclean animal, which would deter the

mass market production of pork related products and communications. In addition, any

inclusion of meat products would have to be certified as Halal to be accepted by the Muslim

people. The strong influences from Hinduism in the society make any implied insult to a cow

as objectionable. In addition, the use of any religious figures themselves is considered as

highly offensive by majority of the prevailing religions. In the recent past, the use of the

image of Buddha in some product packing led to a public outcry.

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4.2 The Influence of Values & Attitudes on Strategic Marketing for the Sri Lankan

Market

Not only the values and attitudes of the country as a whole, the diverse ethno-religious

makeup of Sri Lanka means that the values and attitudes would also differ from one group to

another. Therefore, any organization planning a new product/ service, promotional material,

branding etc., must make sure that they have a good understanding of those groups.

At present, within all ethnic and caste groups, the nuclear family is becoming the most

important social unit. However, among all sections of the population, relatives of both the

wife and the husband form an important extended social network that supports the nuclear

family and encompasses the majority of its important social relations. As a whole, Sri Lankan

society tends towards a more interdependent viewpoint of the world than an individualistic

one. Therefore, positioning and communication that focus on family values, protection and

security might have a wider impact and appeal for the masses.
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5.0 Conclusion

The study of consumer behavior is a basic tenet of marketing strategy. Culture plays a vital

role in consumer behavior, which has become of increasing importance due to the rising trend

toward a global marketplace. Therefore, the culture of specific consumer groups have

implications in brand image and branding, product positioning, marketing segmentation, new

product development, distributing channels, advertising, and promotion etc.

Therefore, marketers need to form an understanding of the elements that carry values within a

culture. The organization must make a commitment to the community and culture to establish

a lasting relationship between themselves and the consumers.

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6.0 References

Hall, E.T., Hall, M.R. (1986) Hidden Differences: doing business with the Japanese, Anchor

Press, Retrieved 17th of January 2009 from

http://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_international_marketing_culture.htm

Hofstede, G. (1997), Cultures and Organizations: Software of the mind, New York: McGraw

Hill

LaPlante, A. (2005), When Does Culture Matter in Marketing?, Retrieved 20th of January

2009, from http://www.gsb.stanford.edu/news/research/mktg_aaker_cultureinfluences.shtml

Li, K. (2001), Do We See Eye-to-Eye? Implications of Cultural Differences for Cross-

Cultural Management Research and Practice, The Journal of Psychology, Retrieved 17th of

January 2009, from http://www.tamu.edu/classes/cosc/choudhury/culture.html

Reese, S. (1998), Cultural Effects on Marketing, Retrieved 17th of January 2009, from

Karlonia.com