1. Define geology and its significance in oil and gas industry.

Answer :
Geology the study of the locations of the subsurface of the Earth which contain
extractable hydrocarbons (petroleum and natural gas).
2. Briefly explain how petroleum is created.
Answer :
Oil and natural gas were formed from the remains of prehistoric plants and
animals—that’s why they’re called fossil fuels. Hundreds of millions of years
ago, prehistoric plant and animal remains settled into the seas along with sand,
silt and rocks. As the rocks and silt settled, layer upon layer piled up in rivers,
along coastlines and on the sea bottom trapping the organic material. Without
air, the organic layers could not rot away. Over time, increasing pressure and
temperature changed the mud, sand and silt into rock (known as source rock)
and slowly “cooked” the organic matter into petroleum. Petroleum is held inside
the rock formation, similar to how a sponge holds water.Over millions of years,
the oil and gas that formed in the source rock deep within the Earth moved
upward through tiny, connected pore spaces in the rocks. Some seeped out at
the Earth’s surface, but most of the petroleum hydrocarbons were trapped by
nonporous rocks or other barriers. These underground traps of oil and gas are
called reservoirs. Contrary to popular misconception, reservoirs are not
underground “lakes” of oil; they are made up of porous and permeable rocks
that can hold significant amounts of oil and gas within their pore spaces. Some
reservoirs are hundreds of feet below the surface, while others are thousands
of feet underground

3. State 4 different components of hydrocarbon

 Alkane
 Alkene
 Alkyne
 Aromatic compound
4. Compare and contrast between dry gas and natural gas liquids
Dry gas Natural gas liquids
almost completely methane. The contains less than 85% methane and
higher the methane concentration has a higher percentage of
within the gas, the drier it is. liquid natural gasses (LNG’s) such as
ethane and
butane

5. Differentiate between LPG and LNG

Answer :
LPG LNG
has a higher calorific value energy Has a lower calorific value energy
content content
Consists of propane Consists of methane
6. Briefly describe gas hydrates and its energy content.
Answer :
is a solid ice-like form of water that contains gas molecules in its molecular
cavities1. In nature, this gas is mostly methane. thin methane gas layers are
often present causing strong reflections in seismic records. The reflections
approximately follow a line of constant temperature. Temperature in the
subsurface is a function of heat flow and depth, so the reflections usually mimic
the shape of the seafloor. Hence, they are named bottom simulating reflections
(BSRs).

7. Discuss the main difference between igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic

rocks.
Answer :
Igneous rock , formed by the cooling of magma (molten rock) inside the Earth
or on the surface. Sedimentary rocks, formed from the products of weathering
by cementation or precipitation on the Earth's surface. Metamorphic rocks,
formed by temperature and pressure changes inside the Earth

8. With aid of diagram, describe the circular process (rock cycle)

The rock cycle, illustrated in Figure below, depicts how the three major rock
types – igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - convert from one to another.
Arrows connecting the rock types represent the processes that accomplish
these changes. Rocks change as a result of natural processes that are taking
place all the time. Most changes happen very slowly. Rocks deep within the
Earth are right now becoming other types of rocks. Rocks at the surface are
lying in place before they are next exposed to a process that will change them.
Even at the surface, we may not notice the changes. The rock cycle has no
beginning or end.
9. The basic processes involved in the formation of a clastic sedimentary rocks
are: weathering (erosion), transportation, deposition and compaction
(lithification). With aid of diagram, briefly explain every process involved.
Answer :
10. Differentiate between rock and mineral
Answer :
A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a definite chemical
composition and a crystalline structure formed by geological processes. A rock
is an aggregate of one or more minerals whereas a rock may also include
organic remains and mineraloid

11. With aid of diagram, briefly explain the elements in petroleum system; from
source rock until trap
Answer :

12. Define geological time.

Answer :
The geologic time scale (GTS) is a system of chronological dating that relates
geological strata (stratigraphy) to time.

13. Differentiate relative dating from absolute dating

Relative age is the age of a rock layer (or the fossils it contains) compared to
other layers. It can be determined by looking at the position of rock layers.
Absolute age is the numeric age of a layer of rocks or fossils. Absolute age can
be determined by using radiometric dating.
14. Briefly explain the characteristic of sandstone reservoir.
Answer : The term sand refers to a specific grain with sizes between (62 µm -
2 mm). The performance of the sandstone as a reservoir rock is described by
its combination of porosity and permeability depending on the degree to which
the sand dominates its. The favorable texture is depicted by packaging of
similar sized grains, not a combination of coarse and fine grained composition.
The best sandstone reservoirs are those that are composed mainly of quartz
grains of sand size of nearly equal sizes or silica cement, with minimal
fragmented particles. Sandstone reservoirs are generally 25 meters thick.

15. Describe the geological techniques in hydrocarbon exploration.

Answer : Areas thought to contain hydrocarbons are initially subjected to a
gravity survey, magnetic survey, passive seismic or regional seismic reflection
surveys to detect large-scale features of the sub-surface geology. Features of
interest (known as leads) are subjected to more detailed seismic surveys which
work on the principle of the time it takes for reflected sound waves to travel
through matter (rock) of varying densities and using the process of depth
conversion to create a profile of the substructure. Finally, when a prospect has
been identified and evaluated and passes the oil company's selection criteria,
an exploration well is drilled in an attempt to conclusively determine the
presence or absence of oil or gas. Offshore the risk can be reduced by using
electromagnetic methods.

16. Define geological mapping and relevant activities in producing the geological
map.
Answer : A geologic map or geological map is a special-purpose map made to
show geological features. Rock units or geologic strata are shown by color or
symbols to indicate where they are exposed at the surface.

17. Explain the fundamental in remote sensing application in hydrocarbon

exploration.
Answer : The selection of effective exploration targets is an important step to
achieve success in oil exploration. The selections are dependent on studies of
basic petroleum geological conditions. Petroleum geologists generally consider
basins to be a basic geological unit of petroleum exploration and their main
tasks is to find and determine various sedimentary basins. The remote sensing
images have characteristics of realty and macroscope that provide accurate
and visual data for directly determining geometric shapes of sedimentary
basins. The remote sensing techniques are more effective and useful for
understanding and studying those basins in the out-of-the-way mountains and
remote deserts, such as the Tarim basin in northwest China.

18. Compare and contrast between geological mapping and subsurface mapping.
Geological mapping Subsurface mapping
give informations about geological subsurface maps dictate well
conditions on particular area which placement and enable engineers to
includes rocks units and its structures
 calculate reserves and monitor trends
in reservoir performance.

19. List down 4 types of subsurface geological map used for exploration and
production
Answer :
 Structures
 Fault planes
 Unconformities and subcrop
 Pressure

20. Differentiate an isopach map from a contour map. Explain the significant of
isopach map in hydrocarbon field.
Answer :
A contour map of equal values of true stratigraphic thickness is an isopach map.
Except for vertical wells in horizontal beds, corrections for wellbore deviation
and formation dip are needed to make isopach maps

21. Briefly explain the lithofacies map

Lithofacies maps show the areal variation in the depositional patterns that make
up each genetic sequence within the reservoir interval. The method for
constructing lithofacies maps involves extrapolating the lithofacies from the
wells into the gaps between the wells.

22. Define saturation level and state relevant equations

Answer : Fraction of pore space occupied by water or oil or gas, it also can be
obtained from the resistivity log. High reading of resistivity log means there;s
hydrocarbon because it has high resistance

23. Compare and contrast between critical oil saturation and moveable oil
saturation
Answer :
Critical oil saturation Moveable oil saturation
For the oil phase to flow, the Movable oil saturation Som is
saturation of the oil must exceed a another saturation of interest and is
certain value which is termed critical defined as the fraction of pore volume
oil saturation. At this particular occupied by movable oil as
saturation, the oil remains in the expressed by the following equation:
pores and, for all practical purposes,
will not flow. Som = 1 - Swc - Soc where Swc =
connate water saturation Soc =
critical oil saturation
24. Briefly explain the key information obtained from the well log.
Answer :
 Porosity
 Permeability
 Reservoir thickness
 Reservoir type

25. Briefly explain formation evaluation & its objectives

Answer :
formation evaluation is used to determine the ability of a borehole to produce
petroleum.
Objectives :
 economically establish the existence of producible hydrocarbon reservoirs (oil &
gas).
26. Compare and contrast between total porosity and effective porosity
Answer :
Effective porosity excludes isolated pores and pore volume occupied by water
adsorbed on clay minerals or other grains. Total porosity is the total void space
in the rock whether or not it contributes to fluid flow.

27. With the aid of related sketches, describe the following terms and concepts;
a. Total porosity
Answer : Total porosity is the total void space in the rock whether or not
it contributes to fluid flow.
b. Effective porosity
Answer : Effective porosity excludes isolated pores and pore volume
occupied by water adsorbed on clay minerals or other grains
c. Permeability
Answer : The ability of a substance to allow another substance to pass
through it, especially the ability of a porous rock, sediment, or soil to
transmit fluid through pores and cracks

28. Define permeability and briefly explain Darcy Law

Answer : The ability of a substance to allow another substance to pass through
it, especially the ability of a porous rock, sediment, or soil to transmit fluid
through pores and cracks.
Darcy Law : One darcy is defined as that permeability that will permit a fluid of
one centipoise viscosity to flow at a rate of one cubic centimeter per second
through a cross-sectional area of 1 square centimeter when the pressure
gradient is one atmospheric per centimeter.
29. Briefly explain 3 different methods in petroleum exploration i.e. geological
survey, geochemical and geophysical
Answer :
Geological surveys are surveys of the geology of mineral deposits. These are
done by, among other things, taking mineral samples, mapping rock units,
mapping structures, and mapping mineralized zones.
Geochemical surveys are surveys of the chemistry of mineral deposits. They
are done by, among other things, sampling soils, waters, and bedrock to identify
areas of anomalous mineral values and quantities that may in turn identify
mineral deposits.
Geophysical surveys are surveys of the physical characteristics of mineral
deposits to measure physical differences between rock types or physical
discontinuities in geological formations. These surveys include, among other
things, magnetic and electromagnetic surveys, gravity surveys, seismic
surveys, and multispectral surveys.