Things to Remember and Common Misconceptions for AP Chemistry

50 things to remember during the AP chemistry

1. The speed of a chemical reaction is not related to the equilibrium position.

2. Hydrogen bonding is an INTERmolecular force, not an INTRAmolecular bond.
3. Electrolysis is only necessary when a reaction is non-spontaneous with a positive Delta G.
4. Rutherford’s ‘Gold Foil Experiment’ produced evidence of a dense, positively charged nucleus.
5. Le Chatelier’s principle is not an explanation it itself. A shift in position to reduce an external stress (Q versus K), is.
6. Periodic trends are not explanations.
7. The solubility rules that you need to know are that sodium, potassium, ammonium and nitrate salts are all soluble in
water.
8. Potassium manganate(VII) and sodium dichromate(VI), when in acid, are common oxidizing agents.
9. Orders of reaction can only be found experimentally.
10. Wash a buret with the solution that it will be dispensing in the titration, and fill the tip.
11. Phenolphthalein is pink in basic solution.
12. Gases behave ideally when at relatively low pressures and relatively high temperatures.
13. The first ionization energy of an atom corresponds to the lowest energy peak on a PES spectrum. No other ionization
energies match any PES peaks.
14. Catalysts increase the rate of the forward and the backward reaction.
15. Common ions make slightly soluble salts even less soluble.
16. Kp expressions include ONLY gas partial pressures.
17. Very large K values suggest that reactions go to completion and massive ones suggest a practicallack of an
equilibrium at all.
18. Kw = (Ka) (Kb).
19. Optimal buffers have pH = pKa.
20. In % error calculations, the actual, accepted value is in the denominator.
21. The existence of a C=C double bond (sigma + pi), prevents rotation and can cause cis/trans isomerization.
22. Clean up an acid spill with a carbonate, not an equally corrosive, strong base.
23. Writing the full electronic configuration of an atom can help to explain differences in ionization energies.
24. Transition metal ions are often colored in solution.
25. Reduction always takes place at the cathode.
26. Decreasing the [ ] of a reactant in a REDOX equilibrium/galvanic cell reaction, will force the reaction backward and
lower the voltage – and vice-versa.
27. Fluorine always has an oxidation number of -1.
28. The bigger the pKa, the weaker the acid.
29. The bigger the Ka, the stronger the acid.
30. A carboxylic acid can be represented by R-COOH and RCO 2 H.
31. When using R = 0.0821 in PV= n RT, pressure must be in atm, temperature in K, and volume in L.
32. Neat handwriting and presentation of your work, CAN make your (and the graders) life easier.
33. On the exam, use the FULL atomic masses printed on the periodic table.
34. When predicting shape, a double bond counts as one area of electron density.
35. It is unlikely that any numerical answer on the AP exam will ever require 10 significant figures!
36. Since C and H have a similar electronegativity, hydrocarbons are largely non-polar.
37. Polarity in organic molecules helps them to be soluble in water, otherwise non-polar organic molecules will dissolve
non-polar (covalent) solids.
38. Only the first bond of a double or triple bond is counted in hybridization. The others are pi bonds formed by the overlap
of UNhybridized p orbitals.
39. Breaking bonds within reactants is ENDOTHERMIC (+ve).
40. Alcohols are soluble because they can H-bond with water, NOT because they have a hydroxide group – they DON’T!
41. Ions travel through the salt bridge, not electrons.
42. Net ionic equations must balance charge as well as atoms.
43. A graph of 1/[X] versus time gives a straight line for a second order reaction, and it has a POSITIVE slope!
44. Bromine and mercury are liquids at room temperature.
45. Transition metals lose their s electrons first.
46. Always use temperature in K in gas calculations.
47. The units of Delta H and Delta S are often different, and if so, must be converted in a Delta G calculation.
48. The cathode and anode have DIFFERENT charges in a galvanic cell and an electrolytic cell.
49. Orders of reaction can be fractions.
50. Iodine is a solid at room temperature.
 (Another) 50 (tiny) things to remember during the AP
1. Organic amines like methylamine, CH 3 NH 2 , are weak bases since the lone pair on the N atom can accept H+.
2. Nickel (II) salts are green.
3. Positive Ecell values go with negative ∆G values and very large K values.
4. When [H+] in solution is < [OH–] the solution is basic (and vice-versa).
5. When [H+] = [OH–] the solution is neutral.
6. A large Rf value suggests that the component has a high affinity for the mobile phase.
7. Beers’ law can only be applied to colored salts.
8. In dynamic equilibrium, the forward and backward reactions do not stop, they just occur at the same rate.
9. When considering macro changes in entropy, look at how the number of gas moles change.
10. Delta H = SUM Enthalpy products – SUM Enthalpy of reactants, ONLY works if you are dealing with FORMATION
enthalpies.
11. Two phases exist on the horizontal part of a cooling or heating curve.
12. Oxygen re-lights a glowing splint.
13. Equilibrium constants are constant at constant temperature.
14. Ionic solids have strong ionic bonds that are electrostatic (Coulombs law) and as a result have high melting and
boiling points.
15. Changing phase in molecular substance involves breaking IMF’s, NOT covalent bonds.
16. Capillary action and surface tension can be explained in terms of intermolecular forces.
17. Si and SiO 2 have giant structures similar to diamond.
18. Si and As are used in semi-conductors.
19. The dependance of the rate constant on activation energy and temperature is explained by the Arrhenius equation.
20. Hydrogen fluoride is a weak acid.
21. Hydrogen fluoride etches glass.
22. CFC’s (chlorofluorocarbons) are implicated in climate change.
23. An exothermic reaction does work on the surroundings.
24. Ozone is O 3 .
25. STP for gases is 273 K and 1 atm.
26. ‘Standard’ conditions in thermochemistry usually means 298 K.
27. Kinetic energy of gases depends on their Kelvin temperature.
28. The mass spectrum of a monotomic element contains a peak for each isotope.
29. Sulfur can exist as S 8 molecules and phosphorus can exist as P 4 molecules.
30. Pure solids, liquids and gases are never ionized in NIE’s, but soluble salts and strong acids and bases IN SOLUTION,
are.
31. When considering valence electrons of p block elements, remember to include the outer s electrons as well (e.g., Al
has 3 valence electrons, s2 and p1)
32. B and O, and Al and S, have slightly lower first ionization energies than we expect, but for different reasons.
33. Conjugate acid and base pairs differ in their formula only by H+.
34. A very strong acid (e.g., HCl) will have a very weak conjugate base (Cl–).
35. Add concentrated acids and bases to large volumes of water, NOT the other way around.
36. Carbon dioxide makes limewater milky.
37. Heat is a transfer of energy from a high energy system, to a low energy system, in order to ultimately achieve thermal
equilibrium.
38. The Delta H for the formation of an element is zero (nothing changes).
39. The Delta S for the formation of an element is zero (nothing changes).
40. …BUT elements have ABSOLUTE entropies that are NOT zero.
41. Catalysts provide different mechanisms/pathways that have lower activation energies.
42. Before weighing on electronic balances, allow heated items to cool.
43. Beakers and Erlenmeyer flasks are NOT measuring instruments.
44. Transition metals often have salts which are colored.
45. Group 1 oxide + water gives corresponding hydroxide which is soluble.
46. Group 1 metal + water gives corresponding hydroxide which is soluble AND hydrogen gas.
47. Group 1 hydride + water gives corresponding hydroxide which is soluble AND hydrogen gas.
48. Equilibrium systems that undergo changes in pressure should only have their gas molecules considered.
49. Remember to filter, wash and dry a precipitate in a gravimetric analysis.
50. The TOTAL area under a Boltzmann distribution curve is the same for a reaction at a high and a low temperature.
Common misconceptions of AP Chemistry students
common misconceptions and
mistakes/errors
2. Change in mass is a measurement
3. Half-filled or filled shells are happy
4. “Because” of Le Chatelier's principle
5. That just identifying a type of IMF is all that
is necessary and that should imply relative
strength
6. When IMF's are the same, that mass
explains the stronger force
7. That the ionization energy increase going
across a period only because the atomic
radius gets smaller
8. It is harder to remove the second electron
in sodium, because filled shell is more
stable
9. 96,500 has 5 significant figures
10. Phase change is not the most important
factor when determining change in entropy
11. That alcohols are strong bases
12. That all equivalence points are at pH = 7
13. Who cares about Q!?
14. That the radius gets smaller going across a
period just because there are more protons
in the nucleus
15. The radius gets larger going down a group
because there are more electrons
16. That restating the question is the answer
elucidate and expand
Subtle difference between calculations and
measurements. Very common on AP Lab
problems. E.g. 2000, 5(b)(i))
“Stable” is better, “Lower Energy” is best
100% agree. Chemicals do not “know” Le Chat’s
principle. (Do NOT state “rules”)
Need to add relative strengths to answers rather
than just stating the type. (MJ) Understand that ALL
molecules exhibit London dispersion forces and
that LDF’s are often stronger than other forms of
IMF. Only make comparisons of IMF for the SAME
system of compounds. For instance, LDF’s in high
molecular weight solids may be stronger than
Hbonding in methanol. Also, MP and BP are
functions of intermolecular attractions, not internal
bond types
Here, “mass” is the problem word – it infers
gravitational rather than electrostatic interactions.
Phrases and words like “number of electrons” and
”polarizability” are MUCH better
Need to add proton and shielding factor references
100% agree – again avoid “rules”. Closer to
nucleus/shielding/ENC etc.
Simple math misconception. Problem arises where
calculations involving it are given with the wrong
number of sig figs. (PC) Also, because pH is a log,
the sig figs begin after the decimal, e.g. 12.3 has
only one sig fig.
Kids don’t appreciate this; they often go with
“number of moles” rather than considering states
Big problem, in my opinion exacerbated by the lack
of organic on the AP exam.
Should be easy enough to correct with hydrolysis
theory. (MJ) Also confusing “equivalence point”
with “end point”. Endpoint is when the end of the
titration is signaled by an indicator, not when
equivalence has occurred.
Students don’t know it. The exam has tried to
emphasize it recently
This is all they will say (need to add # of shells the
SAME etc.). (MJ) More effective nuclear charge.
See #14. Need to say n = 3, n = 4, n = 5…etc.
Also answering a question that they wish had been
asked or writing good, but irrelevant chemistry!
John points out that a LOT of time is put into design
and wording questions that WILL elicit the correct
response. (MJ) I tell my students that they can
perhaps pull that on their history teacher, but not in
chemistry! Answer the question completely, but
don’t say too much and include something that is
wrong.
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 17. If fluorine is in the problem that
electronegativity is in the answer
18. A molecule is non-polar due to its molecular
geometry
19. That hydrogen bonding is an intramolecular
attractive force. That there are more
hydrogen bonds because there are more
H's in the formula
-5 -6
20. Understanding 10 is larger than 10 . Or
-6 -5
writing 1.20 x 10 for 12.0 x 10
21. Write out general expressions. For
example, equilibrium expressions, Nernst
equations
22. ∆H, ∆S or ∆G for a reaction is per mol of
reaction
23. Everything is at STP!
24. Not writing soluble ionic compounds as ions
25. Getting symbols and charge of fundamental
ions wrong
26. Failing to omit spectator ions
27. MgCl2 is Mg2+ and Cl2-!
28. Not knowing the formula of all elements
29. Applying oxidation and reduction as
independent processes
30. Charges on ions do not have to be written
in a chemical equation or in an equilibrium
expression
31. Failure to pay attention to stoichiometry
when setting up ICE table for solubility
expressions
32. (2x)2 ≠ 2x2
33. Be careful that proximity does not mean that Don’t try and find the moles of Fe with P V = n R T
the same calculation produces the correct
answer (2004, 2) calculate moles of Fe(s)
and O2(g), one use the ideal gas law the
other does not
True, BUT often it is. Not necessarily a bad guess
in an MC context!
First sentence is often all that is given which is
wrong. Need a fuller explanation in terms of both
dipoles AND symmetry
Students often think that an intra covalent bond that
has H at one end of the molecule is a “hydrogen”
bond. (PC) Must state that (for example), hydrogen
bonds exist BETWEEN ethanol molecules, NOT
state “ethanol “has” hydrogen bonds”
Simple math misconception relevant everywhere!
Especially estimation in MC (e.g. MC PE 2008, 66)
Get products and reactants in wrong place in K
expressions. Motivation for part (a) of many
questions is to “get kids going” on the question.
(MJ) Also emphasis on unit-factor method. Kids
who know how to use conversion factors find that
they can solve problems even though they may
have no idea how the chemistry might work!
See 2007, 2! Had been introduced BEFORE ’07
but with careful wording. Communication problem.
(MJ) “per mole of reaction” is still a sore point.
Or per the number of moles of each reactant and
product as they are indicated in the balanced
equation.
Also ST = 298K/278K. Also kids assume 22.4L too
often
They don’t appreciate that they have to in NIE’s
They don’t appreciate that
They don’t appreciate that they have to in NIE’s
Very common in my experience too.
Need to avoid K/P problems, need to know
diatomics etc. Standard states are useful to know.
Too many silly errors. (MJ) My students know the
HAIROGENS, which are the diatomic elements:
H = hydrogen, AIR = nitrogen and oxygen, OGENS
= the halogens
Failure to appreciate “source” and “sink”
Especially when assigning oxidation numbers avoid
the ambiguity of writing Mg2+Cl 2 - and confusing the
examiner. Eraser!
x, 2x, 3x etc. often missed
Simple math misconception relevant in Ksp
situations
even though it was appropriate with O 2
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Additional Comments
1. The equilibrium constant for the reaction
SO 2 + ½ O 2 ⇄ SO 3 is half of, or the
same as, the Keq for the reaction 2 SO 2
+ O 2 ⇄ 2 SO 3
2. The quantity of a solid that is part of an
equilibrium system is constant
3. Beakers and Erlenmeyer flasks can be
used to accurately determine volume of a
liquid (came up on the 2009 exam)
4. Ethanol is more soluble in water than is
carbon tetrachloride because “like
dissolves like”
5. If the pressure on an equilibrium system is
increased by adding an unreactive (or
noble) gas, the reaction shifts as per Le
Chatelier's Principle
Energy is released when bonds are broken
6.
(came up a lot on the 2011 exam)
"m" is an acceptable abbreviation for
7. "moles"
It is the square root of the second K. (AD) Common
confusion between the treatment of combining ΔH
values and combining K values – also see
reciprocal vs. negative, etc.
Common error. Students memorize that solids are
ignored when predicting equilibrium changes, so in
a reaction such as C(s) + CO 2 (g) ⇄ 2 CO(g),
when asked how the quantity of carbon would
change if the volume of the reaction vessel is
decreased, they will often say "remains the same."
Emphasize that although the solid does not drive
the equilibrium, it IS affected by the equilibrium
Volumetric flasks are used to accurately produce
one given volume. Graduated cylinders are used to
measure liquid volumes accurately. Students also
need to know how a pipette is used
We never accept the statement "like dissolves like"
as an explanation. The student must say that the
attractions between the alcohol and water
(dipoledipole or hydrogen bonds) are strong enough
to offset the attractions WITHIN the two
substances, while the attraction between the non-
dipole and water is too weak to cause the water
molecules to separate. Or something similar. (AD)
LOTS of ways to word this but clarity is the key
Although Le Chatelier spoke of pressure as a
stress, what is actually more valid is a change in
volume. When we say "the pressure is increased"
without specifying HOW it is increased, it is
assumed that we mean that the volume was
decreased! Adding a noble gas does not affect the
system. (AD) Inert gas NOT in the chemical
equation and not in the K expression
(AD) The exact opposite is true
NO! ‘m’ is molality!

Additional Comments by Mike Jones, July 2010 & 2011 with some notes from me
1. Bonding misconceptions
I have come to the conclusion that most people
assume that the default bond type is “ionic”. It
worries me that students will say that PCl 3 contains
a ‘P ion’ and three ‘Cl ions’, and the P has a charge
of +3 and chlorine a charge of -1. “Covalent” should
become the default bond type. In fact, I tell my
students that ALL bonds are covalent it’s just that
some are very polar. So rather than classify bonds
as either “ionic” or “covalent”, we talk about bonds
being covalent, and then specify the percent ionic
character of the (covalent) bond.

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2. Assumption that metal-nonmetal bonds are
“ionic” and nonmetal-nonmetal bonds are
“covalent”
3. Incorrectly defining the “characteristics” of
compounds
4. Confusing “oxidation number” and “ionic
charge”
Again, we need to remind teachers and students
that bonds lie along a continuum, and are not one
or the other. In fact, we find that many
metalnonmetal compounds are more covalent than
they are ionic. Take the bonds in CuCl 2 . The
electronegativity difference is 1.26, which translates
to a bond with 33% ionic character (67% covalent).
There are many more metal-nonmetal bonds like
this. (AD) I introduce this as a “sliding scale”.
It is common to hear that “ionic” compounds have
high melting points and “covalent” compounds have
low melting points. This is far too broad. What
determines melting point and boiling point are the
intermolecular attractions, not the internal bonding.
Compounds with high melting point have a network
arrangement of atoms. It doesn’t matter if the
network has bonding which is either predominately
ionic or covalent it’s the network that makes for the
high melting point, not the bonds. For instance
diamond and graphite have 100% covalent bonds
but very high melting points. Ditto for SiO 2 . The
same is true of MgO and NaCl. They are all
network solids. Compounds with low melting points
do not form networks of atoms, and therefore,
require less energy to separate the more weakly
attracted molecules held together by intermolecular
forces (van der Waals forces)
The oxidation number is the ionic charge an atom
would have in a compound if in fact the atoms were
ions, which they aren’t. Herein lies the problem.
Students and teachers alike equate the oxidation
number with an ionic charge, even though no such
charge exists
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