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Starting position
Pointer
Hammer
End of swing
h
Specimen
h′
Anvil
80 60
Cu: 23000-061
60
40
40 30
20
20
Mg: AM100A 10
0 0
–200 –100 0 +100 200 300
Testing temperature, ºC
Figure 8-2 Impact energy for a ductile fcc alloy (copper C23000–
061, “red brass”) is generally high over a wide temperature
range. Conversely, the impact energy for a brittle hcp alloy
(magnesium AM100A) is generally low over the same range.
(From Metals Handbook, 9th Ed., Vol. 2, American Society
for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1979.)
Temperature, F
Impact energy, J
150
0.20% C 100
100 75
0.31% C 0.60% C
0.41% C 0.49% C 50
0.69% C
50
25
0.80% C
0 0
–100 –50 0 50 100 150 200 250
Temperature, C
(a)
Temperature, F
0% Mn
150
100
100
50
50
0 0
–50 –25 0 25 50 75 100 125 150
Temperature, C
(b)
Figure 8-4 (a) Typical “cup and cone” ductile fracture surface. Fracture
originates near the center and spreads outward with a dimpled tex-
ture. Near the surface, the stress state changes from tension to shear
with fracture continuing at approximately 45 ◦ . (From Metals Hand-
book, 9th Ed., Vol. 12, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio, 1987.)
(b) Typical cleavage texture of brittle fracture surface. (From Metals
Handbook, 9th Ed., Vol. 11, American Society Metals, Metals Park,
Ohio, 1986.)
a
a critical
Log flaw size (log a)
Figure 8-6 A design plot of stress versus flaw size for a pressure vessel
material in which general yielding occurs for flaw sizes less than a
critical size, acritical , but catastrophic “fast fracture” occurs for flaws
larger than acritical .
Figure 8-7 Two mechanisms for improv-
ing fracture toughness of ceramics by
crack arrest. (a) Transformation tough- Tetragonal
ening of partially stabilized zirconia ZrO2 grain
involves the stress-induced transforma-
tion of tetragonal grains to the mono-
clinic structure which has a larger spe- Monoclinic
cific volume. The result is a local vol- ZrO2 grain
ume expansion at the crack tip, squeez-
ing the crack shut and producing a resid-
ual compressive stress. (b) Microc- Cubic ZrO2
racks produced during fabrication of matrix
the ceramic can blunt the advancing
crack tip. (a)
Microcrack
(b)
Stress
Tensile strength (T.S.)
Fracture
Time
Figure 8-8 Fatigue corresponds to the brittle fracture of an alloy after a total of N cycles to a stress
below the tensile strength.
Flexible coupling Counter
Bearing housing
Specimen
T.S.
Applied stress, S (MPa)
500
Fatigue strength
or endurance limit
0
1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108
Number of cycles to failure, N
Figure 8-10 Typical fatigue curve. (Note that a log scale is required for the horizontal axis.)
Specimen surface
(a)
Localized slip
(b)
(c)
Intrusion
(d)
Figure 8-11 An illustration of how repeated
stress applications can generate local-
ized plastic deformation at the alloy sur-
face leading eventually to sharp discon-
tinuities.
Crack length, a
da
1 2
dN da
a1 1 2
dN
a0
Cycles, N
Figure 8-12 Illustration of crack growth with number of stress cycles, N , at two dif-
ferent stress levels. Note that, at a given stress level, the crack growth rate, da/dN ,
increases with increasing crack length, and, for a given crack length such as a1 ,
the rate of crack growth is significantly increased with increasing magnitude of
stress.
da
= A(DK)m
(log scale)
dN
dN
da
Crack growth rate,
I II III
(b) (c)
300
200
150
20
100
50
104 105 106 107 108
Fatigue life, cycles
(a)
200
26
21 C (70 F)
Fatigue strength, MPa
65 C (150 F) 18
100 C (212 F)
100 14
10
50
106 107 108
Stress cycles
(b)
1
F.S. = T.S.
4
0
0 500 1000
Tensile strength, T.S. (MPa)
Figure 8-16 Plot of data from Table 8.4 showing how fatigue strength is gener-
ally one-fourth to one-half of the tensile strength.
Increased cold work or surface
smoothness
Log N
Figure 8-17 Fatigue strength is increased by prior mechanical
deformation or reduction of structural discontinuities.
25,000
15,000
Soda-lime
silica glass
(wet)
10,000
5,000
0
10–3 10–2 10–1 1 10 102 103 104 105
Stress duration, sec.
Figure 8-18 The drop in strength of glasses with duration of load (and without
cyclic load applications) is termed static fatigue. (From W. D. Kingery, In-
troduction to Ceramics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1960.)
O
H H
+
Si O Si
Si OH
HO Si
Figure 8-19 The role of H 2 O in
static fatigue depends on its
reaction with the silicate net-
work. One H 2 O molecule
and one –Si–O–Si– segment
generate two Si–OH units.
This is equivalent to a break
in the network.
Crack growth by local shearing mechanism
(a)
H2O H2O
(b)
Figure 8-20 Comparison of (a) cyclic fatigue in
metals and (b) static fatigue in ceramics.
60
1800 cycles per minute
1 8
50
23˚C(73˚F) 7
2
40 6
5
21˚C(73˚F)
30
4
3
20 4 3
66˚C(150˚F)
2
100˚C(212˚F)
10
1
0 0
103 104 105 106 107
Cycles to failure
Test piece
(containing high-density
inclusion and low-density
pore)
Film
(showing corresponding
lesser and greater film
darkening)
Front
surface
Oscilloscope
display
Intensity
Back
Flaw surface
Time
Ultrasonic transducer
Water
bath
Flaw Sample