INDEX

CHAPTER - 1
1. Introduction:
1.1. Object and requirement of pavement. (I)
1.2. Types of pavement structure.
1.3. Functions of pavement components.
1.3.1.Soil sub-grade.
1.3.2.Sub-base or Base course.
1.3.3.Wearing course.
1.4. Factors to be considered in design of pavement.
CHAPTER - 2
2. Design of FLEXIBLE pavement :
2.1. General design consideration
CHAPTER -3
3. Details of construction :
3.1.
CHAPTER -4
4. Specification of materials :
4.1. Specification of materials
4.2. Soil sub grade
4.3. Plants and Equipments
CHAPTER - 5
5. Evaluation of existing road :
5.1. Pavement Evaluations
5.2 Sub grade strength Evaluations
5.2 Granular Base or sub base
CHAPTER -6
6. Testing of SOIL
6.1. Grain size analysis
6.2. Consistency limits
6.3. Compaction test
6.4. California bearing ratio (CBR)
CHAPTER -7
7.1 Computation of formation levels.
CHAPTER- 8
8 Estimate for different works.
8.1 . Estimate of Earth works
8.2. Estimate of bitumen road
CHAPTER- 9
9.1 Comparison between flexible and rigid pavements.
CHAPTER -10
10.1 Bibliography.
CHAPTER - 11
11.1 References.
 CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Objective
This study provides a comprehensive guideline to be followed by engineering consultants for
pavement design for new roadway and final stage pavement construction, including
reconstruction and widening, and rehabilitation. Engineering consultants are responsible for the
surfacin strategy and detailed structural pavement design on roadway design project assignments.
For the purposes of this Manual, pavement refers to all layers of the pavement structure above
the sub grade. An objective of the Manual is to ensure a degree of consistency in designs
provided by engineering consultants by following specific structural design methodologies
within a general framework. At the same time the design process provides sufficient flexibility to
allow for the judgement and innovation by experienced pavement design engineers to address the
specific conditions of each project. Alberta Transportation and Utilities (AT&U) will continue to
be the custodian of all pavement evaluation, management and inventory data. These data will be
available for use by engineering consultants. AT&U=s role in the design process will be to
review pavement designs provided by consultants for completeness, conformance to the design
philosophies and methodologies outlined in the Manual, and to ensure that the design is
supported by appropriate engineering investigation and evaluation.
Scope and Limitations
Always where traffic speeds, drainage conditions etc. may b different. The design of seal coat,
slurry seal and micro-surfacing applications, which are generally considered to be maintenance
or preservation strategies, are not addressed. The Manual reflects the most appropriate design
methodologies, adapted for Alberta conditions and experience that are available at the present
time. Changes in technology related to non-destructive [TRB], Transportation Association of
Canada [TAC], Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists [AAPT], Canadian Technical
Asphalt Association [CTAA], etc.) that form the technical background to the design and
performance of flexible pavement structures. This Manual must be used in conjunction with the
AASHTO Guide [AASHTO 93]. The details and background included within the Guide are
extensively referenced within the Manual.
In general, this Manual reflects past AT&U design practices that have resulted in decades of
cost-effective pavement performance experience under Alberta environmental, traffic and
materials conditions. AT&U chooses to design new pavement structures to last 20 years before
rehabilitation becomes necessary according to Department standards of acceptance and
performance expectations. The Department places a high priority on the ride quality and
serviceability of pavements. Pavements are design and constructed as economically as possible
and, on a network basis, the occasional failure for structural reasons is deemed acceptable and
the methodologies provided in this Manual apply to the design of flexible (granular base course)
and semi-rigid (cement stabilized base course) pavement structures on Alberta Primary
Highways and Secondary Highways. These methodologies apply to the design of rural highways
only and may not be directly transferable to urban demonstration that pavement structures are not
being over designed. The general philosophy to stage the design and construction of new
construction pavements has been maintained. The Manual includes state-of-the-art methods for
the structural design of new roadway construction, final stage pavements and rehabilitation. The
Manual will allow for the use of granular sub base and cement stabilized base courses where
proven cost-effective. Rehabilitation design will require life cycle cost analysis in order to assess
various alternative strategies and to identify the preferred alternative.
 CHAPTER – 4
MATERIAL

Introduction
Te components and definitions of materials essential to Alberta flexible pavement structures
include the sub grade, a granular base course, and a surfacing of asphalt concrete. Granular base
pavement structures comprise about 75 percent of the secondary and primary highway network.
To a lesser extent, cement stabilized base courses (soil cement) or full depth asphalt concrete
pavements have been designed and constructed in the past. These latter two pavement types
together would represent about 25 percent of the secondary and primary highway network
pavement structures. The sub grade is comprised of the uppermost materials placed in the road
bed embankment or the soil remaining at the base of a cut. The sub grade soil is often referred to
as the foundation or road bed soil. This foundation component is usually constructed of native
inorganic soil often in combination with imported soils from select borrow sources, and would
be compacted to a specified density and moisture content. The granular base course (GBC) is
that material placed immediately above the prepared sub grade. The GBC used in Alberta
consists of a well graded crushed gravel with a maximum particle size varying from 20 mm to 40
mm. On occasion the GBC is separated from the sub grade by a granular sub base course of
lower quality and less expensive material. Granular sub base course (GSBC) generally consists
of pit run gravel fill with a maximum particle size of 80 mm to 125 mm. Asphalt stabilized base
courses (ASBC) were traditionally used as temporary wearing courses on first stage granular
base or cement stabilized base course projects. Based upon AT&U analysis, 50 mm of ASBC has
been superseded by 60 mm ACP. Presently ASBC is only used under special circumstances by
some municipalities. The top layer of the flexible pavement structure is comprised of a densely
graded, hot mix, asphalt concrete pavement (ACP). In addition to functioning as a structural
component of the pavement structure, the ACP must also resist the abrasive forces of traffic and
climatic and environmental conditions, minimize surface moisture infiltration to the underlying
pavement structure, provide a skid resistant surface, and provide a smooth riding surface. The
selection of asphalt concrete mix types has
Sub grade Soils
Soil Classification
The basic components of soils are differentiated on the basis of grain size as follows:
Cobbles plus 300mm
Gravel 80mm to 4.75mm
Sand 4.75mm to 0.075mm
Silt 0.075 mm to .002 mm
Clay minus .002 mm
Fine grained soils are defined as materials having more than 50 percent of the dry mass smaller
than the 0.075 mm particle size. Although size limitations are arbitrary, such limitations allow
standardization by definition. It is necessary to understand as well that plasticity is an extremely
important property to differentiate between silt and clay, and to predict behaviour. The pavement
design engineer is most interested in the strength of the soil and the extent to which this strength
varies with climate, environment and drainage effects. A typical soil profile for highway design
purposes consists of three horizons. The surface or 'A' horizon materials will consist of organic
soils, followed by 'B' horizon which is a semi-weathered zone followed by 'C' horizon which
represents the parent material type. A significant portion of Alberta=s near surface soils utilized
for road building purposes originated from the glaciations process. As the glaciers advanced and
retreated, materials were mixed, segregated and deposited. Some materials became
homogeneous, some materials were deposited as granular outwash, while others settled out in
still waters and formed some of Alberta=s lacustrine clays. The Modified Unified Soil
classification system originally developed by Casagrande is the basis for the system utilized in
Alberta. This system uses plasticity to differentiate between silts and clays. A plasticity chart
symbols presented in follows which correlates liquid and plastic limit test results to Soil Group
used for soil description. For all new construction it is very important that in-situ moisture
contents, Atterberg limits and grain size analysis of sub grade soil materials be determined to
assess sub grade soil characteristics and to infer resilient modulus (MR) values.
 CHAPTER - 5

Sub grade Strength Evaluation

The characteristic material property of sub grade soils used for pavement design is the resilient
modulus (MR). The resilient modulus is defined as being a measure of the elastic property of a
soil recognizing selected non-linear characteristics. Methods for the determination of MR are
described in AASHTO T294-92 test method. For many years, standard California Bearing Ratio
(CBR) tests were utilized to measure the sub grade strength parameter as a design input
correlating the CBR value with total pavement cover were developed by the California state
highway For roadbed materials, the AASHTO Guide [AASHTO 93] recommends that the
resilient modulus be established based on laboratory testing of representative samples in stress
and moisture conditions simulating the primary moisture seasons. Alternatively, the seasonal
resilient modulus values may be determined based on correlations with soil properties. Since the
resilient modulus test equipment is currently not present in many laboratories, researchers have
developed correlations to converting CBR values to approximate MR values. The correlation
considered reasonable for fine grained soils with a soaked CBR of 10 or less is: MR (MPa) =
10.3 * ( CBR) [AASHTO 93] Since 1991, AT&U has used the Falling Weight Deflect meter
(FWD) to obtain deflection data. The ELMOD (Evaluation of Layer Module and Overlay
Design) computer program was used to analyze the FWD deflection data. With the recent
adoption of the AASHTO method for the design of pavement structures by AT&U, a computer
program called Darwin 3.0 (Design, Analysis and Rehabilitation for Windows) has been adapted
to analyze FWD deflection data and to establish a back calculated sub grade modulus.
Granular Base and Sub base
Base courses and granular sub base courses are used in flexible pavements to increase the load
Supporting capacity of the structure. Secondary benefits related to the use of untreated granular
Materials include improved drainage and added protection against frost action. As described
earlier the base course is constructed near the pavement surface and is required to possess a high
resistance to deformation. Sub base materials placed between the base and the sub grade can be
of lower quality and are generally a less expensive material. Sub base materials used in Alberta
in the past generally have been limited to the occasional use of pit run aggregates. Base course
materials designed for maximum stability must possess high internal friction which is a function
of particle size distribution, particle shape and density. Aggregates with little or no fines are also
desirous due to being pervious (free draining) and less frost susceptible. In general, it has been
determined for Alberta conditions that performance and economy are well balanced when the
largest maximum aggregates size are utilized assuming the crush count criteria has been
Field Reconnaissance for Design
Field reconnaissance is an integral component of pavement design. The reconnaissance should
be carried out in conjunction with the assessment other pavement evaluation information
obtained from the Pavement Management System (PMS), the Maintenance Management System
(MMS) and FWD testing. During the reconnaissance some additional information which is not
identified during the preliminary stage and which may be important for rehabilitation design can
be obtained. Such information may include: $ Identification of the predominant pavement
distress mode, the potential causes of the distress and the influence the distress may have on the
performance of proposed alternative rehabilitation treatments. Attention should be especially
given to the extent and cause of pavement rutting as different rehabilitation measures may be
needed for different causes of rutting. Assessment of frequency and severity of transverse
cracking is also important. Pre-overlay repair of severe transverse cracking may be a cost-
effective treatment to reduce the severity and occurrence of reflective cracks. $ Identification of
localized areas of fatigue distress, severe settlements and frost heaves as such areas may require
removal and replacement. Location of pavement areas experiencing drainage or sub drainage
problems. The sub drainage problem areas may initially be located by assessing the FWD data
but the field inspection will often reveal moisture-related distresses. Distresses such as asphalt
stripping, structural rutting, depressions, fatigue cracking and potholes may be good indications
of sub drainage problems. $ Identification of the need for levelling course or re-profiling to re-
establish pavement cross-section, super elevation, rut-filling, treatment of existing crack filler, or
other remedial work. Coring and drilling may be required after the reconnaissance to confirm
pavement layer thicknesses, structure and material types, and to characterize and evaluate sub
grade soil conditions. In addition, coring is required for projects where asphalt recycling and Hot
In-place Recycling (HIR) are considered as potential rehabilitation strategies.
DRAINAGE
Cross-section Geometry
Highway engineers have long recognized the critical necessity of good drainage in the design
and construction of pavements. Drainage is an important feature in determining the ability of a
given pavement structure designed for specific traffic conditions to withstand the effects of
traffic and the environment. Drainage affects the strength and behaviour of both the sub grade
soil and the granular base course, and to a lesser extent, the durability of the asphalt concrete.
Highway drainage may be considered in two categories, surface and subsurface, each of which
are separately treated. Surface drainage, as a result of rainfall and/or snow melt, is dealt with by
incorporating the following minimum requirements:
1. Cross slope on driving lanes and shoulders of 2%.
2. Utilization of densely graded asphalt concrete mixtures with low perm abilities.
3. Routine maintenance procedures to seal surface cracks.
4. Design of roadway sub grade crown minimum of 1.0 m above ditch elevation.
5. Utilization of free draining granular materials within the pavement structure.
6. Lateral extension of the granular materials through the shoulder to drain out onto the
Side slope.
In rehabilitation projects where road widening and/or flattening of side slopes is a part of the
Rehabilitation strategy, lateral drainage is most important to maintain. In order to provide this
drainage the granular drainage layer must be extended to at least the depth of the existing sub
grade. The use of granular sub-base such as pit run is an appropriate material.
More detailed information is provided in the AT&U 1996 Highway Geometric Design Guide
[AT&U96].Subsurface drainage is a somewhat less required circumstance in Alberta. However
on occasion the need arises in selected situations involving a high water table, active springs, or
significant infiltration of surface water.
Properties of Materials
The permeability of granular materials used as base course or sub base course is dependent upon
grain size distribution, grain shape and relative density. Of these factors, grain size including the
percentage of fines is of major significance. In general, the lower the percentage passing the 80
mm sieve size while still allowing sufficient fines for construction compatibility, the better the
drainage characteristics of the material. It is also mandatory that the granular material be drained
through the shoulder so as not to impede the escape of water from the granular base course or
sub base zone. Notwithstanding the above criteria, the AASHTO pavement design procedures for
new construction takes into account duration of the time required to drain the GBC layer as well
as the frequency and time period that the pavement materials are exposed to saturated conditions.
AASHTO provides the following definitions corresponding to various drainage levels from the
pavement structure:
Quality of Drainage Water Removal Within
Excellent 2 hours
Good 1 day
Fair 1 week
Poor 1 month
Moisture and Rainfall
Moisture that exists within a pavement structure or within the sub grade soils beneath a
pavement may be generated from many sources including:
1. Cracks in the pavement surface.
2. A permeable pavement surface.
3. Pavement side slope.
4. Lateral movement from the shoulder.
5. near surface water table.
The effect of rainfall on performance is related to intensity since surface runoff is lowest and
moisture absorption highest under conditions of prolonged low intensity rainfall. A map showing
30 year precipitation normals for Alberta is presented Spring rainfalls coupled with freezing
temperatures typically represent a negative set of conditions. Although rainfall per se is not a
design criteria, the design must account for weakened subgrade conditions taking into
consideration the time required for drainage of gravel base layers as described above .
Additional measures currently employed in Alberta include the utilization of adequate (2%) cross
slopes, paved shoulders, and daylighting of GBC to the side slopes.
PAVEMENT EVALUATION
Introduction
In order to carry out design of final stage pavements or pavement rehabilitation, the existing
pavement condition must be evaluated. Such an evaluation usually involves the assessment of the
existing pavement structural adequacy, surface distress, roughness, rutting, and to lesser extent,
skid resistance. The design of final stage pavements may only involve the assessment of
pavement structural adequacy because the first stage pavement is usually not old enough to
exhibit distresses related to traffic loading and the environment. Pavement evaluation techniques
differ between different highway agencies. Within AT&U, emphasis has been placed on carrying
out structural evaluation of pavements using non-destructive deflection testing. Another
consideration which should be recognized is that AT&U was one of the first highway
agencies in North America to develop and implement a Pavement Management System (PMS).
The AT&U PMS database provides a wealth of information about the pavement network and
individual pavement section performance. This information should not be overlooked during the
pavement evaluation stage of pavement rehabilitation design. At present AT&U is maintaining 5
TRAFFIC ANALYSIS
Introduction
Granular Subbase
The use of granular subbase courses (GSBC) as part of a new construction structural design is a
viable alternative. However their inclusion must be supported by an economic analysis to
Demonstrate potential cost savings. There may be other situations where the inclusion of
granular subbase courses can provide cost effective engineering solutions with respect to frost
protection, drainage, aggregates management, etc.. Traffic-related data, which includes axles
loads, axle configurations and number of applications, are required for both new construction
and rehabilitation pavement structural design. Cars and light truck traffic produce only small
stresses in normal pavement structures and therefore truck traffic is the major consideration in
the structural design of pavements. The project design ESALs are expressed as the cumulative
Equivalent Single Axle Loads (ESALs) in the design lane for the design period.. The results of
the AASHO Road Test indicated that the damaging effect on the pavement structure of an axle
load of any mass can be represented by a number of 80 kN ESALs. For example, one application
of a 100 kN single axle load would result in the same damage as 2.5 applications of an 80kN
single axle load. Conversely it would take about 62 applications of a 50 kN single axle load to
result in the same damage as one 80 kN single axle load. This relationship characterizing the
relative destructive effect of various axle loads in terms of equivalent 80 kN single axle loads is
sometimes referred to as the AFourth Power Rule@. Load equivalency factors allow any axle
group configuration and loading to be converted into an equivalent number of ESALs.

Design Methodology for New Construction

Background to AASHTO Flexible Pavement Design
The procedures developed in the Guide [AASHTO 86, 93] for new construction or
reconstruction are basically an extension of the algorithms originally developed from the
AASHO Road Test and provide the designer with the opportunity to use state-of-the-art design
techniques. Major modifications to previous practices are described in the 1993 Guide include:
1) The introduction of the resilient modulus to provide a rational testing procedure that can be
used by an agency to define material properties.
2) The layer coefficients for the various materials are defined in terms of resilient modulus as
well as standard methods such as CBR.
3) The environmental factors of moisture and temperature are objectively included to replace the
subjective regional factor term previously used.
4) Reliability is introduced to permit the designer to use the concept of risk analysis for various
classes of roadways. Material properties for structural design are based on characterization of an
elastic or resilient modulus. For roadbed materials, AASHTO recommends that laboratory
resilient modulus tests (now AASHTO T294-92) be performed on representative samples in
stress and moisture conditions simulating those of the primary moisture seasons. Procedures are
described in the Guide to allow the determination of an effective roadbed soil resilient modulus
which is equivalent to the combined effect of all the seasonal modulus values. Alternatively, the
resilient modulus values may be determined by correlations with other measured soil strength
properties. The purpose of identifying seasonal moduli is to quantify the relative damage a
pavement is subjected to during each season of the year and treat it as part of the overall design.
Pavement layer coefficients may be based on those traditionally developed and used in the
original AASHTO procedure or, more preferably, derived from test roads or satellite sections.
Charts are also available in the Guide for estimating structural layer coefficients from various
base strength parameters as well as resilient modulus test values. The effectiveness of the ability
of various drainage methods to remove moisture from the pavement is not described with
detailed criteria, but is recognized through the use of modified layer coefficients. The factor for
modifying the layer coefficient is referred to as an mi value and has been integrated into the
structural number (SN) equation along with the layer coefficient (ai) and thickness (Di); thus:
SN = a1D1 + a2D2m2 +a3D3m3 Recommended mi values, as a function of the quality of
drainage and percent of time during the year the pavement structure would normally be exposed
to moisture levels approaching saturation, are also tabulated in the Guide. Determination of the
required structural number (SN) involves the use of a nomograph which solves a
specific design equation and parameters required for specific conditions, including:
1) the estimated future traffic for the performance period
2) the reliability, R, which assumes all inputs reflect an average value,
3) the overall standard deviation, So
4) the effective resilient modulus of roadbed material, MR
5) the design serviceability loss, ÎPSI = po - pt
The DARWin 3.0 computer program can be used to analyze the FWD deflection data from
representative prototype pavements and determine the backcalculated subgrade modulus.
Design of Pavement

Design of pavement can be done by at east the following methods:

 Computerized optimization programs.

 Mechanical methods based on stress-strain calculation.
 Empirical methods in which performance of pavements is predicted from the results of
road tests and actual expensive.

1.

2 Flexible Pavement Basics

Flexible pavements are so named because the total Major Topics in this Section
pavement structure deflects, or flexes, under loading. A
flexible pavement structure is typically composed of 2.1 Basic Structural Elements
several layers of material. Each layer receives the loads
from the above layer, spreads them out, then passes on 2.2 Perpetual Pavements

these loads to the next layer below. Thus, the further

down in the pavement structure a particular layer is, the less load (in terms of force per area) it
must carry (see Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.2: Flexible Pavement Load Distribution

In order to take maximum advantage of this property, material layers are usually arranged in
order of descending load bearing capacity with the highest load bearing capacity material (and
most expensive) on the top and the lowest load bearing capacity material (and least expensive)
on the bottom. This section describes the typical flexible pavement structure consisting of:

 Surface course. This is the top layer and the layer that comes in contact with traffic. It
may be composed of one or several different HMA sublayers.

 Base course. This is the layer directly below the HMA layer and generally consists of
aggregate (either stabilized or unstabilized).

 Subbase course. This is the layer (or layers) under the base layer. A subbase is not
always needed.
After describing these basic elements, this section then discusses subsurface drainage and
perpetual pavements.

2.1 Basic Structural Elements

A typical flexible pavement structure (see Figure 2.3) consists of the surface course and the
underlying base and subbase courses. Each of these layers contributes to structural support and
drainage. The surface course (typically an HMA layer) is the stiffest (as measured by resilient
modulus) and contributes the most to pavement strength. The underlying layers are less stiff but
are still important to pavement strength as well as drainage and frost protection. A typical
structural design results in a series of layers that gradually decrease in material quality with
depth.

Figure 2.3: Basic Flexible Pavement Structure

As seen in Figure 2.4, a flexible pavement structure can vary greatly in thickness. The signs on
top of the pictured cores indicate the State Route (SR) and the Mile Post (MP) where the core
was taken. The scale at the right edge of the photo is in inches.

Figure 2.4: Various Flexible Pavement Cores from Washington State

2.1.1 Surface Course

The surface course is the layer in contact with traffic loads and normally contains the highest
quality materials. It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, noise control, rut and
shoving resistance and drainage. In addition, it serves to prevent the entrance of excessive
quantities of surface water into the underlying base, subbase and subgrade (NAPA, 2001). This
top structural layer of material is sometimes subdivided into two layers (NAPA, 2001):

1. Wearing Course. This is the layer in direct contact with traffic loads. It is meant to
take the brunt of traffic wear and can be removed and replaced as it becomes worn. A
properly designed (and funded) preservation program should be able to identify
pavement surface distress while it is still confined to the wearing course. This way,
the wearing course can be rehabilitated before distress propagates into the underlying
intermediate/binder course.

2. Intermediate/Binder Course. This layer provides the bulk of the HMA structure. It's
chief purpose is to distribute load.

2.1.2 Base Course

The base course is immediately beneath the surface course. It provides additional load
distribution and contributes to drainage and frost resistance. Base courses are usually constructed
out of:

1. Aggregate. Base courses are most typically constructed from durable aggregates (see
Figure 2.5) that will not be damaged by moisture or frost action. Aggregates can be
either stabilized or unstabilized.

2. HMA. In certain situations where high base stiffness is desired, base courses can be
constructed using a variety of HMA mixes. In relation to surface course HMA mixes,
base course mixes usually contain larger maximum aggregate sizes, are more open
graded and are subject to more lenient specifications.
Figure 2.5: Limerock Base Course Undergoing Final Grading

2.1.3 Subbase Course

The subbase course is between the base course and the subgrade. It functions primarily as
structural support but it can also:

1. Minimize the intrusion of fines from the subgrade into the pavement structure.

2. Improve drainage.

3. Minimize frost action damage.

4. Provide a working platform for construction.

The subbase generally consists of lower quality materials than the base course but better than the
subgrade soils. A subbase course is not always needed or used. For example, a pavement
constructed over a high quality, stiff subgrade may not need the additional features offered by a
subbase course so it may be omitted from design. However, a pavement constructed over a low
quality soil such as a swelling clay may require the additional load distribution characteristic that
a subbase course can offer. In this scenario the subbase course may consist of high quality fill
used to replace poor quality subgrade (over excavation).
2.2 Perpetual Pavements

"Perpetual Pavement" is a term used to describe a long-lasting structural design, construction and
maintenance concept. A perpetual pavement can last 50 years or more if properly maintained and
rehabilitated. As Michael Nunn pointed out in 1998, flexible pavements over a minimum
strength are not likely to exhibit structural damage even when subjected to very high traffic
flows over long periods of time. He noted that existing pavements over about 370 mm (14.5
inches) should be able to withstand an almost infinite number of axle loads without structural
deterioration due to either fatigue cracking or rutting of the subgrade. Deterioration in these
thick, strong pavements was observed to initiate in the pavement surface as either top-down
cracking or rutting. Further, Uhlmeyer et al. (2000) found that most HMA pavements thicker
than about 160 mm (6.3 inches) exhibit only surface-initiated top-down cracking. Therefore, if
surface-initiated cracking and rutting can be accounted for before they impact the structural
integrity of the pavement, the pavement life could be greatly increased.

Researchers have used this idea as well as pavement materials research to develop a basic
perpetual pavement structural concept. This concept uses a thick asphalt over a strong foundation
design with three HMA layers, each one tailored to resist specific stresses (TRB, 2001):

1. HMA base layer. This is the bottom layer designed specifically to resist fatigue
cracking. Two approaches can be used to resist fatigue cracking in the base layer.
First, the total pavement thickness can be made great enough such that the tensile
strain at the bottom of the base layer is insignificant. Alternatively, the HMA base
layer could be made using an extra-flexible HMA. This can be most easily
accomplished by increasing the asphalt content. Combinations of the previous two
approaches also work.

2. Intermediate layer. This is the middle layer designed specifically to carry most of the
traffic load. Therefore it must be stable (able to resist rutting) as well as durable.
Stability can best be provided by using stone-on-stone contact in the coarse aggregate
and using a binder with the appropriate high-temperature grading.

3. Wearing surface. This is the top layer designed specifically to resist surface-initiated
distresses such as top-down cracking and rutting. Other specific distresses of concern
would depend upon local experience.
In order to work, the above pavement structure must be built on a solid foundation. Nunn (1998)
notes that rutting on roads built on subgrade with a CBR greater than 5 percent originates almost
solely in the HMA layers, which suggests that a subgrade with a CBR greater than 5 percent
(resilient modulus greater than about 7,000 psi (50 MPa)) should be considered adequate. As
always, proper construction techniques are essential to a perpetual pavement's performance.
Figure 2.6 shows an example cross-section of a perpetual pavement design to be used in
California on I-710 (the Long Beach Freeway) in Los Angeles County.

Figure 2.6: Example I-710 Long Beach Freeway Perpetual Pavement Design
(from Monismith and Long, 1999)

Finally, the most important point in this brief perpetual pavement discussion is that it is possible
to design and build HMA pavements with extremely long design lives. In fact, some HMA
pavements in service today are living examples of perpetual pavements. For instance, two
sections of Interstate 40 in downtown Oklahoma City are now more than 33 years old (built in
1967) and are still in excellent condition. These sections, which support 3 to 3.5 million ESALs
per year, have been overlaid but the base and intermediate courses have lasted since construction
without any additional work (APA, no date given).
Factors affecting pavement design

Overview

In the previous chapter we had discussed about the types of pavements and their failure criteria.
There are many factors that a_ect pavement design which can be classi_ed into four categories as
tra_c and loading, structural models, material characterization,
environment. They will be discussed in detail in this chapter.
Traffic and loading
Traffic is the most important factor in the pavement design. The key factors include contact
pressure, wheel load, axle conjuration, moving loads, load, and load repetitions. Contact pressure
The tyre pressure is an important factor, as it determine the contact area and the contact pressure
between the wheel and the pavement surface. Even though the shape of the contact area is
elliptical, for sake of simplicity in analysis, a circular area is often considered. Wheel load The
next important factor is the wheel load which determines the depth of the pavement required to
ensure that the subgrade soil is not failed. Wheel con_guration a_ect the stress distribution and
deection within a pavemnet. Many commercial vehicles have dual rear wheels which ensure that
the contact pressure is within the limits. The normal practice is to convert dual wheel into an
equivalent single wheel load so that the analysis is made simpler.
Axle con_guration The load carrying capacity of the commercial vehicle is further enhanced by
the introduction of multiple axles. Moving loads The damage to the pavement is much higher if
the vehicle is moving at creep speed. Many studies show that when the speed is increased from 2
km/hr to 24 km/hr, the stresses and deection reduced by 40 per cent.
Repetition of Loads The inuence of tra_c on pavement not only depend on the magnitude of the
wheel load, but also on the frequency of the load applications. Each load application causes some
deformation and the total deformation is the summation of all these. Although the pavement
deformation due to single axle load is very small, the cumulative e_ect of number of load
repetition is signi_cant. Therefore, modern design is based on total number of standard axle load
(usually 80 kN single axle). Introduction to Transportation Engineering 20.1 Tom V. Mathew
and K V Krishna Rao
FACTORS AFFECTING PAVEMENT DESIGN
Structural models
The structural models are various analysis approaches to determine the pavement responses
(stresses, strains, and detections) at various locations in a pavement due to the application of
wheel load. The most common structural models are layered elastic model and viscous-elastic
models. Layered elastic model A layered elastic model can compute stresses, strains, and
detections at any point in a pavement structure resulting from the application of a surface load.
Layered elastic models assume that each pavement structural layer is homogeneous, isotropic,
and linearly elastic. In other words, the material properties are same at every point in a given
layer and the layer will rebound to its original form once the load is removed. The layered elastic
approach works with relatively simple mathematical models that relates stress, strain, and
deformation with wheel loading and material properties like modulus of elasticity and poisons
ratio.
Material characterization
The following material properties should be specie for both exile and rigid
pavements. When pavements are considered as linear elastic, the elastic module and Poisson
ratio of sub grade and each component layer must be specie. If the elastic modulus of a material
varies with the time of loading, then the resilient modulus, which is elastic modulus under
repeated loads, must be selected in accordance with a load duration corresponding to the vehicle
speed. When a material is considered non-linear elastic, the constitutive equation relating the
resilient modulus to the state of the stress must be provided. Environmental factors
Environmental factors affect the performance of the pavement materials and cause various
damages. Environmental factors that affect pavement are of two types, temperature and
precipitation and they are discussed below:
Temperature
The effect of temperature on asphalt pavements is different from that of concrete pavements.
Temperature affects the resilient modulus of asphalt layers, while it induces curling of concrete
slab. In rigid pavements, due to difference in temperatures of top and bottom of slab,
temperature stresses or frictional stresses are developed. While inflexible pavement, dynamic
modulus of asphaltic concrete varies with temperature. Frost heave causes differential
settlements and pavement roughness. The most detrimental effect of frost penetration occurs
during the spring break up period when the ice melts and sub grade is a saturated condition.
Precipitation
The precipitation from rain and snow affects the quantity of surface water in_ltrating into the sub
grade and
Introduction

Soil is a principle material for the construction of fill or embankment and subgrade of
highway. Soil is also used in other pavement layers such as stabilized soil sub-base and base
course. The pavement layers are laid over the prepared soil subgrade which provides the support
to the pavement. The design and performance of pavement, particularly the flexible pavement,
depend to a great extent on the type of subgrade soil and its properties including the support or
stability values. Even the subgrade layer is supported by soil of the fill or the ground. Therefore
soil is a essential highway material.

Soil are normally classified on the basis of simple laboratory tests such as grain size
analysis and consistency tests.

Soil compaction is a important phenomenon in highway construction. The laboratory

compaction test result are important in specify the optimum moisture content (O.M.C.) at which
soil should be compacted and dry density that should be aimed at the construction site.

There are a number of test for measuring soil strength. The test used to evaluate the
strength property of soil may be divided in three groups, (1)-shear test (2)-bearing test (3)-
penetration test (CBR TEST). The cbr test is essential an empirical penetration test, which is
generally carried in laboratory. This test is suitable for evaluating the strength of soil and CBR
TEST result used in design of flexible pavement.

All soils are not suitable for use in subgrade directly as pavement component layer. The
strength and durability characteristic of such soil can be improved to the desire extent by
adopting a suitable soil stabilization technique.
GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS
INRODUCTION
Grain size analysis also known as mechanical analysis of soil, is the determination of the
% of individual grain size present in the soil sample or grain size distribution of the soil. Coarse
grained soil may have rounded to angular bulky, hard rock particle with following size shown in
table-

1. Boulder >300mm dia

2. Cobble <300mm &>80mm dia
3. Gravel <80mm &> 4.75mm dia
4 Coarse gravel 80mm to 20mm
5 Medium gravel 20mm to 4.75mm
4. Sand <4.75mm &>0.075mm
Coarse 4.75mm to 2mm
Medium 2mm to 425mcn
Fine 425mcn to 75mcn

COFFICIENT OF CURVATURE
It may be estimated as
Ce = (D30)(D30)/D10.D60
D60 = dia at 60% finer
D30 = dia at 30% finer
D10 = dia at 10% finer
It should be lie between 1&2 for well graded gravel and sands. Uniformity coefficient.
Cu = D60/D10
Its value should be more than 4 for well graded gravels and more than 6 for well graded
sands.(I.S.; 1498-1970)
APPARATUS
1. Sieve size – 4.75 mm ,2.8mm , 2mm, 1.7 mm, 425 mic, 150mic, 75 mic, 0 mm(pan)
2. Brush
3. Mechanical shaker
4. Balance
5. Crucible
6. Tray etc.
SIEVE ANALYSIS
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION
SOIL SAMPLE NO. – 1- NATURAL SOIL
Type of sieve analysis: Dry
Total wt. of soil sample : 1 kg

Sieve Size of opening Wt. of soil retained Cumulative wt Cum% retained

no. (mm) (gm) retained (g)

1. 4.750 320 320 32%

2. 2.800 150 470 47%
3. 2.000 046 516 51.6%
4. 1.700 120 636 63.6%
5. 0.425 212 848 84.8%
6. 0.150 092 940 94.0%
7. 0.075 022 962 96.2%
8. 0.000 038 1000 100%

SOIL SAMPLE NO-2- NATURAL SOIL +5% SAND

Total weight = 1 kg
Table no. – 2

Sieve Size of opening (mm) Wt of soil retained (g) Cumulative wt Cum % retained
no retained

1. 4.75 512 512 51.2%

2. 2.8 93 605 60.5%
3. 2 36 641 64.1%
4. 1.7 77 718 71.8%
5. 0.425 140 858 85.8%
6. 0.150 106 964 96.4%
7. 0.075 20 984 98.4%
8. 0.000 16 1000 100%
Sieve analysis
Sieve 4.75 2.8 2 1.7 .425 .150 .075 Pan
retained 326 154 46 124 214 92 22 38

No blow Wet wt Dry wt

7 31 32 28
12 32 33 24
6 33 34 26
5 22 35 24
17 28 38 32

Liquid limit =
( mass of water content/mass of dry sample) x 100
= (38 – 32 /32 – 14)x100
= 33.33%
Plastic limit =
Plastic limit = (mass of water / mass of sample)x100
= 20% (1)
= 14.29%(2)
Avg pl = 17.145

Natural Soil+5%sand
Sieve analysis

sieve 4.75 2.8 2 1.7 .425 .150 .075 Pan

retained 522 94 36 77 140 108 20 16

LIQUID LIMIT –

No Blows Wet wt Dry wt

20 38 34 30
18 22 38 34
14 29 36 32
PLASTIC LIMIT –
No WET WT DRY WT
6 34 30
16 33 29

LIQUID LIMIT-
= (38 – 34/32 – 34 ) x100
= 20%
PLASTIC LIMIT
1. 25%
2. 26.67%
AVG PL = 25.835%
(3)NATURAL SOIL + 10% SAND

SIEVE 4.75 2.8 2 1.7 .425 .150 .075 pan

RETAINED 540 84 22 62 118 146 14 16

LIQUID LIMIT –

NO BLOW Wet wt Dry wt

8 20 34 31
23 30 34 32
11 18 38 34

PLASTIC LIMIT –
= (38 – 34 / 34 – 14)x100
= 10%
PLASTIC LIMIT-
1. 50
2. 40

Avg pl = 45
SIEVE ANALYSIS-
SIEVE 4.75 2.8 2 1.7 .425 .150 .075 pan
RETAINED 5.32 82 28 58 108 176 12 16

LIQUID LIMIT-

NO Blow Wet wt Dry wt

16 17 30 24
2 30 36 34
3 18 50 32

PLASTIC LIMIT

No Wet wt Dry wt

1 28 24

2 27 25

3 28 26

Liquid limit-
= (36 – 34 / 34 – 24)x100
= 10%
Plastic limit-
1. 40%
2. 18.18%

Avg pl = 29.09%
NATURAL SOIL + 20%SAND
SIEVE ANALYSIS
Sieve 4.75 2.8 2 1.7 .425 .150 .075 Pan

retained 456 73 24 62 135 214 12 17

Liquid limit –

No Blow Wet wt Dry wt

10 16 38 34
22 20 36 34
01 27 35 34

Plastic limit –

No Wet wt Dry wt
1 24 22
2 25 20
3 24 21

Liquid limit –
= (35 – 34 /34 – 14)x 100
= 5%
Plastic limit –
1. 25%
2. 83.3%
Avg pl = 54.165%
COMPACTION TEST
INTRODUCTION
Compaction of soil is a mechanical process by which the soil particles are constrained to be
packed more closely together by reducing the air voids. Soil compaction cause decrease n
airvoids and consequently an increase in dry density. This may result in increase in shearing
strength. The possibility of future settlement or compressibility decrease and also the tendency
for subsequent changes in moisture content decreases. Degree of compaction is usually measured
quantitatively by dry density. Increase in dry density of soil due to compaction mainly depends
on two factor
(a) The compaction moisture content and
(b) The amount of compaction

In the field, compaction be carried out by

1. Applying pressure on soil layers by means of rollers
2. Ramming
3. Vibration
4. Watering depending on the soil type and nature of the project

APPARATUS

 Cylindrical mould of capacity 1000cc with an internal diameter of 10 cm and height

12.73 cm or a mould of capacity 2250cc,with an internal diameter of 15 cm and height of
12.73 cm. The mould is fitted with a detachable base plate &removable collar or
extension of about 6 cm high.
 For light compaction, a metal rammer having 5 cm diameter circular face, but having
weight 2.6 kg is used has a free drop of 31 cm.
For heavy compaction the rammer had 5cm diameter circular face, but having weight
4.89 kg &free drop of 45c.
 Steel straight edge having beveled for trimming for trimming top of the specimen.
 Other accessories include moisture container, balance of capacity 10 kg& 200g oven,
sieve &mixing tools.

Calculation

Let the weight of mould with moist compacted soil be = Wg

 Weight of empty mould = Wm g

Volume of the mould = Vm cc

Wet density (Ym) = W –Wm/Vm g/cc

Let the moisture content be = W%

Then dry density (Yd) = Ym/(1+w/100)

= (W – Wm)/Vm(1+w/100)g/cc

Porosity (n) = 100.Vv/V% = (1 – Yd/GYw)100%

Where G specific gravity of soil particles

Void ratio (e) = { (GYw/Yd)

OBSERVATION SHEET

Volume of mould (Vm,cc) = 2250cc

Weight of rammer (kg) = 4.89 kg

Amount of compaction = heavy (56 blow)

SAMPLE 1st

Specific gravity of soil = 2.65

Type of soil = clay

Determination no. 1 2 3 4

Wt of the mould 6.4kg 6.4 kg 6.4 kg 6.4 kg

(Wm)
Wt of the mould + 12.184 kg 12.512 kg 12.946 kg 13.234kg
comp soil , W
Moist cont. no. 12 7 18 6
Wt of moist./Cont.1 80g 96g 100g 95g
no. + wet soil (W2)
Wt of cont. + Dry 76g 90g 92g 86g
soil (W3)
Wt of container 14g 14g 14g 14g
(W1)
Wet density(Ym) 2.57 2.72 2.91 3.03
(g/cc)
Moist.cont.(W%) 6 7.3 9.3 10.5
Dry density (Yd) 2.42 2.53 2.65 2.55
Void ratio (e)
Porosity(n%)
Maximum dry density = 2.62g/cc

Optimum moisture content =9.5 %

SAMPLE 2nd

Specific gravity of soil = 2.65

Type of soil = clay

Determination no 1 2 3 4
Wt of mould 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4
(Wm)
Wt of mould + 12.334 12.438 12.568 12.769
compact soil (W)
Moisture 19 13 5 4
container no.
Wt of moisture 14 14 14 14
container, (W1)
Wt of container 114 82 90 100
+ wet soil, (W2)
Wt of container 102 74 82 81
+ dry soil (W3)
Wet density, 2.6 2.7 2.74 2.83
(Ym)
Moisture 12.0 12.7 10.05 12.8
content,(W%)
Dry density 2.32 2.39 2.45 2.36
Void ratio (e)
Porosity, (n%)
Maximum dry density = 2.4 g/cc

Optimum moisture content = 12.5 %

 SAMPLE 3rd

Specific gravity of soil = 2.65

Type of soil = slit clay

Determination no. 1 2 3 4
Wt of mould,(Wm) 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4
Wt of mould+ 12.106 12.426 12.740 13.642
compact soil, W
Moisture content 20 11 10 6
no
Wt of moisture 14 14 14 14
container(W1)
Wt of 82 102 95 100
container+wet
soil,(W2)
Wt of container + 78 94 85 87
dry soil ,(W3)
Wet density,(Ym) 2.54 2.68 2.82 2.96
Moist.cont. (w%) 5.80 9.10 12.30 13.10
Dry density,(Yd) 2.40 2.46 2.51 2.42
Void ratio, (e)
Porosity (n %)
Maximum dry density = 2.5g/cc

Optimum moisture content = 12%

 SAMPLE 4th

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOIL = 2.65

TYPE OF SOIL = SILT CLAY

Determination no. 1 2 3 4
Wt of mould (Wm) 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4
Wt of mould + 12.485 12.512 12.688 12.563
compacted soil(W)
Moist. Cont. no 8 6 12 15
Wt of moisture 14 14 14 14
container(W1)
Wt of moisture 102 112 100 110
container + wet soil
(W2)
Wt of moisture 94 100 86 98
container + dry soil
(W3)
Wet density, (Ym) 2.60 2.72 2.79 2.63
Moisture 9 12.2 16.3 16.66
content(W%)
Dry density,(Yd) 2.38 2.42 2.40 2.25
Void ratio,(e)
Porosity(n%)

Maximum dry density = 2.45 g/cc

Optimum moisture content = 11.5%

RESULTS

Point are plotted with moisture content on the X – axis and dry density on Y – axis and a smooth
curve is drawn connecting the points.
DISCUSSION

APPLICATION OF COMPACTION TEST

From the compaction test, the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content of soil is
found for the selected type and amount of compaction.

The OMC of the soil indicates the particular moisture content at which the soil should be
compacted to achieve maximum dry density. The OMC of soil is use full to performing CBR
test.

CALCULATION

The swelling or expansion ratio is calculated from the observation during the swelling test using
the formula –

Expansion ratio = 100(df - di)/h

Where df = final dial gauge after soaking,mm

Di = initial dial gauge reading before soaking,mm

h = initial height of the specimen,mm

the CBR value is calculated from the formula:

CBR = (unit load carried by soil sample at defined penetration level

/ unit load carried by standard crushed stones at above penetration level) x100
OBSERVATION TABLE

Standard load,kg = 1370 &2055

Standard factor = 2.4673

Unsoaked sample

Sample no 1st (NATURAL SOIL)

Penetration Dial gauge Std factor Ld.std load CBR value

reading
0.5 0 2.4673
1 12 2.4673
1.5 55 2.4673
2 82 2.4673
2.5 101 2.4673 1370 18.18%
3 115 2.4673
3.5 124 2.4673
4 131 2.4673
4.5 138 2.4673 2055
5 143 2.4673 17.1%

CBR at 2.5mm = 18.18

CBR at 5 mm = 17.1

SAMPLE NO 2ND (SOIL + 5 %SAND)

Penetration Dial gauge Standard factor Std load CBR value

reading
0.5 1 2.4673
1 12
1.5 38 2.4673
2 62 2.4673
2.5 79 2.4673 1370 12.961
3 93 2.4673
3.5 104 2.4673
4 113 2.4673
4.5 120 2.4673 2055
5 125 2.4673 22.5%
SAMPLE NO – 3 (SOIL + 10%SAND)

Penetration Std factor Ld.std load CBR

0.5 1 2.4673
1 28 2.4673
1.5 63 2.4673
2 90 2.4673
2.5 107 2.4673 1370 19.27%
3 121 2.4673
3.5 131 2.4673
4 138 2.4673
4.5 146 2.4673 2055
5 151 2.4673 27%

SAMPLE NO – 4(SOIL+15% SAND)

Penetration Std factor Ld. Std load CBR

0.5 13 2.4673
1.0 35 2.4673
1.5 65 2.4673
2.0 99 2.4673
2.5 125 2.4673 1370 22.5%
3.0 144 2.4673
3.5 157 2.4673
4.0 169 2.4673
4.5 179 2.4673 2055
5.0 186 2.4673 33%

SAMPLE SOAKED

Sample no 1 (natural soil)

Penetration Load Std factor Ld.std load CBR

0.5 9 2.4673
1.0 11 2.4673
1.5 13 2.4673
2.0 15 2.4673
2.5 16 2.4673 1370 2.88
3.0 18 2.4673
3.5 19 2.4673
4.0 21 2.4673
4.5 22 2.4673 2055
5.0 25 2.4673 3.00%

SAMPLE NO – 3 (SOIL + 10%SAND)

Penetration Std factor Ld. Std factor CBR

0.5 10 2.4673
1.0 12 2.4673
1.5 14 2.4673
2.0 15 2.4673
2.5 18 2.4673 1370 3.24%
3.0 19 2.4673
3.5 20 2.4673
4.0 21 2.4673
4.5 22 2.4673
5.0 23 2.4673 2055 2.76%

Sample no – 4 (soil + 15% sand)

Penetration Load Std factor Ld. Std load CBR

0.5 11 2.4673
1.0 13 2.4673
1.5 15 2.4673
2.0 17 2.4673
2.5 19 2.4673 1370 3.42%
3.0 21 2.4673
3.5 23 2.4673
4.0 25 2.4673
4.5 27 2.4673 2055 3.48%
5.0 29 2.4673
CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST

The California bearing ratio test (CBR)developed by the California division of highway as a
method of classifying and evaluating soil –sub grade and base course materials for flexible
pavement.

INTRODUCTION

The CBR is a measure of resistance of materials to penetration of standard plunger under

controlled density and moisture condition.

The test consist of causing a cylindrical plunger 50 mm dia to penetrate a pavement component
material at 1.25 mm/min. the loads for 2.5 mm and 5mm are recorded. This load is express as %
of standard load value at are respective deformation level to obtain the CBR value.

STANDARD LOAD VALUEON CRUSHED STONES FOR DIFFERENT PENETRATION

VALUES

Penetration Standard load (kg) Unit standard load(kg/cm2)

2.5 1370 70
5.0 2055 105
7.5 2630 134
10.0 3180 162
12.5 3600 183

APPARATUS

Loading machine it is a compression machine which can operate at a constant rate of

1.25mm/min a penetration piston or plunger of dia 50mm is attached to the loading machine

Cylindrical mould – 150mm dia and 175mm height provided with a collar of about 50mm length
and detachable perforated are used for this purpose a spacer disc of 148mm dia and 47.7 mm
thickness is used to obtain a specimen of exactly 127.3mm

Compaction rammer – the material is compacted by a rammer of 4.98kg with a free fall of 45
cm and give 56 blows for compaction.
Adjustable stem, perforated plate, tripod and dial gauge.

Annual weight – in order to stimulate the effect of the overlaying pavement weight , annualar
weight each of 2.5kg and 147 mm dia are placed on top of the specimen.

Beside above equipment coarse filter paper,sieve , oven, balance etc are required.

SAMPLE PREPARATION –

About 180 kg of material is dried and sieved through 20mm. The material passes through 20mm
sieve and retained on 4.75 mm sieve used for this purpose.

Divide the sample into four part and prepare sample with different sand content as shown in table
–

SAMPLE

Sample no. Soil + sand Type of soil

1 Natural soil Clay
2 Natural soil + 5%sand Clay
3 Natural soil +10% sand Slit-clay
4 Natural soil +15% sand Slit –clay

Take the 5.5kg of each sample &mixed with water according to their corresponding maximum
water content thoroughly. Keep the mould on the base plate with the spacer.

Now divided the sample into 5 part and fill in the mould layer by layer with 56 below in each
layer.

RESULT(unsoaked sample)

From the table we can see that the CBR value for the unsoaked sample

(1.) Natural soil –

Penetration CBR value
2.5 18.18%
5.0 17.10%

(2.) Natural soil +5%sand

Penetration CBR value
2.5 12.96%
 5 22.5%

(3.) Natural soil +10%sand

Penetration CBR value
2.5 19.27%
5.0 27%

(4.) Natural soil +15%sand

Penetration Load
2.5 22.5%
5.0 33%

(SOAKED SAMPLE)-
1. Natural soil
Penetration CBR
2.5 2.70
5.0 2.40

2.
2 Natural soil + 5%sand

Penetration Load
2.5 2.90
5.0 2.76

3. Natural soil +10% sand

Penetration Load
2.5 3.24
5.0 2.78

4. Natural soil + 15% sand

Penetration Load
2.5 3.42
5.0 3.48
 CHAPTER -11

11.1 REFRENCE

1. Highway material and pavement testing (S.K. KHANNA- C. E. JUSTO – A

VEERAGAVAN)

2. Highway engineering (S.P.BINDRA)

3. Soil mechanics and foundation engineering (DR. K.R. ARORA)

4. Geotech. Engineering (C.VENKATRAMAIAH)

5. AASHTO 1993, “AASHTO Guide for Design Pavement Structures”, American

Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C.
2. Prasad, Bageshwar (2007), “Life Cycle Cost Analysis of Cement Concrete
Roads vs. Bituminous Roads”, Indian Highways, Vol.35, No.9, 19-26.
3. Hider, S. W. and Harichandran, R. S. (2008), “Relating Axle Load Spectra to
Truck Gross Vehicle Weights and Volumes”, J. Transp. Eng., 133(12), 696-705
4. Huang, W.H., Sung, Y. L. and Lin, J. D. (2002), “Development of Axle Load
Distribution for Heavy Vehicles”, Pre-Prints, 81 Annual Meeting, Transportation
Research Board, Washington, D. C.
5. IRC: 37-2001, “Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Pavements”, The Indian
Roads Congress, New Delhi.
6. IRC: 58-2002, “Guidelines for the Design of Plain Jointed Rigid Pavements for
Highways” (Second Revision), Indian Roads Congress, 2002, New Delhi.
7. Kim, J. R., Titus-Glover, L., Darter, M. I., and Kumapley,
R. K. (1998), “Axle Load Distribution Characterization
CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO METHOD

In 1928 california divison of highways in the U.S.A. developed CBR method for pavement
design. The majority of design curves developed later are based on the original curves proposed
by o.j.porter.at the beginning of second world war, the corps engineer of USA made survey of
the existing method of pavement design and adopted CBR method The CBR tests were carried
out by the California state highway department on existing pavement layers Including subgrade
sub-base and base course. Based on the extensive CBR test data collected on pavement design
chart was developed correlating the CBR value and the pavement thickness. Basis of design
chart is that a material with a given CBR required a certain thickness of pavement layer as a
cover.

DESIGN PROCEDURE

For exible pavement, structure design is mainly concerned with determining appropriate layer
thickness and composition. The main design factor are stresses due to traffic load and tempreture
variations. Two methods of exible pavement structure design are common today : Empiricle
design and mechanistic empirical design.

EMPIRICAL DESIGN

An empirical approach is one which is based on the result of experimentation or experience.

Some of them are either based on physical properties or strength parameters of soil subgrade. An
empirical approach is one which is based on the result of experimentation or experience. An
empirical analysis of exible pavement design can be done with or without a soil strength test. An
example of design without soil strength test is by using is HRB soil classification system , in
which soil are grouped from A-1 to A-7 and a group index is added to dierentiate soils within
each group. Example with soil strength test uses Mcload, stabilometer, California Bearing Ratio
(CNR)test. CBR test is widely known and will be discussed. Mechanistic – Empiricle Design

Empirical- Mechanistic method of design is based on the mechanics of materials that relates
input, such as wheel load. To an output or pavement response. In paement design, the responses
are the stresses ,strains and detection within a pavement structure and the physical causes are the
loads and material properties of the pavement structure. The relationship between these
phenomenon and their physical causes are typically described using some mathematical models.
Along with this mechanistic approach empirical element are used.

There are three different approaches for considering vehicular and traffic characteristic, which
acts pavement design. Fixed traffic thickness of pavement is governed by single load and number
of load repetition is not considered. The heaviest wheel load anticipated is used for design
purpose. This is an old method and is rarely used today for pavement design.
Fixed vehicle : In the xed vehicle procedure ,the thickens is governed by the number of repetition
of a standard axle load is not a standard one, then it must be converted to an equivalent an
equivalent axle load by number of repetition of given axle load and its equivalent axle load
factor.

Variable and vehicle: In this approach, both traffic and vehicle are considered individually, so
there is no need to assign an equivalent factor for each axle load. The loads can be divided in to a
number of group and the stresses ,strains and dictation under each load group can be determined
separately and used for design purpose. The traffic and loading factors to be considered include
axle loads, load repetition an

EQUIVALENT SINGLE WHEEL LOAD

To carry maximum load with in the spaced limit and to carry greater load, dual wheel, or dual
tandem assembly is often used. Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL) is the single wheel load
having the same contact pressure, which produces same value of maximum stress diction tensile
stress or contact pressure at the desired depth. The procedure of the ESWL for equal stress
criteria is provides below. This is a semi- rational method, Known as Boyd and foster method ,
based on the following assumption: