Textile and Fibre Technology

www.tft.csiro.au

Australian Wool – Competitive through

Innovation

Dr Allan De Boos

allan.deboos@tft.csiro.au

After 10 years of decline in wool prices and sheep numbers, some stability appears to
have returned to the Australian wool production industry. This stability has resulted
from improved global economic conditions, a restructuring of sectors of the industry
and improvements in wool production techniques, aided by improvements on the
processing of wool and the development of new products. This article reviews the
technical developments that continue to affect the industry and its future and
highlights some of the important contributions made by CSIRO Textile & Fibre
Technology.

CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology 1

Wool has been a major part of the Australian economy since McArthur imported
Spanish merino sheep into Australia in 1797. The sheep and wool industry has been
an important driver of Australian economic development for over 150 years, opening
up transport routes (river, roads and railways) as well as providing a significant part of
the export revenue. Sheep and wool have also become an important part of the
cultural mythology of Australia. Indeed, Australia’s most popular unofficial anthem
‘Waltzing Matilda’ records the death of an itinerant worker while avoiding arrest for
sheep stealing. The turbulences that have occurred in the wool industry form
important markers in the history of Australian society.

1. The Australian Wool Industry

At a recent wool conference, in reference to the Australian wool producing industry, it

was reported that, “after a decade which saw sheep numbers reduce by one third and
shorn wool production fall by nearly 40%, the situation now appears to be
stabilising”. Production figures for the years 1970-2000 are shown in Figure 1.
Cautious predictions of improving prices for wool to the year 2004-5 and increases in
production are combining with similarly cautious optimism in the processing sector to
suggest that the wool industry has ‘turned the corner’.

Fig 1: Changes in Wool production, Price and Sheep numbers

lthough wool production in Australia was initiated to service the British textile
industry and market, Australian wool is now exported worldwide. Asian markets
(including India) now account for 60% of the total exports of raw wool and tops from
Australia with direct exports to Europe/Turkey declining to 33% (by weight). The
China/Hong Kong market has risen to around 32% of Australia’s raw wool exports.
These figures reflect the continuing movement of the wool processing industry from
Western Europe to Asia. Italy remains the biggest European processor of Australian
wool and the largest importer of Australian fine (<19um) wools. Italian mills
specialise in the production of high-quality products from the finer Australian wool
types.

The advances in the technology of wool production and processing result from the
improvements in farming, animal husbandry and fabric production that have occurred

CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology 2

over nearly two centuries. The woolgrowers have funded, through a compulsory levy,
much of the research and development in wool production and processing that has
occurred over more than 60 years. The responsibility for funding R&D, using a
component of this levy matched by additional funds from the Australian Government,
has resided in various statutory bodies from the Australian Wool Board to The
Woolmark Company and, most recently, Australian Wool Innovation Ltd.

Decision-support systems for issues such as pasture improvement and sheep nutrition
have been introduced to assist in optimising wool production on-farm while ensuring
sustainability and appropriate integration with good environmental practice. The
recent reductions in sheep numbers have reflected the movement of farmers to more
profitable areas of farming in response to poor wool prices rather than their ability to
grow wool. A more recent feature of wool farming is the development of intensive
wool production techniques, in which sheep are penned in large sheds rather than
being allowed to wander on grass-covered ‘paddocks’. This type of farming allows
control over the diet of sheep, which in turn affects the quality of the wool produced
and ensures the wool remains clean and protected from the weather. Some of the
finest quality Australian wool is being grown this way, although, at this time, it only
represents a very small proportion of the Australian wool clip.

One of the biggest changes that has occurred in the wool industry in the last 50 years
has been the introduction of objective measurement of raw wool and its subsequent
impact on marketing[1]. Prior to 1970, while some testing of raw wool was conducted
after sale to measure those characteristics important in processing and product
performance, the value of wool prior to auction was assessed subjectively by wool
brokers. As a result of extensive work by the Australian Wool Corporation, CSIRO
and the Australian Wool Testing Authority (AWTA), technologies were developed
which allowed for the extensive, rapid sampling of the Australian wool clip and the
measurement of the most commercially-significant characteristics of the raw wool
prior to sale. In 1972-3, a system of ‘sale by sample’ was introduced in which buyers
could view only a small sample of the wool as well as test data on the average fibre
diameter, yield and vegetable matter in the sale lot. Subsequently other test methods
for staple length and strength and colour were also introduced, although the latter
measurement has yet to be widely requested. All the major wool-growing countries in
the world eventually adopted this method of selling. The certification of the properties
of raw wool and top for commercial purposes is now controlled through the
regulations and specifications of the International Wool Textile Organisation (IWTO),
headquartered in Brussels. Under these regulations and specifications more than 98%
of the Australian clip is now sampled and tested prior to sale. In Australia this testing
is carried out almost exclusively by the AWTA.

‘Sale-by-description’, in which only the objective measurements on the wool are

available and there is no sample of the wool, is also used to sell wool, although the
volumes sold using this technique are considerably smaller than those sold ‘by
sample’. More recently, systems to integrate this selling technique into e-commerce
through the provision of electronic offer and tender boards (eg Woolink – AWTA,
Eclipse - AWEX) and virtual auctions have been developed. The use of e-commerce
for the sale of raw wool is expected to grow in importance.

CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology 3

Since the initial introduction of sheep to Australia, the types and properties of the
wool grown have changed dramatically. The last 10 years have seen a considerable
improvement in the fineness of the Australian clip (Fig 2).

Fig 2: Distribution of Mean Fibre Diameter in the Australian Wool Clip

During this period, in response to price movements and overall market trends, the
amount of wool finer than 21um has risen from 37% to more than 50% and the
production of 19um and finer has more than doubled its share of the clip. The use of
fine wool allows the manufacture of lighter weight, softer handling products, both key
trends in the apparel market over the last twenty years. Moreover, the discomfort
sometimes associated with garments manufactured from coarse wool can be reduced
and finally eliminated by the use of fine wool. Wool undergarments manufactured
from 18.5um wool (or finer) have been found to be highly suitable for next-to-skin
wear. Wool as fine as 13.5um (finer than cashmere), is now being offered for sale.
Fibre objective measurement techniques have had considerable impact on the pastoral
management and animal husbandry techniques required to shift the mean fibre
diameter of flocks or individual sheep. Objective measurement of wool samples taken
from the mid-side of sheep is now an important technique for the selection of
breeding stock.

Until recent years, the classing or classification of wool during shearing or harvesting
was done subjectively by trade experts called ‘wool classers’. With improvements in
the speed and accuracy of the techniques used to measure fibre diameter, instruments
have now been introduced for objectively measuring each fleece immediately after
shearing. An instrument developed by CSIRO Textile & Fibre Technology (CTFT)
called Sirolan Fleecescan™ has recently been introduced for direct measurement of
the weight, mean fibre diameter and the variation in fibre diameter (Fig 3) of
individual fleeces immediately after shearing[2]. This additional information allows
the classer to classify the fleece in a more reliable and reproducible way. This
technology appears set to revolutionise the way in which fleeces are assembled for
sale.

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 Fig 3: Fibre Diameter Distribution obtained using Sirolan-Laserscan®

2 Wool Scouring

The number of wool scouring lines used world-wide has decreased in response to both
the reduction in global greasy wool production and an increase in the production
capacity of existing and new scouring lines. This trend has been especially noticeable
in Western Europe where labour costs are high. The latest scouring lines that have
been installed in Australia and New Zealand are three metres wide, enabling very high
production rates. Modern scouring lines incorporate computer control systems that
enable scouring conditions to be changed to suit the type of wool being scoured. One
example is the Siroscour® system (developed by CTFT and manufactured by
ANDAR-ADM Group), which is based on a 3-stage scouring principle and achieves
high recovery of wool wax with effective and constant liquor flow management
throughout the entire scouring process (Fig 4). This system provides opportunities for
various effluent management options.

Environmental pressures are also the major factor in the relocation of wool scouring
out of Europe and Japan into China and other low labour cost countries. The trend in
the design of effluent treatment plants has been towards systems that do not have an
aqueous discharge with the recovered water being recycled to the scouring line. Three
types of system are currently used; evaporation/incineration, evaporation and
integrated modular. Sirolan SWIMS® (Scour Waste Integrated Management Systems
[4] developed by CTFT and marketed by ANDAR-NZ) is an example of an integrated
modular design encompassing a number of different technologies, the particular
combination used depending on the needs of the mill. A major focus of this sytem
involves consideration of greasy wool contaminants as a potential resource rather than
a waste.

CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology 5

 Fig 4: Photo of a wool scour

The environmental problems associated with wool scouring and the potential for
reduced entanglement has led to renewed interest in solvent scouring. Wooltech, a
solvent scouring system based on trichloroethylene (ICI-Triwool), was launched at
ITMA in 1995. It is claimed that the solvent treatment improves the characteristics of
the scoured wool [3].

3. Topmaking

In the manufacture of wool yarns, two major production routes are used: woollen and
worsted. The more important production route is worsted (85-90% of Australian
wool), the first stage of which is topmaking, a term used to describe the series of
processes (including carding, gilling and combing) used to convert scoured wool into
an aligned sliver. In both routes the first operation in the process of aligning the fibres
for spinning is called carding, an operation which also removes a large amount of
vegetable matter remaining in the wool.

Long-staple carding continues to be a dynamic sector of early stage wool processing

with improved cards still being developed in spite of the difficulties in the textile
market, particularly for wool. The targets are higher production capacity, improved
removal of vegetable matter and customisation of design. A major innovation
introduced at ITMA 1999 by the Thibeau Company was a compact form of their
groundbreaking CA7 card initially developed with CTFT. The CA7 Tandem is
shorter, but is offered in widths up to 3.5m. Octir have also developed their Hercules
innovation card, which has double doffers and operates at high speed.

Advances in long-staple drawing (gilling) have been incremental over the last few
years. Although output speeds of 450 m/min are now achievable, refinements in
reliability and flexibility have been the most recent features. Drafts are now set
electronically and can also be read directly from the display units.

Two combs, which perhaps typify the advances made in combing, are the N.
Schlumberger & Cie (NSC) PB33 and the Sant Andrea Novara (SAN) P100. The
major new features of the PB33 comb include:
• Speed of operation up to 260 cycles/min;
• The circular brush can be removed and replaced without major disassembly of the
comb - the operation taking only 10 to 20 seconds;

CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology 6

• The nipper brush is continuously adjusted to maintain optimum pressure on the
beard during circular combing;
• Visual readout devices provide instant feedback to the operation of all settings on
the comb and of safety switches, etc.

The P100 is radically different to previous SAN combs and possibly to any other
comb currently on the market. This comb also operates at 260 cycles/min and the
circular brush can be removed in five to seven seconds. There are also a number of
other major innovations on this machine.

A large proportion of wool dyeing takes place at the top stage after which the sliver
must be re-combed. However, it is now becoming routine for most spinning mills to
also re-comb undyed tops in order to improve spinning performance and reduce faults.

One of the most important developments of the last 10 years in topmaking has been
the development of methods of predicting the processing performance of wool from
objective measurements made on the raw wool. The greasy wool characteristics and
the processing parameters from scouring to topmaking all determine the yield and the
properties of the top. The TEAM formulae, developed as a result of the Trials
Evaluating Additional Measurements project collaboration between CSIRO, the
Australian Wool Testing Authority and the Australian Wool Corporation, are simple
regression formulae prediction tool [5]. These equations can be used to predict the
fibre length characteristics in the top and the combing waste and use the following
measurements of the greasy wool.
• Fibre diameter (um),
• Staple length (mm),
• Staple strength (N/ktex),
• Mid-breaks (%),
• Vegetable matter base (%).
The TEAM formulae are used extensively in the benchmarking of mill performance
and in process improvement.

Two alternative software prediction packages used by the wool industry are Sirolan-
TOPSpec®, developed by CTFT [6] and TopMaker from Aust Software for
Topmaking P/L [7]. These tools are more sophisticated than TEAM in that the
processing potential of single sale lots and the subsequent blend of the lots can be
predicted. In addition to the greasy wool measurements described above, inputs,
which include staple length, greasy weight and number of bales per sale lot, provide
greater information on the predicted fibre length distribution. Woolgrowers also use
these objective measurements as management tools to provide information for sheep
selection and the ranking of animals in terms of their processing potential.

3. Spinning

Ring spinning remains the dominant form of spinning used for wool, primarily
because it is seen to produce a superior yarn to alternate spinning systems. Several
improvements to long staple ring spinning were on display at ITMA99 in Paris. The
one creating the most interest was compact or condensed spinning (Suessen - EliTe
and Zinser - Air-Com-Tex). The claimed benefits included improved yarn strength
and elongation, reduced yarn hairiness, improved weaving efficiency and less fibre
attrition during knitting. A collapsed balloon worsted spinning frame (Gaudino,

CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology 7

Cognetex) is also available for worsted spinning, a development of a method first
used in woollen spinning. With this system, higher spinning speeds are possible.

Another new spinning technology, Solospun, developed by CTFT in cooperation

with WRONZ and The Woolmark Company produces a weavable singles yarn in a
single step from a single roving (Fig 5).

Fig 5: Spinning frame fitted with Solospun rollers

It consists of a simple, inexpensive, clip-on attachment to standard long-staple

(worsted) spinning frames. Solospun differs from condensed, or compact, spinning
in both application and principle. It achieves fibre security through the actions of
localised twist in sub-strands and fibre migration. Condensed spun yarns, on the other
hand, still require two-folding or sizing to be suitable as warp yarns. Less twist is
required which reduces fabric streakiness and higher spinning speeds are possible
with much better spinning performance than can be achieved when spinning the
singles yarns needed for a similar resultant two-fold yarn. The overall result is a very
significant reduction in yarn production time and costs.

Air-jet spinning (Suessen and Murata) and friction spinning (DREF) systems are
available for wool but have not found wide adoption. Short wool (40 to 45mm) is
being spun on the OE system but the speeds achievable are not as high as for cotton.
Contaminant build-up in rotors is cited as a problem.

Just as for the spinning of cotton and synthetic fibres, there has been a big move to
automation in worsted spinning. However, one problem that has had to be overcome
in worsted spinning is that wool singles yarns are normally steamed before winding to
reduce twist liveliness. Several companies have now introduced in-line steamers for
bobbins still on a conveyor and the winder manufacturers have improved their
machines to allow winding of twist-lively yarns by maintaining the yarn ends under
tension. Pneumatic splicing is routine for wool yarns and quality splicing is
particularly important for weavable singles yarns, where hot air splicing
(Thermosplicer - Schlafhorst) is recommended.

Two-folding in the form of 2-for-1 twisters (rather than ring-twisting) has become the
standard method of producing folded wool yarns.

CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology 8

There is strong demand to bring quality control in spinning on-line but at the moment
it seems that it is too expensive to be introduced on the spinning frame apart from the
detection of ‘ends-down’. However, on-line quality control remains an important part
of the winding process. Coloured fault detection was first developed to remove
vegetable matter contamination in ecru wool (Siroclear® - Loepfe shown in Fig 6) but
the technology has not yet achieved the same penetration as for cotton. Detectors for
coloured faults (Sirolan 3000F - Premier Polytronics) are also available.

Fig 6: Siroclear for the Detection of Yarn Faults

Yarn hairiness can also be measured on-line during winding. Moreover, it is now
possible, with electronic tagging of bobbins, to measure yarn quality in winding and
generate a list of individual spinning frame spindles that need attention. In general,
the demand for automation is increasing in high labour-cost countries while there has
been a very marked trend for spinning to move to the low labour-cost countries in
Asia and Eastern Europe.

To ensure that wool competes successfully with other fibre types, systems have been
developed to predict yarn properties and spinning performance from the properties of
the top. This continues a trend in the measurement of the properties of wool in its
various forms and prediction of subsequent processing performance that starts in the
shearing shed. A software tool, Sirolan Yarnspec® [8], is available to predict the
spinning performance and yarn properties that should be achieved from a given top.
The number of fibres in the yarn cross-section is the dominant factor and, given
spinning frame parameters such as ring size and speed, it is possible to both predict
‘best practice’ and benchmark mill performance. This work has clarified the relative
importance of fibre diameter, diameter distribution, length, crimp and fibre strength in
spinning. It is has also shown that longer mean fibre length is better, within the range
available, and that length distribution is of little importance (contrary to industry
beliefs).

4. Dyeing and Finishing

The principle dyes used for wool in order of production volume are; metal-complex,
chrome, acid levelling/milling and reactive dyes. Globally the relative proportions
have changed very little over the last decade or so, although regional preferences have
shifted.

CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology 9

Chromium, used either in metal complex dyes or as a mordant, is present in the
majority of dyed wools. The threat to chrome dyeing systems from environmental
legislation appears to have been reduced by the widespread adoption of optimised
dyeing methods[9] and, in many cases, the installation of improved dye-house effluent
treatment plants. More recently the presence of chromium in wool dyes has again
become an issue due to the increased use of eco-labelling schemes[10].

The major dyestuff manufacturers have responded to the concerns over chromium by
promoting alternative metal-free dyes. New reactive dyes (eg Lanasol CE – Ciba) and
optimised ranges of metal-free acid dyes (Sandolan MF – Clariant) have been
developed to achieve a balance of economy and performance comparable to chrome
dyes in targeted applications such as piece and hank dyeing, especially bright fashion
shades.

New auxiliaries have also developed to improve dyehouse productivity and product
quality. Valsol-LTA-N (developed by CTFT with ICI Australia[11]) has the
additional benefits of reducing chromium in effluent from metal complex dyes to
complement the established advantages of good levelness and reduced damage.
Basolan AS (BASF) inhibits loss of bulk in package dyeing (Fig 7) and damage to the
dyed wool [12]. This type of technology is finding use in a number of applications,
particularly the dyeing of wool-polyester blends at temperatures up to 120°C where
the protective effect is claimed to be better than older style formaldehyde-release
agents.

Fig 7: Effect of Basolan AS on the Bulk of Package-dyed Wool Yarns

Another recently released wool specific chemical is Lanalbin APB (Clariant), which
is applied during scouring and prevents photobleaching of areas of carpet exposed to
strong light.

CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology 10

Digital printing of textiles is the main new technology for colouration that has become
a commercial reality in recent years. Steady progress is being made on overcoming
low production speeds that limited early digitial printing machinery. Ciba have
released a range of inks suitable for wool and especially silk (Lanaset SI).

The finishing of wool fabrics involves a series of processes designed to accomplish

the following:
• to clean the fabric and remove remaining contaminants (spinning oils etc.),
• to control the surface geometry of the fabric and impart the required
surface finish,
• to permanently set the fabric and stabilize its dimensions and finish.
A wide range of machines have been developed for these various purposes and are
used in a variety of sequences according to the needs of the particular fabric and
finishing mill.

There are relatively few manufacturers of finishing machinery actively engaged in the
development of new machines for wool fabrics. Most of the developments in finishing
have been directed at the processing of fabrics made from the newer synthetic fibres,
(particularly microfibres). However, the development of wool-elastane fabrics to
meet consumer demand for apparel with excellent stretch characteristics has also
impacted on the techniques used to finish wool. Tension control has become an
important feature of all wool finishing machinery in both the woven and knitted
sectors. All manufacturers stress the appropriateness of their machinery for stretch
fabric as, in the same way 8-10 years before, the gentle action machinery to control
delicate fabrics had been an important selling point. The gentle action machinery has
remained but the emphasis has shifted to tension control of stretch fabric. Many
manufacturers of finishing equipment see flexibility as a key to competitiveness, so
that wool is not ignored in the development of dyeing and finishing equipment.

The development of functional finishes has also been a high priority for
manufacturers of wool fabrics. Finishes to impart machine washability, shape
retention, stain resistance, flame retardance and combinations of these effects to wool
knitted and woven fabrics are now available for use in both fashion apparel and work
wear.

Consistent with the development of measurement and predictive systems for raw
wool, top and yarn, instrumentation has also been developed for the measurement of
those fabric properties related to its performance in applications such as apparel. Two
sets of instrument are widely used to measure the properties of wool fabrics; the KES-
F system developed in Japan[13] and SiroFAST®, developed by CTFT (Fig 8) in
Australia[14]. This instrumentation is used to measure aspects of fabric handle, to
predict performance in garment manufacture and, more recently, to develop optimal
finishing routines to maximise the quality of the input fabric. The systems are used
much more widely on wool fabrics than fabrics derived from other fibres, primarily
because the value associated with wool fabrics justifies the cost of the instrumentation
and the testing.

CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology 11

 Fig 8: SiroFAST chart

CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology 12

5. New Fabrics

Pure wool fabrics have always been strong in

the formal apparel market whereas wool
polyester blends have been more often used in
the upper volume market. However, the
increasing ‘casualisation’ of apparel and the
growth of active leisurewear have forced the
development of new wool-containing fabrics.
SportwoolTM, a wool-polyester double-faced
fabric, developed by CTFT and The Woolmark
Company and designed for moisture
management in active-wear apparel, is an
example of such developments (Fig 9). This
product has been the subject of rigorous
scientific scrutiny to justify its claims for
improved moisture management. It is perhaps
appropriate that this fabric, developed in
Australia, is now worn by many of Australia's
elite athletes. The renewed interest in blends
of wool and cotton due to consumer preference
for natural fibres has resulted in the
development of a shrink-proof blend of 70%
cotton and 30% wool by Australian spinner,
Rocklea. This yarn is supported by a
technology package including specially-
developed exhaust dyeing and bleaching methods. Fig 9: Sportwool garment

Other value-added wool blends, normally with stretch characteristics and containing a
number of different fibre types, can also be found at the many fabric shows
worldwide. These novel, value-added blends may be an important component of the
future growth of Australian wool.

5. Conclusions

In reviewing the wool industry in Australia and developments in wool processing and
fabric manufacture, two consistent trends are apparent. In spite of its relatively minor
position in the overall world textile market, Australian wool maintains an important
position in the quality apparel market. Developments in wool processing from sheep’s
back to fabric are continuing, and considerable effort is being invested in developing
new products for wool to meet changing consumer demands and expectations.
Secondly, the wool industry has invested heavily in the concept of objective
measurement for quality assurance and the prediction of processing performance.
Wool is measured many times between sheep’s back and fabric and these
measurements are used in the optimisation of activities as diverse as animal
husbandry and fabric finishing. Woolgrowers now regularly consider the final end-
use of their fibre in their on-farm decisions and the separation that exists between the
various sectors of the wool-processing pipeline is being slowly eroded. This can only
be to the benefit of Australian wool.

CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology 13

Acknowledgements

This article was compiled from contributions of the following scientists at CSIRO
Textile & Fibre Technology; Dr P. Gordon (wool production), Dr J. Christoe
(scouring), Mr M. Prins (topmaking), Dr P. Lamb (spinning), Dr D. King (dyeing), Dr
A. De Boos (finishing). Support for the CSIRO Textile & Fibre Technology projects
described in this paper was provided by Australian Woolgrowers and the Australian
Government through CSIRO and the Woolmark Company.

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CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology 14