For non-aging materials with linear viscoelastic properties, the stress response to a strain input is

represented by:
𝑡 (1)
𝜎(𝑡) = ∫0 𝐺(𝑡 − 𝑢)𝜀̇(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢,
Where u = 0 represents the beginning of the material’s strain history. In Eq. 1,
𝑡
− (2)
𝐺(𝑡) = 𝐸0 + 𝐸1 𝑒 𝜏1 .
Substituting Eq. 2 into Eq. 1 gives:
𝑡−𝑢
𝑡 − (3)
𝜎(𝑡) = ∫0 [𝐸0 + 𝐸1 𝑒 𝜏1 ]𝜀̇(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢.
This linear viscoelastic model is derived from the standard linear solid (Zeher) model, depicted in Figure
1, where E0 and E1 represent the elastic moduli of the two springs, and τ1 represents the time constant of
the model’s viscous element.

Ε0

Ε1 τ1
Figure 1: Standard linear solid viscoelastic model

In this model, strain is independently controlled. For materials provided sinusoidal loading as a
means of dynamic excitation with normal displacement, the function of strain is represented by:
𝜀 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) 𝑡≥0 (4)
𝜀(𝑡) = { 0 ,
0 𝑡<0
where ε0 is the max strain amplitude, and 𝜔 is the frequency of the loading function. For ideal linear
viscoelastic materials, ε0 can be assigned any arbitrary positive value; however, to best model real linear
viscoelastic behavior, ε0 must be assigned a small value.

The strain rate 𝜀̇(𝑡) for sinusoidal loading is given by the derivative of Eq. 4 for 𝑡 ≥ 0.
𝜀̇(𝑡) = 𝜀0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡) (5)
Given the standard linear solid (Zener) model depicted in Figure 1, the stress response to strain rate is:
𝜎(𝑡) = 𝜎0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) (6)
Considering a time domain where motion begins at −∞, the stress response at time t is represented by the
equation:
𝑡 (7)
𝜎(𝑡) = ∫0 𝐺(𝑡 − 𝑢)𝜀0 𝜔𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑢)𝑑𝑢 ,
For but as 𝜀(𝑡) = 0 for 𝑡 < 0, Eq. 7 can also be written as:
𝑡 (8)
𝜎(𝑡) = ∫−∞ 𝐺(𝑡 − 𝑢)𝜀0 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑢) 𝑑𝑢.
By substituting s = (t - u), we devise the following substitutions:
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢 = −∞, 𝑠=∞ (9)
{ .
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢 = 𝑡, 𝑠=0
Under the substitutions of Eq. 9, Eq. 8 becomes:
0 ∞ (10)
𝜎(𝑡) = ∫∞ 𝐺(𝑠)𝜀0 𝜔𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑠))(−𝑑𝑠) = 𝜀0 𝜔 ∫0 𝐺(𝑠)𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑠))𝑑𝑠.

For harmonic systems, it is convenient to write 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑠)) as 𝑅𝑒[𝑒 −𝑖𝜔(𝑡−𝑠) ]. Thus,
∞
𝜎(𝑡) = 𝜀0 𝜔 ∫ 𝐺(𝑠)𝑅𝑒[𝑒 −𝑖𝜔(𝑡−𝑠) ]𝑑𝑠 =
0
∞
𝜀0 𝜔𝑅𝑒 [∫ 𝐺(𝑠)𝑒 −𝑖𝜔(𝑡−𝑠) 𝑑𝑠] =
0
∞
𝜀0 𝜔𝑅𝑒 [𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 ∫ 𝐺(𝑠)𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑠 𝑑𝑠]
0
(11)
If we assume:
∞
(12)
𝐺 ∗ = 𝑖𝜔 ∫ 𝐺(𝑠)𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑠 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐺′ + 𝑖𝐺′′
0

The stress response is:

𝜎(𝑡) = 𝜀0 𝑅𝑒[𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 (−𝑖𝐺 ∗ )] = 𝜀0 𝑅𝑒[(cos(𝜔𝑡) + 𝑖 sin(𝜔𝑡)) ∗ (−𝒊(𝑮′ + 𝒊𝑮′′ ))] =

𝐺 ′′
𝜀0 [𝐺 ′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) + 𝐺 ′′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)] = 𝐺 ′ 𝜀(𝑡) + 𝜀̇
𝜔 (𝑡) (12)
where 𝐺′ represents the real part of 𝐺 ∗, called the storage modulus and relating to stored energy, and 𝐺′′
represents the imaginary part, called the loss modulus and relating to dissipated energy.