Cogeneration

“Cogeneration”

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ABSTRACT

Cogeneration or Combined heat and power (CHP) is the simultaneous production of useful
heat and power in an integrated process with common fuel or energy source. By integrating heat
and power production, it is possible to use the energy source in a more efficient way and by that
to reduce the environmental impact including CO2 emissions.

The basic process of a CHP plant can be a thermal energy process based on heat engines or a fuel
cell process based on electrochemical energy conversion. The capacity can range from several
hundreds of megawatts of fuel input to plants delivering electricity and heat through a district
heating network of a whole city down to micro CHP plants on kilowatt level supplying a one‐
family house. The operating load is determined by the heat demand. For systems using a district
heating network as the heat load, introducing also other heat demanding processes can be a way to
increase the full‐load operating time and the yearly production of electricity from biomass.

The balance between the output of power and the heat supply is an important parameter for the
performance of the plant. This is described by the ratio between the electric power and the heat
power.

Several barriers, related both to the market and regulations, exist for implementation of CHP and
policies are necessary to be able to develop the potential in the world. The CHP is a cost effective
and important solution for reduction of CO2 emissions.

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CONTENTS

Acknowledgement……………………………………………………..i

Abstract ………………………………………………………………..ii

1) Introduction…………………………………………………………………………….6

2) History…………………………………………………………………………………..7

3) Need for cogeneration…………………………………………………………………8

4) Cogeneration fuels……………………………………………………………………..9

5) Categories of CHP…………………………………………………………………….10-12

6) Technologies employed in CHP………………………………………………………13

7) Technologies and characteristics……………………………………………………..14

8) Schematic diagram …………………………………………………………………..15-16

9) Benefits ……………………………………………………………………………….17-21

10) Disadvantages…………………………………………………………………………22

11) Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….23

12) References…………………………………………………………………………….24

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1: INTRODUCTION

Cogeneration (cogen) or combined heat and power (CHP) is the simultaneous

production of electricity with the recovery and utilisation heat. Cogeneration is a highly efficient
form of energy conversion and it can achieve primary energy savings of approximately 40% by
compared to the separate purchase of electricity from the national electricity grid and a gas boiler
for onsite heating.
Combined heat and power plants are typically embedded close to the end user and therefore help
reduce transportation and distribution losses, improving the overall performance of the electricity
transmission and distribution network.

Cogeneration is more thermally efficient use of fuel than producing process heat alone because in
electricity production some energy must be rejected as waste heat, but in cogeneration some of
this thermal energy is put to good use.

Many industries require energy input in the form of heat, called process heat. Process heat in these
industries is usually supplied by steam at 150 to 200°C.

Energy is usually transferred to the steam by burning coal, oil, natural gas, or another fuel in a
furnace.
Industries that use large amounts of process heat also consume a large amount of electric power.
It makes sense to use the already-existing work potential to produce power instead of letting it go
to waste.
The result is a plant that produces electricity while meeting the process-heat requirements of
certain industrial processes (cogeneration plant).

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2:HISTORY

At the beginning of the twentieth century, steam was the main source of mechanical power.
However, as electricity became more controllable, many small “power houses” that produced
steam realized they could also produce and use electricity, and they adapted their systems to
cogenerate both steam and electricity. Then from 1940–1970, the concept developed of a
centralized electric utility that delivered power to the surrounding area. Large utility companies
quickly became reliable, relatively inexpensive sources of electricity, so the small power houses
stopped cogenerating and bought their electricity from the utilities.

During the late 1960s and early 1970s, interest in cogeneration began to revive, and by the late
1970s the need to conserve energy resources became clear. In the United States, legislation was
passed to encourage the development of cogeneration facilities. Specifically, the Public Utilities
Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) of 1978 encouraged this technology by allowing cogenerators
to connect with the utility network to purchase and sell electricity. PURPA allowed cogenerators
to buy electricity from utility companies at fair prices, in times of shortfall, while also allowing
them to sell their electricity based on the cost the utility would have paid to produce that power,
the so-called “avoided cost.” These conditions have encouraged a rapid increase in cogeneration
capacity in the United States.

In Europe, there has been little government support because cogeneration is not seen as new
technology and therefore is not covered under “Thermie,” the European Community’s (EC) energy
program. Under Thermie, 40% of the cost for capital projects is covered by the EC government.
However, some individual European countries, like Denmark and Italy, have adopted separate
energy policies. In Denmark, 27.5% of their electricity is produced by cogeneration, and all future
energy projects must involve cogeneration or some form of alternative energy. In Italy, low-
interest loans are provided to cover up to 30% of the cost of building new cogeneration facilities.

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3: NEED FOR COGENERATION

A major focus of the current energy debate is how to meet the future demand for electricity
.One of the most promising commercially available technologies is cogeneration. Cogeneration
systems produce both electrical (or mechanical) energy and thermal energy from the same primary
energy source.

Increased efficiency of energy conversion and use. Cogeneration is the most effective and efficient
form of power generation.

Lower emissions to the environment, in particular of CO2, the main greenhouse.

Fuel consumption is also less it is very necessary to consume the nonrenewable sources such as
coal, oil, etc. so that we can use in future by using cogeneration we can consume the fuel because
we know that in cogeneration by using one fuel we can generate both steam as well as electricity.

Large cost savings, providing additional competitiveness for industrial and commercial users, and
offering affordable heat for domestic users.

An opportunity to move towards more decentralized forms of electricity generation, where plants
are designed to meet the needs of local consumers, providing high efficiency, avoiding
transmission losses and increasing flexibility of system use. This will particularly be the case if
natural gas is the energy carrier.

Improved local and general security of supply – local generation, through cogeneration, can reduce
the risk of consumers being left without supplies of electricity and/or heating.

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4:COGENERATION FUELS

A variety of different FUELS can be used to facilitate COGENERATION THEY ARE

LISTED BELOW
 Natural gas

 Coal

 Bagasse (waste product from sugar cane processing)

 Waste gas

 Liquid fuels (oil)

 Renewable gases

Bagasse
14%
Coal
14%

Natural gas
Waste gas 55%
10%

Liquid fuels
Renew able gases
6%
1%

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The above Pie chart represents the percentage of fuels which are used in cogeneration.

5:CATEGORIES OF CHP MARKET

5.1 Industrial plants

Cogeneration is still common in pulp and paper mills, refineries and chemical plants. In this
"industrial cogeneration/CHP", the heat is typically recovered at higher temperatures (above 100
deg C) and used for process steam or drying duties. This is more valuable and flexible than low-
grade waste heat, but there is a slight loss of power generation. The increased focus
on sustainability has made industrial CHP more attractive, as it substantially reduces carbon
footprint compared to generating steam or burning fuel on-site and importing electric power from
the grid.

 UTILITY PRESSURES VERSUS SELF GENERATED INDUSTRIAL

Industrial cogeneration plants normally operate at much lower boiler pressures than utilities.
Among the reasons are: 1) Cogeneration plants face possible contamination of returned
condensate. Because boiler feed water from cogeneration plants has much lower return rates than
100% condensing power plants, industries usually have to treat proportionately more boiler make
up water. Boiler feed water must be completely oxygen free and de-mineralized, and the higher
the pressure the more critical the level of purity of the feed water.2) Utilities are typically larger
scale power than industry, which helps offset the higher capital costs of high pressure. 3) Utilities
are less likely to have sharp load swings than industrial operations, which deal with shutting down
or starting up units that may represent a significant percent of either steam or power demand.

Example for industrial plants are sugar cane industry petroleum refining, petrochemical, pulp and
Paper Making industries.

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5.2 District Energy Systems (DES)

In DES it Distribute steam, hot water, and/or chilled water from central plant to individual
buildings through a network of pipes.

Provide space heating, air conditioning, domestic hot water, and industrial process energy. The
core element of many district heating systems is a heat-only boiler station. Additionally
a cogeneration plant (also called combined heat and power, CHP) is often added in parallel with
the boilers. Both have in common that they are typically based on combustion of primary energy
carriers. The difference between the two systems is that, in a cogeneration plant, heat and
electricity are generated simultaneously, whereas in heat-only boiler stations – as the name
suggests – only heat is generated.

In the case of a fossil fueled cogeneration plant, the heat output is typically sized to meet half of
the peak heat load but over the year will provide 90% of the heat supplied. The boiler capacity will
be able to meet the entire heat demand unaided and can cover for breakdowns in the cogeneration
plant. It is not economic to size the cogeneration plant alone to be able to meet the full heat load.
In the New York City steam system, that is around 2.5 GW. Germany has the largest amount of
CHP in Europe.

The combination of cogeneration and district heating is very energy efficient. A simple thermal
power station can be 20–35% efficient, whereas a more advanced facility with the ability to recover
waste heat can reach total energy efficiency of nearly 80%.Some may exceed 100% based on
the lower heating value by condensing the flue gas as well.

Waste heat from nuclear power plants is sometimes used for district heating. The principles for a
conventional combination of cogeneration and district heating applies the same for nuclear as it
does for a thermal power station Examples for DES are universities, hospitals, and government
complexes.

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5.3 Micro CHP for Small scale

Combined heat and power (CHP) systems for homes or small commercial buildings are often
fueled by natural gas to produce electricity and heat. A micro-CHP system usually contains a
small fuel cell or a heat engine as a prime mover used to rotate a generator which
provides electric power , while simultaneously utilizing the waste heat from the prime mover
for an individual building's heating, ventilation, and air conditioning . A micro-CHP generator
may primarily follow heat demand, delivering electricity as the by-product, or may follow
electrical demand to generate electricity and use heat as the by-product. When used primarily
for heating, micro-CHP systems may generate more electricity than is instantaneously being
demanded in circumstances of fluctuating electrical demand.

The heat engine version is a small scale example of cogeneration schemes which have been
used with large electric power plants. The purpose of cogeneration is to utilize more of the
energy in the fuel. The reason for using such systems is that heat engines, such as steam power
plants which generate the electric power needed for modern life by burning fuel, are not very
efficient. Due to Carnot's theorem, a heat engine cannot be 100% efficient; it cannot convert
anywhere near all the heat produced from the fuel it burns into organized forms of energy such
as electricity. Therefore, heat engines always produce a surplus of low-temperature waste heat,
called "secondary heat" or "low-grade heat". Modern plants are limited to efficiencies of about
33–63% at most, so 37–67% of the energy is exhausted as waste heat. In the past this energy
was usually wasted to the environment. Cogeneration systems, built in recent years in
cold-climate countries, utilize the waste heat produced by large power plants for heating by
piping hot water from the plant into buildings in the surrounding community.

However, it is not practical to transport heat long distances due to heat loss from the pipes.
Since electricity can be transported practically, it is more efficient to generate the electricity
near where the waste heat can be used. So in a "micro-combined heat and power system"
(micro-CHP), small power plants are instead located where the secondary heat can be used, in
individual buildings.

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6:Technologies Employed in Combined Heat Power Systems

Gas turbines (or combustion turbines).

Such turbines revolutionized airplane propulsion in the 1940s. Since the 1990s they have become
a popular choice for power generation systems, including CHP. In this technology, air is taken in,
compressed, burned with a fuel (usually natural gas), and then ejected to drive a turbine that
generates power. Heat can be recovered from the exhaust and put to use for heating, cooling, or
industrial processes.

Steam turbines (or back-pressure steam turbines).

These are used in a majority of power plants across the world. In these turbines, water is
pressurized, heated by a burning fuel, and converted to steam, which is then used to drive a turbine
that generates power. The steam turbine was the earliest prime mover used in large-scale power
generation, dating back to the late1800s. In a CHP system, any exhaust steam left after the power-
generation step can be put to productive use, as described above.
Reciprocating engines.
Such engines are used in most motor vehicles, and the technology has significantly improved in
electrical efficiencies over the past few decades. The engines have a combustion chamber in which
fuel is burned. The combustion pushes a piston that drives a crankshaft to generate power. Heat
can be recovered from the exhaust and jacket water and put to use.
Fuel cells.
Fuel cells electrochemically convert fuel to generate electricity. Typically this involves the
combining of hydrogen and oxygen. A fossil fuel, such as natural gas, can be chemically reformed
to produce hydrogen. Heat generated during the fuel cell’s electrochemical reaction can be
recovered for certain uses, such as heating water.
Micro turbines

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These are essentially small gas turbines that employ modified processes and structures to generate
power and heat.

7:Technologies and their characteristics

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8:Schematic of CHP system

Conventional CHP system working

The gas turbine compresses air and mixes it with fuel that is heated to a very high temperature.
The hot air-fuel mixture moves through the gas turbine blades, making them spin. The fast-
spinning turbine drives a generator that converts a portion of the spinning energy into electricity.
Heat recovery system captures exhaust.

A Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) captures exhaust heat from the gas turbine that would

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otherwise escape through the exhaust stack. The HRSG creates steam from the gas turbine exhaust
heat and delivers it to the steam turbine. Steam turbine delivers additional electricity. The steam
turbine sends its energy to the generator drive shaft, where it is converted into additional electricity.

Waste energy conversion system working

Energy recovery from the combustion of municipal solid waste is a key part of the non-hazardous
waste management hierarchy, which ranks various management strategies from most to least
environmentally preferred. Energy recovery ranks below source reduction and recycling/reuse but
above treatment and disposal. Confined and controlled burning, known as combustion, can not
only decrease the volume of solid waste destined for landfills, but can also recover energy from
the waste burning process. This generates a renewable energy source and reduces carbon emissions
by offsetting the need for energy from fossil sources and reduces methane generation from
landfills.

The Mass Burn Process

At an MSW combustion facility, MSW is unloaded from collection trucks and placed in a trash
storage bunker. An overhead crane sorts the waste and then lifts it into a combustion chamber to
be burned. The heat released from burning converts water to steam, which is then sent to a turbine
generator to produce electricity.

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9:Benefits of Cogeneration

9.1 Benefits to the End User

Reduced energy costs:

CHP’s greater overall efficiency reduces fuel costs. By generating on-site power and thermal
energy, it is possible to displace as much as one-third to one half of the overall energy expenditures
at a facility, especially in regions where purchased power from utilities is relativelyexpensive.4 As
such, CHP systems generate significant annual operational cost savings. This is what enables CHP
systems to pay back the initial investment, and the savings continue beyond the payback period
for the remainder of the system’s useful life. Energy-intensive industries (e.g., steel, refining,
chemicals) may especially benefit from cost savings related to electrical power and thermal energy.

New revenue streams:

CHP systems can also offer new sources of income. For example, excess electricity can be sold to
a utility if agreements and protocols can be arranged. CHP systems can also provide saleable steam
and heat or other industry-specific products. While these markets are emerging, additional revenue
streams for CHP could include certain types of clean energy credits as well as payments for
providing demand response and capacity reserves.

Increased competitiveness:
Energy bill savings and additional revenue streams provided by CHP systems can be reinvested in
facilities (or companies at large) to support facility expansion and other capital projects, to hire or
retain workers, or in other initiatives that enhance competitiveness. CHP systems can also earn
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) recognition and Energy Star CHP

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awards. Companies could use this recognition to differentiate themselves in the marketplace and
help fulfil corporate social responsibility goals.

Increased energy reliability:

CHP systems produce both electricity and thermal energy on-site; accordingly, they reduce the
risk of electric grid disruptions and enhance energy reliability. CHP systems have the ability to
provide utility quality backup power capable of running even when there is a power outage in the
grid (often referred to as running in “island” mode; a small amount of increased capital investment
may be required to enable this benefit).Power outages can be very costly for companies—for
example, a one-hour outage at an industrial manufacturing plant can cost a company more than
$50,000 in losses. And sometimes more than money is at stake when the power goes out. The
increased reliability that CHP systems provide is especially important for facilities where power
is mission-critical, such as hospitals, data centre’s , and 24/7 industrial facilities.

Easier energy capacity expansion:

CHP systems are typically scalable according to a facility’s electrical and thermal needs. CHP
systems can sometimes also be installed more quickly than a utility can extend the required high-
voltage transmission and distribution. CHP systems can typically be installed within one-half to
three years, whereas transmission build-outs can take 10 years or longer.

Industry- or product-specific benefits:

CHP systems can often offer industry- or product-specific benefits. In addition, CHP systems can
help promote the sustainable use of otherwise wasted products and can simplify waste
management.

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9.2Benefits to Utilities

Meeting standards:

CHP systems can potentially help facilities and utilities meet their compliance obligations under
local, state, and federal emissions standards, such as the recently announced air toxin standards for
boilers and power plants. While these systems on their own may not bring facilities into
compliance, they can potentially help reduce the cost of meeting those standards and reduce the
emission of CO2 and other pollutants. CHP and WER systems also qualify for clean energy
portfolio standards (e.g., energy efficiency resource standard, alternative energy portfolio standard,
renewable portfolio standard) in 24 states that specifically include them as eligible resources in
some form.

Greater flexibility in the electrical grid and deferment of investments in new

fossil-fuel power plants:

As demand for energy rises because of increased industrial and commercial activity and a growing
population, and as our energy mix shifts to cleaner sources—including energy efficiency and an
increasing penetration of renewables—our transmission system and infrastructure will need to be
enhanced to provide the flexibility necessary to accommodate a changing suite of resources while
Maintaining reliability and avoiding congestion. “Non-wires” alternatives, including demand
response, distributed generation systems such as CHP, and other energy-efficiency solutions, can
offer a far less capital intensive route than building new fossil-fuel power plants to meet this
growing demand; accordingly, they provide greater flexibility in transmission and distribution
planning.13 These benefits could save consumers money on their energy bills and allow regions
to more cost effectively plan new generation and transmission infrastructure. In particular, CHP

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systems may reduce the need to invest in transmission infrastructure as power is generated close
to where it is needed. CHP systems may also assist in the integration of renewables. Furthermore,
as they generate power with greater overall efficiency, CHP systems may also reduce the need to
build more power-generation capacity.

9.3Benefits to Communities

Reduced CO2 emissions:

CHP systems reduce emissions of CO2 and other pollutants, including nitrogen oxides, sulphur
dioxide, particulates, and other greenhouse gases. (CO2 is a global warming pollutant, while other
industrial pollutants can cause ground-level smog, acid rain, and human health impacts such as
asthma, heart disease, cancer, and premature death.) For example, a 5-MW gas-turbine CHP unit
with an overall efficiency of 75 percent reduces annual CO2 emissions by about 50 percent, as
compared with an 80-percent-efficient, on-site natural gas boiler and an average fossil fuel–based
electricity generator. On average, making a similar comparison, a CHP system can be expected to
reduce emissions of CO2 by about 4,000 metric tons per MW of installed capacity.

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Job creation:
The use of CHP systems creates direct jobs in manufacturing, engineering, installation, ongoing
operation and maintenance, and many other areas. In addition, CHP projects create indirect jobs
in the CHP industry’s supply chain and other supporting industries. Workers employed as a result
of these direct and indirect jobs can spend their received income on other goods and services, and
businesses and consumers can reinvest the energy-bill savings they receive from CHP systems into
other projects, goods, and services. All this activity creates and retains jobs and induces economic
growth in local communities. Preliminary work suggests that each GW of installed CHP capacity
may be reasonably expected on net to create and maintain between 2,000 and 3,000 full-time
equivalent jobs throughout the lifetime of the system. These jobs would include direct jobs in

1.4

1.2
CO 2 Emissions (t/MWh)

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
Brown coal Black coal Natural gas Combined Cogeneration
cycle

manufacturing, construction, operation and maintenance, as well as other indirect and induced jobs
(net of losses in other sectors), both from redirection of industrial energy expenditures and re-
spending of commercial and household energy-bill savings.

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Integration of renewable energy:

Renewable energy use is rapidly expanding in the United States. However, at present, some
renewable sources can be intermittent. CHP systems, especially those running on natural gas, can
provide additional flexibility and reliability when used in conjunction with potentially variable
renewable energy systems by supplying standby power, able to kick in when there is, for example,
cloud cover or a drop in wind speed. In fact, with increasing penetration of renewable energy, CHP
developers are exploring opportunities to use their systems to support renewable energy
deployment. Additionally, CHP systems are typically quite flexible and can use a variety of fuels.
As such, CHP systems could be used to promote the use of renewable fuels, such as sustainably
sourced biomass and biogas.

Reduced rates for all customers:

CHP systems have financial benefits that spread beyond the facilities where they are deployed. For
instance, well-designed and well-operated CHP systems can reduce the need to build additional
power plants that are more expensive. Accordingly, such CHP systems significantly reduce the
cost of the overall power system. These savings accrue to a given utility’s entire customer base,
benefiting consumers, businesses, and the community at large.

10:Disadvantages Cogeneration
The main disadvantages of combined heat and power are that it is capital intensive and that it is
not a sustainable energy source unless used with renewable fuels.

 Not Suitable for All Sites

CHP systems are only suitable for sites where there is a need for heating and hot water systems.
For larger scale systems heat and power demand need to remain fairly consistent for maximum
efficiency. This particularly applies to heating which is powered continuously on larger systems.

 Financially Intensive

The initial costs for a CHP system can be high without funding. Which can make it prohibitive
for smaller scale (non-domestic) installations.

 Not Necessarily Environmentally Friendly

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Not all CHP systems run on environmentally friendly fuels. Though at Here we always
recommend systems run on environmentally friendly or sustainable fuels.

11:CONCLUSION
Cogeneration is a key element in the energy conservation .When converting a building to
cogeneration there are several benefits as well as drawbacks. Benefits include increased reliability,
and lower emissions from the production of energy. The biggest engineering concerns when
designing a data centre with sensitive equipment are reliability and redundancy. This system takes
care of both concerns. Though it may not be a concern of the owner, the lower emissions from the
cogenerator as opposed to using electricity from the grid is also a benefit. The main drawback is
first cost. In order to build a building using cogeneration, the owner must have a sufficient capital.
Though some states give incentives for cogeneration, there are none for the state of Delaware for
a facility of this size. Payback periods may not be evident given the larger cost of natural gas
compared with electricity. Savings in reliability, however, do provide a significant payback though

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quantifying the specific uptime/ power quality is beyond the scope of this case study. Though
Cogeneration facilities have a significant first cost and payback may not be readily evident, the
reliability of the system may be attractive enough for the owner to make the initial investment.

It significantly improves the efficiency of energy generation which results in lower energy costs.
Cogeneration have many types thus various plants can be constructed depending on the thermal
and electrical demands. It is also a great source of distributed generation which enhances the
reliability of the power system and lowers the transmission losses because there is no need to
transport power on large distances. However cogeneration does not fit in everywhere. There have
to be precise surveys done to check if there is a proper demand for both electricity and heat.
Otherwise such a operation would be uneconomic.

12:REFERENCES
1. Energy Cogeneration handbook Criteria for Central Plant Desing by George Polimeros,
Industrial Press Inc, N.Y.
2. Combined Heat and Power Systems: Improving the Energy Efficiency of Our
Manufacturing Plants, Buildings, and Other Facilities , nrdc issue paper by Vignesh
3. U.S. Department of Energy, Midwest CHP Application Center, Northeast Missouri
Grain, LLC & City of Macon, Missouri, Project Profile, available at
http://www.midwestcleanenergy.org/profiles/ProjectProfiles/NortheastMissouriGrain.pdf
(accessed March 2013).

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4. Petchers, Neil (2003) Combined heating, cooling and power handbook: technologies and
applications: an integrated approach to energy conservation/resource optimization,
Fairmont Press, Marcel Dekker.

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