Unit 1: Introduction to Research

1. What is research?

This module considers the role, purpose, structure and process of research. It aims to answer the following
questions:

1. What is research?
2. Why do research?
3. What types of research are there?
4. What ethical considerations are there when conducting research?
5. How might research findings be used?

2. Research is a sign of intelligence

Intelligence can be defined as the adaptation of an environment to suit needs, which is why humans can be
acknowledged as the most 'intelligent' of species.

Humans observe, identify, plan and then effect change. Humans have social gain through information as well
as resource sharing.

As apart from any other species, humans have complex language structures and the written word to share
information from one person to another. Literate societies with well structured, permanent means of
communicating information have immense evolutionary advantage.

3. We research everyday
Humans are 'intuitive' scientists ....always asking questions and testing theories about themselves, others,
events, the environment and the world around them.

Research is asking a question and finding out the answer.....

1. It is looking into something.

2. It is looking for something.
3. It is comparing and contrasting things.
4. It is finding out more information...it is counting things ...making enquiries...being curious...finding out
what people think...finding out what people do....finding out what works.... finding out what doesn't
work...finding out what people want...

What research have you conducted recently?

1. What decisions have you made about your day?

2. What decisions have you made today?
 3. What influenced your decision to take this course?
4. How do you prepare and write assignments?
5. How do you decide how to provide the best quality of service for your service users?

We all engage in or do social research as we act on the basis and results of our own research and theorising,
therefore, what we think affects the way we behave....

4. What do we research?
What do we research?

We research people and their behaviour, opinions, attitudes, trends and patterns, also politics, animals, health
and illness. Research can be conducted either informally for our own benefit, through asking questions,
watching, counting or reading and formally, for medical or academic purposes, as a marketing strategy, to
inform and influence politics and policy.

Research may be carried out in our own lives, through the media, in our place of work, with our friends and
family or through reading past research.

Our views - personal, social, community and worldwide and our own identities are socially constructed through
our own theorising.

5. What does research tell us?

Research gives us information about:

1. Thoughts and opinions

2. Attitudes
3. Habits
4. Culture
5. Norms
6. Scientific facts
7. Medical information

What do we do with research?

1. Have it as interesting fact

2. Use it to make decisions
3. Use it to persuade influence others
4. Use it to affect change
5. Use it to change behaviour
6. Use it to better use...medical ...improve customer care...write better funding applications....monitor and
evaluate our provision....
We research in order to understand society and social processes, as well as to test and or create theories in
order that we are better able to inform about social action and potentially 'improve' social conditions.

6. Knowledge, Interpretation and dissemination

Research involves gaining knowledge, interpreting data and disseminating the findings.

Gathering data from direct and indirect sources:

1. observations
2. questionnaires
3. interviews
4. experiments
5. other research

Processing data for interpretation numerically and or verbally:

1. statistics
2. themes or perspectives

Dissemination of findings

1. written reports
2. presentations
3. seminars
4. supply to media

7. When we conduct research, it should be...

1. Systematic
2. Non-discriminatory
3. Open to criticism
4. Independent and free from and direct and or indirect censorship

8. Research Theory
Research is approached in a variety of ways...in its methods, analysis and presentation...which may be
influenced by the theoretical approach the researcher takes.

The appendix of "Research theory" offers a brief introduction to some of the theoretical positions as well as
some links which you can use to research further.
9. Conclusion
All academic subjects require research to reach conclusions and establish theories, or simply to find out more
about a particular situation or phenomenon.

This module aims to give you the opportunity to learn more about research methods and data in both an
academic context, for when you are researching for assignments as well as a professional context in order to
give you a better understanding of the role and uses of research within the voluntary and community sector.

10. Working Practice Exercise

Consider a working practice within your workplace.

1. How has this working practice developed?

2. What research was done and evidence collated that contributed to the decision being made that this
way is the best way?

Appendix - Research Theory

Research Theory

There are several theoretical positions, to include:

Positivists and empirism

Both positivists and empirisists believe it is possible to gather information about the social world and classify it
in a way that makes sense. Auguste Comte, a positivist, believed that scientific knowledge about society could
be gathered and understood, as in the natural sciences, in order to improve human experience and the running
of society. Emile Durkheim, took a similar approach to his sociological understanding or research and society.
Durkeim's 'Suicide' (read the attached link for more information http://durkheim.itgo.com/suicide.html) is used
as a model of positivist research. The following links provide further reading regarding the positivist and
empiricist approaches.

 http://www.skepdic.com/empiricism.html
 http://www.philosophypages.com/hy/6q.htm
 http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/help/mach1.htm
 http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/comte/1856/general-view.htm

Phenomenology

Phenomenologists 'reject' quantitative or statistical research, as it believes that research cannot produce a
causal explanation of human behaviour. They believe that all humans make sense of the world by imposing
their own, unique and individual meanings and classifications on it, which make up social reality, which,
therefore, can only be subjective and measured accordingly. The following links provide you with the
opportunity to explore this approach further.

 http://www.phenomenologyonline.com/
 http://www.phenomenologycenter.org/phenom.htm

Grounded Theory

Grounded Theory originated with Glaser and Strauss who did research on the interactions between health care
professionals and dying patients. This approach goes beyond the phenomenology approach because it
produces new knowledge which is used to develop new theories about a phenomenon, therefore, this
methodology is based on the collection and analysis of data about a phenomenon. An example of grounded
theory is the theory of the stages of the grief process - denial, anger, acceptance and resolution - this is not a
new phenomenon, but a theory that acknowledges and describes this experience - we now use this. We now
use this knowledge of the grief process, which was derived from the grounded theory, to understand and help
people through the grief process. The data collection techniques used to develop grounded theory includes:

 Interviews
 Observations
 The following information helps to make important contributions
 Literature reviews
 Relevant documentary analysis

New theory develops as the researcher recognises new ideas and themes that emerge from what people have
said and/or from events which have been observed. The researcher will review the raw data which will inform
patterns. Hypotheses about the relationship between various ideas or categories are then tested out and
constructs are formed which lead to new understandings and concepts - therefore, the theory is 'grounded' in
the data.

Ethnomethodology

Ethnomethodology, an American sociological perspective, applies the phenomenological perspective on the

study of society, therefore they go beyond what classifications and meanings individuals give to social facts
and look at how groups and society add respond to meaning and classification. Read the attached link which
offers further information about the ethnomethodology.

 http://www.sociologyencyclopedia.com/fragr_image/media/ethnomethodology

Symbolic interactionism

Symbolic interactionists do not believe that any form of statistical data can be used to give an insight into
human behaviour. Symbolic interactionists believe that all individuals understand and experience their own life
and world according to their own 'self-concept', which is constantly altering as a result of their social
interactions. Symbolic interactionists attempt to research the role of 'labelling' on individuals, and associate
labels with opinions, attitudes and behaviours, for example, does labelling in schools as successful or
unsuccessful affect ones self-concept which affects behaviour, which becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy?

Interpretivist

Interpretivists advocate qualitative research over quantitative research methods, as they believe that the basis
of sociology is to interpret social action, which can only be understood by understanding the meanings and
motives on which it is based through qualitative methods such as interview and observation. The link below
takes a further look into this approach.

 http://www.sociology.org.uk/revgrm5.pdf

Critical social science, which favours qualitative methods and takes the view that research should be used to
make positive changes within society, as it views society as oppressive and wishes to use research to liberate
groups from oppression.

Feminists

There are three main approaches feminist research takes. The first is the attack on 'malestream' research,
which feminists identify as any previous research conducted by men. This research is deemed to be sexist with
patriarchal principles and it is argued that it is therefore subjective and therefore biased. The development and
use of feminist research methods, for example, those used by Ann Oakley (1981) in 'Subject Women' reject
traditional, scientific methods and take on a more relaxed and open approach in order to gain a better
understanding of social reality. And, finally, the feminist approach claims that feminist research, particularly in
research regarding women and their experiences in the social world, can be better understood through a
feminist approach.

Postmodernists

Post modernists do not believe that any form of research can be regarded as impartial and sees the role of
research as a tool in which to examine the social world and to deconstruct or take apart existing explanations of
society. Postmodernists believe that no approach is better than another and that research is essentially
subjective.

Unit 2 Research and the Voluntary and Community

Sector
1. Research and the Voluntary and Community Sector

The Voluntary and Community Sector (VCS) continually researches...from formal monitoring and evaluations or
surveys used to influence policy to informal chats with service users that assist in affecting change, to
influencing best practice and responding to need.
This unit looks at the various ways in which the VCS uses research in its day to day work, in order to influence
its own in-house policies and procedures, influencing its strategic plan and its standpoint in the sector as a
whole.

2. Some uses for research in the voluntary and

community sector
Some of the uses for research in the VCS include:

1. market research
2. meeting and responding to need
3. funding
4. monitoring
5. evaluation
6. lobbying (to include the use of research to bring about change)
7. regeneration
8. quality assurance
9. Customer Care (Complaint, Acknowledge, Recover, Evolve)
10. Sustainability

The following links to documents on the web offer examples of how research may be used in monitoring and
evaluating services. Pay particular attention at this stage to its points on how research influences the
monitoring and evaluation process of a project.

 http://www.ncvo-
vol.org.uk/uploadedFiles/NCVO/Events/Events_Archive/2008/Justin%20Davis%20Smith.pdf
 http://www.artscouncil-ni.org/departs/all/report/VoluntaryCommunityArtsEvalToolkit.pdf

3. Research and the VCS

The individuals making up the VCS also benefit from research:

1. better informed
2. understand my job and those around me better
3. find and evaluate good practices
4. see ways for making job easier and myself more effective
5. greater self confidence
6. feeling in more control through deeper and better knowledge
7. acquiring new skills of analysis and appraisal
8. generating strategies based on reasoned arguments to implement as needed rather than react in crisis
9. improve forward planning
10. professional development
4. Research and its Influence of Third Sector Policy
http://www.ncvo-vol.org.uk/uploadedFiles/NCVO/Events/Events_Archive/2008/Justin%20Davis%20Smith.pdf

The above link to, 'Bridging the Gap? Research and its Influence on Third Sector Policy', is the speech Justin
Davis Smith, Chief Executive of Volunteering England delivered to the September 2008 Researching the
Voluntary Sector Conference.

The speech provides an overview of the history of research and the VCS, its role, impact and potential on third
sector policy.

5. The ESRC
The ESRC (Economic and Social Research Council) is an independent research organisation which funds
research into social and economic issues. Research funded by the ESRC has impacted on public policy and
the work of the private, public and third sectors.

The link below provides further information about the role of the ESRC and how it serves to help third sector
organisations.

http://www.esrcsocietytoday.ac.uk/ESRCInfoCentre/Images/Third%20Sector%20Brochure_tcm6-30420.pdf

6. ESRC Third Sector Engagement Strategy

For a more developed understanding of how the ESRC proposes to work with the third sector, read the
following document which provides an overview of its engagement strategy.

http://www.esrcsocietytoday.ac.uk/ESRCInfoCentre/index_voluntary.aspx

7. Research and the VCS

The following links report the findings of some government led and sponsored research into the third sector and
provide you with an overview of the plethora of areas in which they research and the ways in which findings are
used.

http://www.communities.gov.uk/archived/general-content/communities/citizenshipsurvey/

http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/third_sector/research_and_statistics.aspx

8. NCVO Research
The NCVO conducts and facilitates research within the VCS and support voluntary and community
organisations through research findings. The attached link offers you the opportunity to research further into
some of the findings of research supported by the NCVO. http://www.ncvo-vol.org.uk/

9. What can research do for you?

E-tivity- What can research do for you?

Task: Reflect on the work you undertake within

the Voluntary and Community Sector. Identify
an area of research that could be conducted that
would benefit your work. Consider its value and
explain its needs and how you would go about
making use of its findings.

Post your thoughts onto a discussion board.

Respond: Review the responses of your course

colleagues and respond to at least one other
posting.

Length: Please try to fit your responses within

a two to three paragraph limit.

Completion date for this e-tivity is... [add

deadline]
Unit 3 Primary and Secondary Sources
1. Primary and Secondary Sources and Triangulation

Researchers need to consider the sources on which to base and confirm their research and findings. They
have a choice between primary data and secondary sources and the use of both, which is termed triangulation,
or dual methodology.

Primary data is the data collected by the researcher themselves, i.e.

1. interview
2. observation
3. action research
4. case studies
5. life histories
6. questionnaires
7. ethnographic research
8. longitudinal studies
Secondary sources are data that already exists

1. Previous research
2. Official statistics
3. Mass media products
4. Diaries
5. Letters
6. Government reports
7. Web information
8. Historical data and information

2. Primary Research
When choosing and developing primary research, one must consider the most appropriate method, to include
its reliability, validity and practicality.

Reliability
There are many debates over what is and is not reliable within research. Within the natural sciences, data are
seen to be reliable, as they can be tested by different researchers at different times to find out the same or
similar information.

Researching society and the people, systems and institutions that make up society does not offer the same
guarantee for the same standard of reliability, however, when choosing which research method, one can go
about being as reliable as possible - in the methods one chooses, being as objective as possible and applying
and demonstrating rigorous collection and analysis methods and systems.

3. Primary Research
Validity
The validity of data refers to the truth that it tells about the subject or phenomenon being studied...a valid
statement provides a true measurement, description and / or explanation of what it is claiming to measure or
describe.

It is possible for data to be reliable without being valid.

Bryman in Social Research Methods (2001)identifies four types of validity:

1. measurement validity or construct validity: whether a measure being used really measures what it
claims ... i.e. do statistics regarding church attendance really measure the strength of religious beliefs?
2. internal validity: refers to causality and whether a conclusion of the research or theory developed is a
true reflection of the causes...i.e. is it a true cause that being unemployed causes crime or are there
other explanations?
 3. external validity: considers whether the results of a particular piece of research can be generalised to
other groups - i.e. if one form of community development approach works in London, will it necessarily
have the same impact in Leeds?
4. ecological validity: considers whether '...social scientific findings are appropriate to people's everyday
natural setting' (Bryman, 2001) - i.e. if a situation is being observed in a false setting, how may that
influence people's behaviour?

Respondent validity also needs to be considered... i.e may question the validity of a questionnaire about
people's happiness if they have just had an argument.

Both qualitative and quantitative methods need to consider their approaches and the validity of their methods
and findings.

Practicality
The practicalities of the research needs to be carefully considered when developing the research design, for
instance:

1. cost and budget

2. time scale
3. size of sample required

Primary research sources will be discussed in units five and six.

4. Secondary Research
Secondary sources consist of data that has already been produced and can be contemporary or historical,
qualitative or quantitative.

Secondary sources include

1. Documents
2. Letters
3. Diaries
4. Autobiographies
5. Referencing other forms of research and using quotes

The benefits of the use of secondary sources include:

1. Save time and money

2. May provide information and access to historical data
3. May be used to prove or disprove an argument or theory
4. May be used to offer general background information
5. Can be used to set the scene of the research and its findings
6. May be useful for putting the research into context
Researchers must always carefully consider the reliability and validity of secondary sources.

5. Official Statistics
Since 1801, government have collated and produced a vast range of statistical data which has been
coordinated and produced by the Government Statistic Service, visit the Publication Hub, Gateway to UK
National Statistics www.statistics.gov.uk for more information.

Data collected include:

1. Birth rates
2. Death rates
3. Marriage patterns
4. Fertility patterns
5. Divorce patterns
6. Crime rates
7. Suicide rates
8. Economic information
9. Employment and unemployment details
10. Strikes
11. Productivity

Figures are collected and published at various times, for example unemployment figures are produced monthly,
while crime figures are published annually and the census is produced once per decade. The above statistics
are available freely through publications such as:

1. Social Trends -
(http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_social/Social_Trends39/ST39_Overview.pdf ) is the
2009 overview.

The reliability and validity of official statistics must be considered by researchers when referring to them.

6. Historical sources
The use of historical documents can help researchers with both qualitative and quantitative information if they
are seeking to find out the context of a situation or to look at how things have or have not changed, as well as
seeking cause and affect answers. They are often useful in providing information or descriptions about social
life.

As with all sources, historical sources have questions over reliability and validity, they:

1. are subject to a number of interpretations

2. may be subjective
Life Documents

Life documents include:

1. Diaries
2. Letters
3. Photos
4. Memos
5. Biographies
6. Graffiti
7. Memoirs
8. Suicide notes
9. Memorials of tombstones
10. Films and videos
11. Paint pictures
12. Make music

Generally, life documents are any form of record that detail the accounts and experiences of a person's life.
They are predominantly qualitative and can be contemporary or historical.

Life documents are open to subjective interpretation, therefore it is useful to consider who the audience was
intended to be when reading through life documents, as this may influence what is written and the context in
which it is intended.

Whilst there are obvious limitations to life documents and their validity may be questionable, they are, none the
less, useful, as they offer a great insight into the subjective perspective of individuals in both their own lives and
that of wider society.

7. Mass media and content analysis

The mass media is a useful source of information about current and historical affairs and events and public
opinions and attitudes, however, researchers must always bear in mind that they are often inaccurate and there
is a degree of subjectivity...personal, political...of both the author and the audience, therefore, its reliability and
validity is obviously questionable.

There are four approaches to carrying out content analysis (which may be qualitative or quantitative) which
Pawson in Developments in Sociology, vol. 8 (1995) identifies:

1) Formal content analysis

A systematic sample of texts is used in the study, and classification systems are devised to identify different
features of the text, which are then counted with an emphasis on objectivity and reliability.

2) Thematic analysis
'The idea is to understand the encoding process, especially the intentions that lie behind the production of
mass media documents. The usual strategy is to pick on a specific area of reportage and subject it to a very
detailed analysis in the hope of unearthing the underlying purposes and intentions of the authors of the
communication.' (Pawson, R., 1995)

The weaknesses of thematic analysis is that researchers can choose themes that suit them and that there may
be a lack of understanding behind the reasons for using themes.

3) Textual analysis
The analysis of the use of words and phrases within a text - and the consideration of if and how words and
phrases may be used to influence the reader.

Textual analysis often involves semiology or semiotics, which is the analysis of signs. For more information,
visit the link http://www.ucalgary.ca/~rseiler/semiolog.htm

4) Audience analysis
Considers the response of the audience of mass media - whether they accept or reject the content and what it
means to them.

8. Evaluating Secondary Sources

In Matter of Record: Documentary Sources in Social Research (1990), Scott offers some useful guidelines for
evaluating secondary sources. The four criteria are:

1. Authenticity: consideration of how genuine the document or source is with regards to its soundness
and authorship.
2. Credibility: consideration must be given to the amount of distortion to the document or source, which
will affect its sincerity and accuracy. i.e. has the author given a true account of the situation, or has it
been distorted in some way to make the situation look better?
3. Representativeness: Scott states that '...sampling documents must be handled carefully and as
systematically as the sampling of respondents in a survey' and a researcher must give careful
consideration to how typical or untypical the documents being sourced are in order that they can
recognise limits to the conclusions they can drawn from them. Scott identifies survival and availability
as two of the factors which may limit the representation of documents.
4. Meaning: concerned with how well the researcher will be able to understand the document.

In order to keep up with the advances of modern technology and to make sense of the newest source, the
internet, Stein in Sociology on the Web (2002) highlights six criteria for consideration:

1. Authorship
2. Authority of the author
3. Authority of the material
4. Authority of the site/organisation
5. Currency (i.e. is it up to date)
6. Pressure groups/objectivity
9. Triangulation
'The rather partisan, either/or tenor of debate about quantitative and qualitative research may appear
somewhat bizarre to an outsider, for whom the obvious way forward is likely to be a fusion of the two
approaches so that their respective strengths might be reaped.' Bryman in Quantityand Quality in Social
Research, 1988

The combination of qualitative and quantitative and primary and secondary research is known as triangulation
or methodological pluralism. Triangulation offers the benefits of:

1. The ability to cross check

2. May be used in the facilitation or to assist in research design...i.e. the data gathered from interviews or
observations may be used to assist with the design of a questionnaire or survey
3. May complement or support the research conducted...i.e. findings show that most people are satisfied
with the services provided as 8 out of 10 people asked ....

10. Uses of multi-strategy research

Bryman offers 10 ways in which multi-strategy research can be used:

1) The logic of triangulation: it may be used to offer support

2) Qualitative research facilitates quantitative research: qualitative research can be used to generate
quantitative studies

3) Quantitative research facilitates qualitative research: quantitative research may tell how many or how often,
and the qualitative research may seek to answer why

4) Filling in the gaps

5) Statistic and processual features: 'In some circumstances quantitative methods are used to study the more
stable aspects of social life while qualitative methods are employed to study changes'.

6) Researchers' and participants' perspectives: qualitative data may give a view to the perspectives of the
people, while the quantitative information may tell researcher what they are trying to find

7) The problem of generality: a small sample may be used for the qualitative element, while the quantitative
element may be used to include a wider sample, therefore increasing the generality of the findings

8) Qualitative research facilitating the interpretations of the relationship between the variables: i.e. quantitative
research may identify patterns, while qualitative research can offer to explain the patterns
9) Studying different aspects of a phenomenon: i.e. quantitative methods might help one research what people
thought of religion and qualitative research might research how religious beliefs and rituals affected behaviour

10) Solving a puzzle: i.e. if the results of a research do not make sense and there is a need to clarify what has
been found

11. Careful consideration

When embarking on research then, one must carefully consider the source of their research, and the issues of
reliability and validity, whether that research is primary or secondary.

References

A Bryman, Quantityand Quality in Social Research (1988) Routledge

A Bryman, Social Research Methods (2001) OUP

R Pawson (1992) 'Feminist Methodology' in M. Haralambos (ed.) Developments in Sociology Vol. 8, pp. 113-
135, Ormskirk: Causeway Press.

J Scott, Matter of Record: Documentary Sources in Social Research(1990) Polity Press

S Stein, Sociology on the web (2002) Pearson Education

Unit 4 Research Design

1. Introduction to Research Design

Research is the study of materials, sources and data in order to get conclusions. Getting the research design
right is the first step towards organised research, which is more likely to be good research.

The research design provides the structure of the research and links all of the elements of the research
together. It provides the researcher the opportunity to carefully consider the research and to plan the way in
which they will approach the research, for example, the following elements will be considered:

1. sample
1. chosen
2. random
2. purpose of research
3. how will the data be collected or generated
4. how will the data be analysed (i.e. how you got your results)
5. explain how you will obtain your results

1. the data obtained may affect the results

 2. clarify why you chose the research methods
3. provide evidence that the data will be collected in a consistent and acceptable manner
4. demonstrate that the research methods are appropriate to the research
6. identify and acknowledge any issues or barriers and how you might go about dealing with them

2. The research process

Values

Values and beliefs of the researcher-----consider your values and beliefs...

1. What are they?

2. How will they affect the research project?
3. Will they be affected by the research project?
4. How will you manage your own values and beliefs?

Funding

Funding is an important factor in the design of the research

Some funders include:

1. Nuffield and Rowntree Foundation (http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/go/Default.html)

2. Economic and Social Research Council (http://www.esrc.ac.uk/ESRCInfoCentre/index.aspx)
3. The European Union (http://europa.eu/index_en.htm)

It is important to consider the affect the amount of funding will have on the methodologies used in the research,
as well as the values, beliefs, aims and objectives of the funders and how they may impact on your research...

Practicalities

1. Availability of existing data

2. Practicality of collecting data
3. Gatekeepers...who are the gatekeepers? Is there a group of people you would like to research but
can't as they are difficult to gain access to / or are they unwilling to participate in research? - how might
you get around this?

3. Some links
The links below may be used to assist in developing a research design and/or proposal.

 http://www.markwebtest.netfirms.com/teachRDE/start/default.html
 http://www.scholarshipnet.info/scholarship-tips/how-to-write-a-research-proposal-1/
 http://www.intute.ac.uk/socialsciences/researchtools/
4. Planning Research: Issues to Consider
Research plans depend on what you need to find out, what data you need to collect and what will affect your
decisions, for example, if you are researching a Customer Care issue, you may already have a topic chosen for
you, i.e. 'How do we improve our Customer Care?', whereas if you are undertaking research for academic
purposes, you may have a host of issues or topics you are interested in researching.

Being focused about what you want to gain from the research will help you to be more effective and efficient in
your research.

Issues to consider when planning research include:

1. what is the scale of the breadth and depth you want regarding the information you need
2. what resources do you have / are available to you?
1. time scale
2. existing resources
3. existing knowledge
4. manpower
5. man hours
6. support
7. sample
8. funding

5. Key Considerations
1. What is the focus of the investigation?
2. For what purpose/purposes is the research being done- i.e. what will you do with the research and
what do you want it to be able to decide?
3. Is it a replication of previous research?
4. Is it an extension of previous research?
5. What is the prediction?
6. Is the prediction a logical conclusion to the evidence presented in the introduction of a report?
7. Who is / are your audience(s) for this research?
1. funders
2. partners
3. board
4. management
5. staff
6. volunteers
7. service users
8. customers
8. What kinds of information is needed for the research?
 1. do you need to know how much/how often/when
2. is the research about behaviours, attitudes, opinions?
3. quantitative or qualitative information
9. From what sources should the information be collected?

1. documents
2. service users
3. customers
4. staff
5. management
6. board
7. funders
8. partners
9. other agencies, organisations or projects
10. particular sample-
1. community (location)
2. community (commonality)
10. How can / should the information be collected? i.e. what methodology is most appropriate
11. What is the time scale and / or time frame for the research?
12. What are the available resources for collecting the information?

6. Hypothesis
Writing a hypothesis...

A hypothesis is a question that is being asked or a statement that is to be tested...a hypothesis requires an
investigation...some research....

A testable hypothesis is one that can be carried out by others in the same way.

A testable statement that links the variables under investigation.

Below are different examples of what a hypothesis might be:

1. the experimental hypothesis - a precise prediction of the relationship between the variables
2. the colour of all swans is white
3. F=kx
4. the null hypothesis - all variations in results is due to random variability
5. swans can be any colour
6. extension in a spring is not related to the applied force
7. hypotheses can be rejected if found false
8. hypothesis are never proven but are supported with a certain level of confidence or probability

7. How are hypotheses tested?

 1. Statistics examine the null hypothesis to see if there is no significant difference or relationship between
variables, in effect they examine if the results come from the same population rather than different
ones or results are unrelated
2. Hypotheses can be one-tailed or two-tailed
3. Previous research may indicate direction for a one-tailed prediction - i.e. there is a positive relationship
between the amount of alcohol drunk and reaction time or boys can name more football teams than
girls
4. Two-tailed predictions do not specify a direction in difference or relationship, e.g. amount of sleep and
mood are related or boys and girls differ in verbal ability

8. Experimental Design
Independent groups/independent measures between groups design

1. two or more conditions with different people in each condition e.g. males and females;
medication/placebo groups

Repeated measures / related measures with groups design

1. same individuals in two or more conditions e.g. before and after medication; morning / afternoon ability

Matched pairs design

For example, different people in each condition but groups contain similar backgrounds, such as same age,
same gender, same social background

9. Qualitative Research Design

The study of phenomenon

1. A way of describing something that exists as part of the world we live in

2. Phenomenon can be events, situations, experiences or concepts

Examples:

1. We know people are carers, but what does caring actually mean and what is it to be a carer
2. Or...back pain - what is it like to have back pain, what problems does it cause and how does it affect
people's lives?

10. Key Areas of the Research Proposal

When writing a research design or research proposal, ensure you consider and cover the following areas:
1. A working title or topic area - ensure that you convey the key points of the research
2. General overview of the research area - provide a brief synopsis of the research
3. Identification of the relevant literature - reference any key literature that may support your proposal and
use the literature to demonstrate how/where it fits within the context of the subject area
4. Key research questions - in order to demonstrate that your research is viable and do-able it is essential
to identify some of the key questions it aims to answer
5. Methodology - outline the methodologies you aim to use
6. Timescale / research planning - identify the timescale and acknowledge the planning done, required
and/or involved
7. Bibliography - ensure to include a Bibliography for any references to literature within your research
proposal
8. 11. Review of secondary research
E-tivity-Review of secondary research

Task: Review the attached pdf,

"UK Giving 2007/2008: Results of the

2007/2008

survey of individual charitable giving in the

UK".

As a secondary source, comment on its design

and

use within the Voluntary and Community

Sector.

Post your comments on a discussion forum for

this

e-tivity

Respond: Review the responses of your course

colleagues and respond to at least one other

posting.

Length: Please try to fit your responses within

a

two to three paragraph limit.

Completion date for this e-tivity is... (add

 deadline).

http://www.cafonline.org/pdf/UK%20Giving%202008.pdf

Unit 5 Quantitative Research

1. Overview of quantitative and qualitative methods

Methodology is concerned about both the ways in which the research is carried out - i.e. its structure and
process, as well as with the way in which this information is analysed.

The two approaches to research are:

1. Quantitative - based on the methods used in the natural sciences

2. Qualitative - based on methods which are said to be humanistic

Quantitative methods:

 Used to find out how much, how many, how often, to what extent
 Aims to be objective and scientific in its approach
 Quantitative research is hypothetico-deductive in its approach to constructing social theories
 Aims to assess and measure
 Is regarded as a way to get to the truth, to understand the world well enough so that we might predict
and control it through identifying cause and effect relationships
 Quantitative research can be
 administered by the researcher
 self-administered
 one to one
 in a group
 face to face
 telephone
 postal
 email

The attached link provides an insight into the use of quantitative methods to search for truth.

http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/tutorial/Maldon/validity.htm

This unit will investigate quantitative research, its role, purpose, process and strengths and weaknesses.
2. Theory and quantitative methodology
The theories introduced in Unit One which would advocate a quantitative approach to research include
positivist and empiricism

Quantitative research is influenced by the empiricist paradigm, which means that it is concerned with cause
and effect of social phenomena and uses the data - which is based on empirical observation and their critical
interpretation

Qualities of quantitative research

1. Deductive
2. Begins from theory - i.e. it is established to test theory
3. Can be used to make generalisations and / or to test hypotheses

Popper and Falsification '...theories cannot be verified absolutely and forever; however, they can be falsified -
i.e. they can be proven to be wrong - given a certain degree of certainty (or probability)' (The Logic of Scientific
Discovery, 1959)

1. Testing theories can 'improve ' them, but it cannot 'prove' them
2. Quantitative research needs to be open and open to criticism - which should be at the heart of
quantitative research
3. Theories that cannot be tested, re-tested and (based on their falsification) be changed should be
dismissed
4. Theory - concept - indicator

For more information about Popper and Falsification, visit http://elm.eeng.dcu.ie/~tkpw/index.html

3. Importance of Quantitative Research

1. More reliable and objective
2. Can use statistics to generalise a finding
3. Often reduces and restructures a complex problem to a limited number of variables
4. Looks at relationships between variables and can establish cause and effect in highly controlled
circumstances
5. Tests theories or hypotheses
6. Assumes sample is representative of the population
7. Subjectivity of researcher in methodology is recognised less
8. Less detailed than qualitative data and may miss a desired response from the participant

4. Quantitative Analysis
 Laboratory experiments
  deliberate manipulation of independent variable, strict control of other variables
 test cause and effect relationship
 Field experiments
 natural environment but independent variable still manipulated
 difficulty in controlling the situation so more likelihood of extraneous variables
 ethical problems of consent, deception, invasion of privacy
 Quasi-or natural experiments
 examine effects of independent variable without control over independent variable itself which often
occurs naturally
 unable to manipulate independent variable because of ethics or because it is impossible

5. Quantitative Observation
Observation can also be carried out in a quantitative context and may involve:

1. Counting the use of services

2. Number of people accessing services
3. Ascertain busy/quiet times

6. Questionnaires
Questionnaires or social surveys are a method used to collect standardised data from large numbers of people
-i.e. the same information is collected in the same way. They are used to collect data in a statistical form.

In Data Collection in Context (1981), Ackroyd and Hughes identify three types of survey:

1. Factual surveys: used to collect descriptive information, i.e. the government census
2. Attitude surveys - i.e. an opinion poll - rather than attempting to gather descriptive information, an
attitude survey will attempt to collect and measure people's attitudes and opinions, i.e. 4 out of 5
people believe...
3. Explanatory survey - goes beyond the collection of data and aims to test theories and hypotheses and
/ or to produce new theory.

Researchers usually use questionnaires or surveys in order that they can make generalisations, therefore, the
surveys are usually based on carefully selected samples.

Questionnaires consist of the same set of questions that are asked in the same order and in the same way in
order that the same information can be gathered.

Questionnaires can be:

1. Filled in by the participant

2. Asked in a structured and formal way by an interviewer
 1. Interviewer bias must be considered when done in this way, however, an advantage of this
method over a participant filling in a questionnaire is that the interviewer may assist if there
are any ambiguous questions or if the participant is confused in any way
3. Postal questionnaire can be used, whereby a questionnaire is posted to the sample group and
returned to the researcher by a specified time and date
4. Administration of a questionnaire to a group is an option - i.e. at centre, school or group. The
researcher needs to consider if the group will affect each other's responses and the concentration
levels etc when undertaking this approach
5. Telephone questionnaire
6. Email questionnaire

7. Developing a Questionnaire
Developing a Questionnaire
The process of developing a questionnaire involves the following four steps:

1. Choosing the questions by operationalising concepts, which involves translating abstract ideas into
concrete questions that will be measureable (i.e......class, power, family, religion....add some sort of
example)
2. Operationalising concepts involves a set of choices regarding the following:
1. units of analysis
1. units that can be analysed:
1. individuals (i.e. students, voters, workers)
2. groups (families, gangs)
3. organisations (churches, army, corporations)
4. social artefacts (buildings, cars, pottery, etc)
2. points of focus
3. treatment of the dimension of time
4. nature of measurement
3. Establish an operational definition which involves breaking the concept down into various components
or dimensions in order to specify what is to be measured
4. Once the concept has been operationally defined in terms of a number of components, the second
step involves the selection of indicatorsfor each component.'
5. '...indicators of each dimension are put into the form of a series of questions that will provide
quantifiable data for measuring each dimension.'

8. Questionnaire Questions
Questions in the questionnaire can then be:

1. Open ended (more difficult to extract quantifiable data)

 1. This form of question requires the researcher to code the answers. Coding identifies a number
of categories in which people have responded, more detail of this process is covered in the
qualitative research unit
2. Closed
3. Fixed-choice
4. Likert scale - where participants are given a range of options, i.e. agree, strongly agree...for more
information about the Likert scale and other scales of measurement,
visithttp://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/scallik.php
5. the difficulty or negative of all of the close and fixed are that participants may be forced into an answer
or may not be able to qualify or explain what they mean by what they have answered

The following links provide further information about social surveys and questionnaires:

http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/survey.php

Refer back to the 'Evaluation Toolkit for the Voluntary and Community Arts in Northern Ireland' and read the
section on developing a questionnaire, pages 39 - 42

http://www.artscouncil-ni.org/departs/all/report/VoluntaryCommunityArtsEvalToolkit.pdf

9. The advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires

The advantages of questionnaires

1. Practical
2. Large amounts of information can be collected from a large number of people in a short period of time
and in a relatively cost effective way
3. Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with limited affect to its validity and
reliability
4. The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily quantified by either a researcher or
through the use of a software package
5. Can be analysed more 'scientifically' and objectively than other forms of research
6. When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other research and may be
used to measure change
7. Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used to create new theories and / or test existing
hypotheses

The disadvantages of questionnaires

1. Is argued to be inadequate to understand some forms of information - i.e. changes of emotions,

behaviour, feelings etc.
2. Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is simply an artificial creation by the researcher, as
it is asking only a limited amount of information without explanation
3. Lacks validity
 4. There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being
5. There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has put in
6. The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of the situation
7. People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on their own interpretation of
the question - i.e. what is 'good' to someone may be 'poor' to someone else, therefore there is a level
of subjectivity that is not acknowledged
8. There is a level of researcher imposition, meaning that when developing the questionnaire, the
researcher is making their own decisions and assumptions as to what is and is not
important...therefore they may be missing something that is of importance

The process of coding in the case of open ended questions opens a great possibility of subjectivity by the
researcher

References

K. Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery (1959), reprinted (2004) by Routledge, Taylor & Francis

S. Ackroyd and J. A. Hughes, Data Collection in Context (1981) Longman

Unit 6 Qualitative Research

1. Qualitative Research is concerned with:

Early forms of research originated in the natural sciences: biology, chemistry, physics, geology and wanted to
observe and measure in some way in order to gain understanding. Quantitative research refers to observations
and measurements that can be made objectively and repeated by other researchers. Along with the
development of social sciences: psychology, sociology, anthropology, etc, they were interested in studying
human behaviour and the social world. The social sciences found it difficult to measure human behaviour in the
simpler quantitative methods, therefore qualitative research methods were developed in order to look beyond
how, how often and how many...it looks at why and attempts to further and deepen our understanding of the
social world.

The theories introduced in unit one that take on a qualitative approach to research include:

1. Phenomenology
2. Ethnomethodology
3. Grounded Theory
4. Symbolic Interactionists
5. Interpretivists
6. Critical Social Science
7. Feminists

Qualitative research methods:

 1. are concerned with opinions, feelings and experiences
2. describes social phenomena as they occur naturally - no attempt is made to manipulate the situation -
just understand and describe
3. understanding is sought by taking a holistic perspective / approach, rather than looking at a set of
variables
4. qualitative research data is used to help us to develop concepts and theories that help us to
understand the social world - which is an inductive approach to the development of theory, rather than
a deductive approach that quantitative research takes - ie. Testing theories that have already been
proposed.
5. Qualitative data is collected through direct encounters i.e. through interview or observation and is
rather time consuming

http://www.aqr.org.uk/about/index.shtml is the official site for the Association of Qualitative Research, UK.

2. The Nature of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is concerned with '...developing explanations of social phenomena...'

1. The world in which we live

2. Why things are the way they are
3. Concerned with social aspects of our world
4. Seeks to answer questions about
1. Why people behave the way they do
2. How opinions and attitudes are formed
3. How people are affected by the events that go on around them
4. How and why cultures have developed in the way they have
5. The differences between social groups
5. Qualitative questions:

1. How
2. Why
3. What

3. Methods of collecting qualitative data

Data collection approaches for qualitative research usually involves:

1. Direct interaction with individuals on a one to one basis

2. Or direct interaction with individuals in a group setting

Qualitative research data collection methods are time consuming, therefore data is usually collected from a
smaller sample than would be the case for quantitative approaches - therefore this makes qualitative research
more expensive.
The benefits of the qualitative approach is that the information is richer and has a deeper insight into the
phenomenon under study

The main methods for collecting qualitative data are:

1. Individual interviews
2. Focus groups
3. Observations
4. Action Research

4. Interviews
Interviews can be

1. Unstructured
1. Can be referred to as 'depth' or 'in depth' interviews
2. They have very little structure at all
3. The interviewer may just go with the aim of discussing a limited number of topics, sometimes
as few as just one or two
4. The interviewer may frame the interview questions based on the interviewee and his/her
previous response
5. This allows the discussion to cover areas in great detail
6. They involve the researcher wanting to know or find out more about a specific topic without
there being a structure or a preconceived plan or expectation as to how they will deal with the
topic
2. Semi structured

1. Semi structured interviews are sometimes also called focused interviews

2. A series of open ended questions based on the topic areas the researcher wants to cover
3. A series of broad questions to ask and may have some prompts to help the interviewee
4. 'The open ended nature of the question defines the topic under investigation but provides
opportunities for both interviewer and interviewee to discuss some topics in more detail'
5. Semi structured interviews allow the researcher to promt or encourage the interviewee if they
are looking for more information or find what they are saying interesting
6. This method gives the researcher the freedom to probe the interviewee to elaborate or to
follow a new line of inquiry introduced by what the interviewee is saying
7. Work best when the interviewed has a number of areas he/she wants to be sure to be
addressing
3. Structured

1. The interviewed asks the respondent the same questions in the same way
2. A tightly structured schedule is used
3. The questions may be phrased in order that a limited range of responses may be given - i.e.
'Do you rate our services as very good, good or poor'
 4. A researcher needs to consider whether a questionnaire or structured interview is more
appropriate
5. 'If the interview schedule is too tightly structured this may not enable the phenomena under
investigation to be explored in terms of either breadth or depth.'

Qualitative interviews should be fairly informal and participants feel they are taking part in a conversation or
discussion rather than in a formal question and answer situation.

There is skill required and involved in successful qualitative research approaches - which requires careful
consideration and planning

Good quality qualitative research involves:

1. Thought
2. Preparation
3. The development of the interview schedule
4. Conducting and analysing the interview data with care and consideration

5. Focus groups
The use of focus groups is sometimes used when it is better to obtain information from a group rather than
individuals.

Group interviews can be used when:

1. Limited resources (time, manpower, finances)

2. The phenomena being researched requires a collective discussion in order to understand the
circumstances, behaviour or opinions
3. Greater insights may be developed of the group dynamic - or cause and consequence

Characteristics of a focus group:

1. Recommended size of the sample group is 6 - 10 people as smaller groups may limit the potential on
the amount of information collected, and more may make it difficult for all participants to participate and
interact and for the interviewer to be able to make sense of the information given
2. Several focus groups should be used in order to get a more objective and macro view of the
investigation. i.e. focussing on one group may give you idiosyncratic results. The use of several groups
will add to the breadth and depth of information. A minimum of three focus groups is recommended for
best practice approaches
3. Members of the focus group should have something in common which is important to the investigation
4. Groups can either be put together or existing groups - it is always useful to be mindful of the group
dynamics of both situations

The aim of the focus group is to make use of participants' feelings, perceptions and opinions
This method requires the researcher to use a range of skills:

1. group skills
2. facilitating
3. moderating
4. listening/observing
5. analysis

6. Observation
Observation involves may take place in natural settings and involve the researcher taking lengthy and
descriptive notes of what is happening.

It is argued that there are limits to the situations that can be observed in their 'natural' settings and that the
presence of the research may lead to problems with validity.

Limitations with observation include:

1. Change in people's behaviour when they know they are being observed
2. A 'snap shot' view of a whole situation
3. Think Big Brother...
4. The researcher may miss something while they are watching and taking notes
5. The researcher may make judgements of make value statements or misunderstand what has been
observed

Strengths of observation

1. Can offer a flavour for what is happening

2. Can give an insight into the bigger picture
3. Can demonstrate sub-groups
4. Can be used to assist in the design of the rest of the research

Sometimes, the researcher becomes or needs to become a participant observer, where they are taking part in
the situation in order to be accepted and further understand the workings of the social phenomenon.

Observation can sometimes obtain more reliable information about certain things - for example, how people
actually behave (although it may not find out the reasons for why they behave in a particular way).

Observation can also serve as a technique for verifying of nullifying information provided in face to face
encounters.'

People or environment can be observed.

When environment is researched, it can provide valuable background information that may inform other
aspects of the research.

Techniques for collecting data through observation

1. Written descriptions
1. The researcher makes written descriptions of the people, situations or environment
2. Limitations include
1. Researcher might miss out on an observation as they are taking notes
2. The researcher may be focussed on a particular event or situation
3. There is room for subjective interpretation of what is happening
2. Video recording

1. Allows the researcher to also record notes

2. Limitations may include people acting unnaturally towards the camera or others avoiding the
camera
3. The camera may not always see everything
3. Photographs and artefacts

1. Useful when there is a need to collect observable information or phenomena such as

buildings, neighbourhoods, dress and appearance
2. Artefacts include objects of significance - memorabilia, instruments, tools etc

Documentation

1. Any and all kinds of documentation may be used to provide information - a local paper, information on
a notice board, administrative policies and procedures...etc previous research, even

7. Self Study
Consider an area within your work that you might want to observe in order to get an answer, find out more or
gain a better understanding.

Think about and plan:

1. What your aim/purpose is.

2. What permission, etc, you may need to gain.
3. What your role/presence will be.
4. How you will record your observation.
5. What you will record.
6. What you will do with your findings.

What are the pros and cons of this process.

8. Ethnography
Ethnography has a background in anthropology and means 'portrait of a people'. Ethnography is a
methodology for descriptive studies of culture and people and looks at the people, cultures and commonalities
of shared experiences.

Ethnographic research entails extensive fieldwork by the researcher. Data collection includes:

1. formal and informal interviews

2. often interviewing an individual on several occasions
3. participative observations
1. therefore, ethnography is very time consuming and involves the researcher spending a great
deal of time in the field
4. analysis of ethnographic data = 'emic' - which means the researcher attempts to interpret data from the
perspective of the sample that was studied, i.e. to understand the subjects themselves and the
language and terminology they use, as well as the meanings behind this
5. the risk of using ethnographic research is that the researcher may not fully understand or be familiar
with the social norms of those they are researching and therefore there is risk of misinterpretation
6. Payne and Payne Key Concepts in Social Research, 2004, describe ethnography as '...the production
of highly detailed accounts of how people in a social setting lead their lives, based upon systematic
and long-term observation of, and conversation with, informants'

9. Action Research
Action Research doesn't just involve asking about it, it involves doing it.

Action Research is a framework that is:

1. Collaborative
2. There is a practical intervention made - i.e. you do something to make a change or intervention in a
situation that you research (i.e. the work that we do in vcs...project monitoring and evaluation...use for
bids)
3. The researcher will be actively involved in the planned intervention
4. Checklands FMA model
1. F - framework of ideas
2. M - methodology being applied
3. A - area of concern

http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/tutorial/Sengupta/default.htm

10. Other forms of qualitative research includes:

Longitudinal research or panel studies
 1. When research is conducted over a long period of time and the researcher contacts the participant at
various times: i.e. every two years
2. Examples of longitudinal studies include:
1. West and Farrington's Who Becomes Delinquent (1973) which followed the development of
411 London schoolboys from the age of 8 to 18 to determine the factors that cause
delinquency

Historical

1. 'The systematic collection and objective evaluation of data related to past occurrences in order to test
hypotheses concerning causes, effects or trends of these events that may help to explain present
events and anticipate future events' (Gay, 1996)

Case study

1. Case study research is a methodology which can take either a qualitative or quantitative approach
2. In the qualitative approach, case study refers to the in depth analysis of a single or small number of
units
3. A case study unit may include a single person, a group of people, an organisation or an institution
4. Some case study research may involve the research of a series of cases
5. Case study research ranges in its complexity:
1. From a simple, illustrative description of a single event or occurrence
2. To a more complex analysis of a social situation over a period of time
3. To the most complex approach which is an extended case study which traces events involving
the same actors over a period of time - enabling the analysis reflect changes and adjustments
6. Case studies aims to:

1. Offer a richness and depth of information by capturing as many variables as possible to

identify how a complex set of circumstances come together to produce a particular
manifestation '...to as identify how a complex set of circumstances come together to produce
a particular manifestation.'
7. Case study as a method is very versatile, as it uses many methods of gather information, from
observation to interview to testing
8. One of the criticisms of the case study method is that the case under study may not be representative
of a wider social setting and therefore it is argued that the results of the research cannot be used to
make generalisations
9. Therefore, the purpose of case study research is to describe that particular case in detail and take
learning from that and develop theory from that approach - it is particularlistic and contextual

The attached link will provide further information about developing a case study:

http://managementhelp.org/evaluatn/casestdy.htm

11. E-tivity- Qualitative versus Quantitative Research

Task: Comment on the following statement, using the information you have learned in units 5 and 6 regarding
qualitative and quantitative research methods.

You can never be accurate using qualitative data and therefore it is of little use in the Voluntary and Community
Sector.

Post your comments on a discussion forum for this e-tivity

Respond: Review the responses of your course colleagues and respond to at least one other posting.

Length: Please try to fit your responses within a two to three paragraph limit.

Completion date for this e-tivity is...( add deadline)

References

L. R. Gay Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Application Fifth Edition (1996), Prentice-Hall.

G. Payne and J. Payne Key Concepts in Social Research (2004) Sage Publications Ltd

D.J. West and D.P. Farrington Who Becomes Delinquent (1973) Heinemann Educational Publishers

Unit 7 Ethics and Data Protection

1. Introduction

"My only merit is that I did not neglect the observation and that I pursued the subject as a bacteriologist."

Alexander Fleming on seeing the effect of the Penicillum bacteria on other bacteria.

When conducting research, one must be mindful of ethical and data protection issues. Ethical guidelines seek
to work towards protecting the individuals, communities and environments involved in the studies against any
form of harm, manipulation or malpractice. The importance of the role of ethics and data protection are
explored in this unit.

2. An ethical approach
When conducting research, one must consider ethics, in order that they work within the law, to professional
guidelines and act morally.

Adapting an ethical approach will contribute to:

1. a sound starting point

2. a suitable and valid method
 3. good and useful results
4. solid conclusions

3. Principle's of Ethics
'...ethical behaviour helps protect individuals, communities and environments, and offers the potential to
increase the sum of good in the world. As social scientists 'trying to make the world a better place' we should
avoid (or at least minimise) doing long-term, systematic harm to those individuals, communities and
environments...' (Israel and Hay, Research Ethics for Social Scientists, 2006)

The three principles of ethics include informed consent, confidentiality and avoiding harm to do good.

 Informed consent

It is important that those participating in the research understand its aims and objectives and that informed
consent is given, for research that is carried out with children or vulnerable adults, it is essential to acquire
informed consent from a parent, guardian or responsible adult

 Confidentiality

Confidentiality needs to be considered - how will confidentiality be maintained? is it always appropriate and
applicable (i.e. criminal activities, if someone is in harm...etc)

 Avoid harm and do good

Ethics can go so far as to suggest that research needs not only avoid harm, but to ensure that its purpose is to
do good...how might this impact on the methodology of the research? and the impartiality?

4. Ethics and the VCS

Some ethical implications for research in the VCS may include:

1. vulnerable people
2. confidentiality
3. voluntary participation
4. establishing informed consent
5. considering risk of physical or psychological harm
6. anonymity
7. right of service (i.e. if there is a medical research with one sample taking a placebo and another taking
the drug, all must be aware that they may opt for the service available to them if they request
8. risk of bias, to acquire or account for funding

5. ESRC Research Ethics Framework

It is important to the ESRC (Economic Social Research Council) that it only supports research that is carried
out to the highest ethical standards. The Research Ethics Framework has been developed in order to
communicate its required standards in order that it may encourage and expect good working practices. Read
the Research Ethics Framework attached below and carefully consider all of the areas the framework covers
and how the standards may influence or impact on any research.

http://www.esrc.ac.uk/ESRCInfoCentre/Images/ESRC_Re_Ethics_Frame_tcm6-11291.pdf

6. Self Study Exercise

Read the following link - http://www2.le.ac.uk/institution/committees/research-ethics/code-of-practice - which
outlines the ethical framework within which the University of Leicester operates. When reviewing the link,
consider the importance of the issues highlighted and how the code goes about aiming to protect the
researcher, the phenomenon being researched and the university as an institution.

7. Safety of the Researcher

www.the-sra.org.uk/documents/word/safety_code_of_practice.doc

Researchers must consider their own personal safety from physical and psychological harm and to ensure they
maintain professional boundaries. The SRA (Social Research Association) has developed a Code of Practice
for the Safety of Social Research. Read the attached links to find out more about the role of the SRA and the
Code of Practice for the Safety of Social Researchers.

http://www.the-sra.org.uk/staying_safe.htm

8. Further reading
The following link offers access to articles relating to ethics in research, which may be reviewed for a further or
more detailed insight into the role and implications of ethics and ethical behaviour in research.

http://scientificethics.suite101.com/article.cfm/ethics_in_social_science_researchModule 9

9. Ethics in research
 E-tivity- Ethics in research

Task: Read the following

(www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/ethics.php)
which offers in brief a perspective of the
history, role and importance of ethics in
research.

Reflect on the information provided in the link

and offer your own thoughts and opinion
relating to the role of ethics in research.

Post your comments on the a discussion forum

for this e-tivity

Respond: Review the responses of your course

colleagues and respond to at least one other
posting.

Length: Please try to fit your responses within a

two to three paragraph limit. Completion
date for this e-tivity is...(add deadline).

References

M. Israel & I. Hay Research Ethics for Social Scientists (2006) Sage Publications Ltd

Unit 8 Presenting and Using Research Findings

1. Introduction

Once you have carefully planned and conducted your research, you will need to consider how to analyse and
present the data you have collected. This unit looks at how to handle, analyse and present qualitative and
quantitative research to a variety of audiences.

2. Handling qualitative research data

Handling qualitative research data

1. Researchers can either take notes during their interviews (transcribing) or observations, or take a
recording
2. Using a tape recorder:
 3. The benefits tape recording include:
1. The researcher can concentrate and listen and respond better
2. The discussion flows better when there are no distractions
3. In note taking there is an increased risk of the researcher being more subjective
4. The entire interview/observation is recorded, which gives a better, more holistic picture of
what is going on
5. The participants may feel less observed if the tape recorded is used in a a discreet way
6. During analysis, the researcher has the opportunity to go back over material
4. Transcribing:

1. Transcribing the interview involves taking notes of the interview...it is the full 'script' of the
interview and the aim is to take a full written version of the interview
2. Transcribing an interview is very time consuming, with an estimated time ratio of 5:1 (i.e. 5
hours of transcribing a one hour interview)
5. Tape analysis can be used, which is a combination on the two and involves the researcher taking
notes from the recording
6. Bias must be considered when taking notes or using tape analysis
7. Good quality transcribing relies on skills beyond just taking notes and there is often space for
subjectivity

3. The ten steps of content analysis

The ten step of content analysis are:

1) Copy and read through the transcript - make brief notes in the margin when interesting or relevant
information is found

2) Go through the notes made in the margins and list the different types of information found

3) Read through the list and categorise each item in a way that offers a description of what it is about

4) Identify whether or not the categories can be linked any way and list them as major categories (or themes)
and / or minor categories (or themes)

5) Compare and contrast the various major and minor categories

6) If there is more than one transcript, repeat the first five stages again for each transcript

7) When you have done the above with all of the transcripts, collect all of the categories or themes and
examine each in detail and consider if it fits and its relevance

8) Once all the transcript data is categorised into minor and major categories/themes, review in order to ensure
that the information is categorised as it should be.
9) Review all of the categories and ascertain whether some categories can be merged or if some need to them
be sub-categorised

10) Return to the original transcripts and ensure that all the information that needs to be categorised has been
so.

The process of content analysis is lengthy and may require the researcher to go over and over the data to
ensure they have done a thorough job of analysis

4. Analysing Qualitative Research Data

The analysis of qualitative research involves aiming to uncover and / or understand the big picture - by using
the data to describe the phenomenon and what this means. Both qualitative and quantitative analysis involves
labelling and coding all of the data in order that similarities and differences can be recognised. Responses from
even an unstructured qualitative interview can be entered into a computer in order for it to be coded, counted
and analysed. The qualitative researcher, however, has no system for pre-coding, therefore a method of
identifying and labelling or coding data needs to be developed that is bespoke for each research. - which is
called content analysis.

Content analysis can be used when qualitative data has been collected through:

1. Interviews
2. Focus groups
3. Observation
4. Documentary analysis

Content analysis is '...a procedure for the categorisation of verbal or behavioural data, for purposes of
classification, summarisation and tabulation.'

The content can be analysed on two levels:

1. Basic level or the manifest level: a descriptive account of the data i.e. this is what was said, but no
comments or theories as to why or how
2. Higher level or latent level of analysis: a more interpretive analysis that is concerned with the response
as well as what may have been inferred or implied

Content analysis involves coding and classifying data, also referred to as categorising and indexing and the
aim of context analysis is to make sense of the data collected and to highlight the important messages,
features or findings.

5. Analysing Quantitative data

The analysis of research in any project involve summarising the mass of data that has been collected and the
presenting the results in a way that communicates the most important findings or features
 1. The analysis of quantitative research involves the analysis of any of the following:
1. Frequencies of variables
2. Differences between variables
3. Statistical tests designed to estimate the significance of the results and the probability that
they did not occur by chance
1. All of the above is achieve by counting and comparison

6. Presenting Qualitative Research

1. When planning the presentation of qualitative data, consider that the data are:
1. Subjective
2. Interpretative
3. Descriptive
4. Holistic
5. Copious
2. It may be suggested that the researcher base the structure of the presentation of the research around
the categories or themes that have emerged
3. The themes or categories may be presented as sections with relevant sub-sections
4. Quotes can be used to demonstrate and or inform or support findings, but it is recommended that the
researcher consider the reliability and validity of each quote
5. Consideration may also be given to whether or not qualitative data can be represented in a quantitative
form (i.e. 6 out of 10 people...)

7. Computerised data analysis

Software packages are available for the analysis of quantitative and qualitative data. Each packed has different
features and the researcher needs to choose carefully. The aim of all of the packages is to assist in the
categorisation and matching process. The packages can save time, but there is still a great deal of time
required to set them up and input the data and check through the process.

The most well known software packages are listed below, some have links attached which you may wish to
read through for further information:

 SPSS http://www.spss.com/uk/statistics/?gclid=COqEmJPdw5sCFRISzAodvX4KdA
 ATLAS/ti http://www.psychologysoftwaredistribution.com/ATLAS_ti/atlas_ti.html
 NVivo http://download.qsrinternational.com/Document/NVivo7/NVivo7_Tutorials_Lyn_Richards.pdf
 NUD*IST http://www.sdgassociates.demon.co.uk/learnnudist.htm
 QUALPRO

Ethnograph

There are also a number of networks available that are accessible via the Internet, CAQDAS is one of them,
available at http://www.soc.surrey.ac.uk/caqdas
8. Overview of reporting research findings
Introduction

Introduction of the research, objectives and how achieved, methodology and main findings.

Literature Review

Review any previous work to do with the topic of research. Include a general discussion of how it relates to
research - i.e. supports, contests, proves or disproves.

Method

Discuss how the results were achieved and provide explanations of how data was gathered/collated/generated
and how the data was analysed. Discuss any methodological problems and their solutions and or effects on the
research.

Remember:

1. the purpose of the research section

2. keep notes of what you did, why you did it and what happened
3. remember who your audience will be

Results and Discussion

Provide the interpretation, presentation and/or discussion of the results. Also, any comparisons with the results
of previous research or effects of methods used on the data obtained.

Conclusion

1. has the research question/problem been solved?

2. to what extent have the objectives been achieved?
3. what has been learned from the results?
4. how can this knowledge be used?
5. what are the shortcomings of the research or methodology used?

9. Consider your audience

As introduced in unit one, research in the voluntary and community sector has a variety of uses and purposes,
therefore, when presenting and disseminating research findings, one must consider the audience they are
presenting to. Potential readers of research findings may include:

1. academics
2. board members, managers and staff
 3. service users
4. funders

It is important, then, that one adopts an appropriate approach to presenting their research. The following links
offer an insight into some of the possible ways in which one might present data.

 http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=6&n=13
 http://www.howto.co.uk/business/research-methods/how_to_report_your_findings/

[http://libweb.surrey.ac.uk/library/skills/Introduction%20to%20Research%20and%20Managing%20Infor
mation%20Leicester/page_01.htm]
 Research Proposals
The following remarks are intended to help those applying for a place to study for the PhD, as well as
those applying for a place on one of the Faculty’s MPhil courses. They are also intended to help with
subsequent applications to funding bodies. For further details on available funding see ‘Funding for
Home and EU Students’ or ‘Funding for Overseas Students’.

The Research Proposal

An MPhil research proposal should be 500 words long while a PhD proposal should be 800 words long.
It needs to give those assessing your application an impression of the strength and originality of your
proposed research, and its potential to make a contribution to knowledge. It should be written in
clear, jargon-free, and unexceptionable prose. Grammatical mistakes and typographical errors give a
very bad impression. You should make sure you cover the following areas (without explicitly dividing
the proposal into headings):

 the research topic

briefly outline the area and topic of your research.
 the research context
relate your proposed research to other work in its field or related fields, and indicate in what ways
your research will differ; you might mention monographs on the subject, as well as important
theoretical models or methodological exemplars: this is a chance to show your understanding of the
background against which your research will be defined.
 the contribution you will make
this is your chance to show how you have arrived at your position and recognised the need for your
research, and what it is that makes it both new and important; you should indicate what areas and
debates it will have an impact on, what methodological example it sets (if appropriate) – in short
how it contributes to knowledge and to the practice of our subject. Give examples of the sort of
evidence you might consider, and of the questions it might help you to raise. Show that you are
already thinking about the area in detail and not only in outline.
 your methods
in some cases there will be little to say here, but if there is something striking about your
methodology, you should explain it.
 the sources and resources you will use
you should delimit your field of enquiry, showing where the project begins and ends; in certain
cases, Cambridge will have unique collections and resources of central relevance to your project,
and you should mention these.
 how the project will develop
you might indicate some of the possible ways in which the project could develop, perhaps by giving
a broader or narrower version depending on what materials and issues you uncover

You may find it helpful to look at the following examples of successful research proposals.

https://www.english.cam.ac.uk/admissions/graduate/research_prop.htm
Methodologies1
Introduction

The way you approach your question will have a profound effect upon the way you construct your dissertation, so this
section discusses the types of research you might undertake for your dissertation. The use of literature and case
studies is considered and the merits of primary research are debated and advice is given on the use of existing
research data. You may not be fond of statistics, but the potential relevance of a quantitative approach should be
considered and similarly, the idea of qualitative analysis and conducting your own research may yield valuable data.
The possibilities of using quantitative and qualitative data are also discussed.

Watch video on approaching methodologies (.wmv)

What approach should I take - qualitative or quantitative?

This video clip contains comments from the following academics:

 Dr Iain Garner - Psychology

 Alan McGauley - Social Policy
 Shawna McCoy - Criminology
 Kevin Bonnett - Sociology

What approach should I take - qualitative or quantitative?

Your approach, research design, and research question are all connected. 'Approach' means something more than
the type of data you use – it refers to your overall orientation to research and the type of claims you will make for your
study. Dissertations can be based on either quantitative or qualitative data, or on a combination of both. How you
choose this may depend on your preferences and abilities, and the suitability of particular approaches to your topic.
You need to be able to justify why you have chosen to use such data. Quantitative data is particularly useful when
you wish to discover how common particular forms of behaviour such as illegal drug use are for a particular age
group. Qualitative data is particularly useful when you wish to find out why people engage in such behaviour.
Think about the Research Methods modules you have taken so far. Think about the different kinds of studies you
have read for other modules. There is plenty of scope to use the approaches and methods that you are most
comfortable with. You need tojustify your approach and methods and to cite appropriate literature to help you do this.

What if I want to find out about social trends, or the measurable effects of particular policies?

You will probably want to use large datasets and undertake quantitative data analysis, and you will be adopting a
realist approach to the topic studied. Quantitative dissertations are likely to be nearer to the lower end of the range of
approved lengths for the dissertation (e.g. if the length is to be 5,000-8,000 words, dissertations based on quantitative
analysis are likely to be closer to 5,000 words in length). They will also include tables and figures giving your
important findings. Remember that all tables must be carefully titled and labelled and that sources of your data must
be acknowledged.

What if I want to record people's views on an issue, and give them a 'voice'?

You will probably want to use in-depth qualitative data, and you may wish to adopt a realist, a phenomenologist, or a
constructionist approach to the topic. Qualitative dissertations will include descriptive material, usually extracts from
interviews, conversations, documents or field notes, and are therefore likely to be nearer to the upper limit of your
word range (e.g. 8,000 words). The types of method suitable for a dissertation could include content analysis, a small
scale ethnographic study, small scale in-depth qualitative interviewing.
Whether you choose qualitative or quantitative analysis will depend on several things:

 Your preferred philosophical approach (realist, phenomenologist or constructionist).

 Your skills and abilities with methods of data collection (if needed) and analysis.
 The topic or issue you are interested in.
 How you frame your research question.

Can I combine qualitative and quantitative methods?

There are many ways in which qualitative and quantitative data and analysis can be combined. Here are two
examples.

 You may be interested in doing an analysis that is primarily quantitative, looking at social trends, or policy
implications. However you also want to introduce a 'human touch' by conducting one or several interviews
asking what these trends mean to people or how particular individuals experience events. After doing your
quantitative analysis, you should include a chapter or section on the qualitative data you have collected. In
your discussion of findings you can use the qualitative data to help you understand the patterns in the
quantitative analysis.
 You may be interested in doing an evaluative case study of a process or policy. You will have a particular
focus – a 'case' that you are looking at. You will triangulate methods – i.e. collect data in several different
ways, and some of these data may be quantitative. You will analyse each type of data and describe this, and
then write a discussion that shows how each piece of analysis contributes to the overall picture of what is
going on.

Your supervisor or research methods tutor may be able to give you detailed examples of these or other ways to
combine methods.

Can my dissertation be entirely literature-based?

Yes. If you decide to do a primarily theoretical dissertation, it is almost certain that your dissertation will be entirely
literature-based. This is likely to be the methodology of theoretical analysis: selection and discussion of theoretical
material and descriptive material, in context, and detailed comparison of theories in terms of their applicability. You
might ask how useful certain concepts or theories are for understanding particular patterns of behaviour. How useful
is the concept of institutional racism? Is objectivity in the media possible? How useful is subcultural theory for
understanding virtual communities? Here, the focus of attention is not so much to discover something about the
social world, for example virtual communities, as to reach a judgement about the value of key concepts or theories in
understanding that world. How the study is approached and how contrasting approaches are drawn upon needs to be
stated very clearly.
A library-based or theoretical study is not necessarily 'easier' than an empirical study, indeed, it may well be harder.
Remember that theoretical studies, like data-based studies, need to have their research design spelled out from the
start.
But even if your dissertation is more empirically focused, it could still be entirely literature-based. You might choose to
conduct a review of a field of work. What does the research literature in this field tell us about x? While all
dissertations will include a literature review, it is possible to produce a dissertation that is entirely based on a review
of the literature. If you do this, it is important to review the literature from an explicit angle and identify some themes
to make the review distinctive. You might, for example, explore empirical debates in your chosen field across different
countries or time periods.
What is case study research?

Whilst it is possible for dissertations to be entirely literature-based, the most common form of dissertation takes the
form of a case study. Here the focus of attention is on a particular community, organisation or set of documents. The
attraction of this kind of dissertation is that it stems from empirical curiosity but is at the same time practical. You may
be interested in a wider question but a case study enables you to focus on a specific example. A major challenge in
case study dissertations is connecting your own primary research or re-analysis with the broader theoretical themes
and empirical concerns of the existing literature.

What's an empirical study?

Most dissertations demand either primary or secondary research. In other words, you usually have to analyse data
that you have either collected yourself or data that is already available. The reason for this is that the questions
dissertations usually address take the following form: Is x happening? Is x changing? Why is x happening? Why is x
changing? These questions demand primary or secondary analysis of data.
Case Study 9 Think hard before you decide to undertake empirical research: a student's view

What is secondary analysis?

Secondary analysis is when you analyse data which was collected by another researcher. It allows the researcher to
explore areas of interest without having to go through the process of collecting data themselves in the field. The
problem with using fieldwork methods in an undergraduate dissertation, however, is that they are costly in terms of
time (which is relatively scarce in your final year!) and possibly your own financial resources too. You may choose,
therefore, to undertake secondary research, analysing existing data.

Where do I find existing research data?

There are a range of documents that already contain research data that you can analyse. You may, for example, be
interested in exploring whether gender stereotypes in the media are changing. This might entail content analysis of
newspapers, magazines, video or other media over different time periods. Here you would not be collecting your own
data but instead would be analysing existing documents.

Download Case Study 6 Media research

If you are interested, for example, in doing historical research, you may need to visit archives. Government reports
and autobiographies may also be used as data.
Other documents include official statistics, datasets (statistical data), and banks of interview transcripts which are all
freely available to the academic community. Increasingly, documents, databases and archives are readily accessible
online. Research Methods tutors on your course will be able to advise on the availability and accessibility of such
data sets.
There are some advantages of doing secondary analysis, particularly if you are doing a quantitative study. You will be
able to work with much larger datasets than you could have collected yourself. This has the following advantages:

 They allow you to discuss trends and social changes.

 The data are often collected through a random sample, which allows you to generalise to the population
under consideration.
 They may also allow you to make comparisons over time, as some datasets are products of longitudinal
studies. Examples of large datasets include the British Crime Survey, and the Youth Cohort Study. Smaller,
more targeted datasets may also be available.
 Secondary analysis has disadvantages also: the data were collected for a purpose different from yours.
  You have to find out something about that purpose, as well as the methods of collection, in order to justify
your use of a secondary dataset.

Collecting you own data - primary research

Quantitative data may also result from non-participant observations or other measurements (e.g. in an experimental
design). Also, sometimes data that are collected through qualitative processes (participant observation, interviews)
are coded and quantified. Your research methods tutor can give you further information on these types of data, but
here are some common quantitative data collection methods and their definitions:

A series of questions that the respondent answers on their own. Self-completion questionnaires
Self-completion are good for collecting data on relatively simple topics, and for gaining a general overview of an
questionnaires issue. Questionnaires need to have clear questions, an easy to follow design, and not be too
long.
Similar to a self-completion questionnaire, except that the questions that are asked by an
Structured
interviewer to the interviewee. The same questions are read out in the same way to all
interviews
respondents. There will typically be a fixed choice of answers for the respondents.
Watching people and recording systematically their behaviour. Prior to the observation, an
Structured
observation schedule will be produced which details what exactly the researcher should look for
observation
and how those observations should be recorded.

If you are conducting a qualitative analysis you are likely to wish to use at least some original material. This may be
collected through in-depth interviews, participant observation recordings and fieldnotes, non-participant observation,
or some combination of these. Below are some data collection methods that you might want to use for your
dissertation:

A way of asking questions which allows the interviewee to have more control of the interview. The
interview could be semi-structured, which uses an interview schedule to keep some control of the
In-depth interview, but also allows for some flexibility in terms of the interviewee’s responses. The interview
interviews could be unstructured, here the aim is to explore the interviewee’s feelings about the issue being
explored and the style of questioning is very informal. Or the interview could be a life history where the
interviewer tries to find out about the whole life, or a portion of the person’s life.
A form of interviewing where there are several participants; there is an emphasis in the questioning on
Focus groups a tightly defined topic; the accent is on interaction within the group and the joint construction of
meaning. The moderator tries to provide a relatively free rein to the discussion.
This involves studying people in naturally occurring settings. The researcher participates directly in the
Participant
setting and collects data in a systematic manner. The researcher will observe behaviour, listen to
observation
conversations, and ask questions.

Spend some time looking at general books about research - they will give you an overview of the data collection
methods available and help you to make the best choice for your project. Bryman (2004) would be a useful starting
point.
For any piece of research you conduct, be it empirically based (quantitative or qualitative) or library based, its
methods must be justified. You need to show in the final dissertation how you have given consideration to different
methods, and why you have chosen and eliminated these.
STUDENT VOICE: Findings from our research

In our study, supervisors saw part of their role as someone who draws out students’ reasons for choosing a particular
research approach. Often in early supervision meetings they ask students to justify their reasons for choosing a
library-based or an empirical study. (Todd, Smith and Bannister 2006, p167).

Your supervisor will want you to offer convincing reasons as to why you’ve chosen the approach you have - so be
ready!

If you’re having difficulty making that choice, don’t be afraid to ask your supervisor for their advice. This was
particularly useful for one of our respondents:

STUDENT VOICE

It's been a valuable experience for me it's so different from other stuff. With other essays you can rush them if you
have to ... but this is so much work, you can't rush it. It demands more. (Todd, Bannister and Clegg, 2004, p340)

….My reasons for data collection is literature based as my research question involved sensitive subjects which would
have been unsuitable for primary data collection. (Level 6 students at Sheffield Hallam University)

I chose primary data because it would enable me to build skills that would be useful for postgraduate study. (Level 6
students at Sheffield Hallam University)

It will involve primary data, secondary data, quantitative and qualitative research methods, lit reviews, theory and
policy studies and an exploration of alternatives. My dissertation is to be based around the experience of 'poverty', as
poverty is the experience. Theories and policies are not. However, to do justice to the subject, theories and policies
will be included so Iam able to demonstrate where failures in the system may exist. (Level 6 students at Sheffield
Hallam University)

Note: Research must be conducted in a sensible and ethical manner; data must be analysed and presented in a
rational manner. It is important that students do not expose themselves or others to dangers or risks when conducting
research. Students need the approval of their dissertation supervisor before embarking on any type of fieldwork (see
the section on Research Ethics for more information).

Will my research be inductive or deductive?

In general, deductive research is theory-testing and inductive research is theory-generating. Often people link
deductive research with quantitative experiments or surveys, and inductive research with qualitative interviews or
ethnographic work. These links are not hard and fast – for instance, experimental research, designed to test a
particular theory through developing a hypothesis and creating an experimental design, may use quantitative or
qualitative data or a combination. If your research starts with a theory and is driven by hypotheses that you are
testing (e.g. that social class background and social deprivation or privilege are likely to affect educational
attainment), it is, broadly speaking, deductive. However much research combines deductive and inductive elements.
What's all this about research design?

Research design is vital to conducting a good piece of work. At the start of your research you need to set down
clearly:

 Your research focus and research question.

 How you propose to examine the topic:
o approach
o methods of data collection
o methods of data analysis
 The types and sources of information you need.
 How you will access these sources of information (be they people, existing datasets, biographical accounts,
media articles or websites, official records).
 The proposed outcome of this research (in your case, a dissertation) and the form it will take.
 A time-frame for all this.

You and your supervisor will discuss your design and decide whether the research is 'do-able'. Your university may
require you to produce a report (e.g. an 'interim framework report' or a short 'research proposal') that specifies your
research design. Other people may have to look at the design to ascertain whether there are ethical issues that affect
your research.

Summary

 Quantitative or qualitative? A quantitative approach will mean you will need substantial datasets, as well
as the inclusion of tables and statistics in your final submission. This information could come from a variety
of sources - remember to acknowledge them! A qualitative approach will probably mean conducting
interviews or focus groups or observing behaviour. Ask yourself if you are prepared to do this, and think
about the best way of getting the answers you want from people. Will you stop people in the street? Will you
conduct telephone interviews? Will you send out survey forms and hope that people return them? Will you
be a participant or non participant observer?
 Deductive or inductive? Deductive research is theory-testing, which is often linked to datasets, surveys or
quantitative analysis. Inductive research is theory-generating, and is often linked to qualitative interviews.
 Empirical or theoretical? An empirical study could involve close analysis of statistics or some form of
qualitative research. However, a theoretical study brings its own challenges, and you may be called upon to
compare theories in terms of their applicability.
 Once you have decided upon your approach, you can write out a research design, i.e. how you are going to
approach the project.
 Now look a little at the research methods that you have studied. Apart from matching your research to your
general sense of objective/subjective reality, it is important to ensure that you match your methodology to
the problem you are pursuing.
 What kind of data do you need to answer your question/test your hypothesis? How would you best be able
to collect that data?
 Again, consider time and feasibility of the exercise. The ability to manage your time will be directly related to
your ability to control the boundaries of the study – especially if it is closely linked to your workplace.
 Now that you have got so far, try to write up your research proposal as far as you can. Make sure that you
identify where your proposal needs further work and, at the same time, where you will have to put your
maximum effort. It may be helpful to draw a critical path so that you are clear which actions you need to take
and in what sequence. You will find it helpful to plot your research questions on the chart on the next page
and ensure that your plans for collecting data really answer the question as well as avoiding ethical
problems.
 At this stage you must be really ruthless with yourself. How viable is it? What are the threats to the study?
Try some 'what if?' questions on yourself. It will be better to go back to the drawing board now, than once
the project is underway.
  IMPORTANT: Whatever approach you settle on, you MUST be able to justify its appropriateness to your
topic and question.

Key Questions

 Does the data required to answer your question already exist or will you have to generate your own data?
 Can you combine quantitative with qualitative methods? e.g. a survey which includes interviews or a case
study that looks at a situation from numerous angles.
 What factors may limit the scope of your research? (time, resources, etc.)
 Which method(s) best suit the questions and time you have available to do this study?
 Do you know the differences between types of data, and types of analysis?
 Does your project have clear links between theory and practice?

Further Reading

BRYMAN, A. (2004). Social Research Method. 2nd ed., Oxford, Oxford University Press
CRESWELL, J. (2002). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. 2nd ed.,
London, Sage
SEALE, C.(2006). Researching society and culture. London, Sage
Here are some references for specific methods:
ARKSEY, H and KNIGHT, P. (1999). Interviewing for social scientists: an introductory resource. London, Sage
DALE, A.; ARBER, S.; AND PROCTOR, M.(1998). Doing Secondary Analysis. London, Allen and Unwin
HAMMERSLEY, M. and ATKINSON, P. (1995). Ethnography: Principles in Practice. London, Routledge
OPPENHEIM, A. N. (1992). Questionnaire Design, Interviewing and Attitude Measurement. London, Pinter

Web Resources

Identifying a research topic:

A template for structured observation:
http://www.sociology.org.uk/methsi.pdf
A site devoted to survey design:
http://www.whatisasurvey.info/
A chapter on structured interviewing:
http://informationr.net/tdw/publ/INISS/Chap1.html
A chapter on qualitative interviewing:
http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/qualmethfour.html
An introduction to ethnographic research:
http://www.statisticalassociates.com/
Materials for focus group interviews:
http://www.tc.umn.edu/~rkrueger/focus.html

Footnote

1. © Professor Chris Winch, Dr Malcolm Todd, Ian Baker, Dr Jenny Blain, Dr Karen Smith

http://www.socscidiss.bham.ac.uk/methodologies.html