MECHANICAL DESIGN OF

PROCESS EQUIPMENT ;
PROCESS VESSEL
PERANCANGAN ALAT PROSES
JURUSAN TEKNIK KIMIA UNSRI
Process engineer capabilities
covers
methods of fabrication,

design codes,

Mechanical constraints on pressure vessel design

Mechanical constraints can cause significant cost

thresholds in design, for example, when a costlier grade of
alloy is required above a certain temperature.
VESSEL

PRESSURE STORAGE
DRUMS
VESSEL TANKS
The basic data needed will be
Vessel function;

Process materials and services;

Operating and design temperature and pressure;

Materials of construction;

Vessel dimensions and orientation;

Types of vessel heads to be used;

Openings and connections required;

Specification of heating and cooling jackets or coils;

Type of agitator;

Specification of internal fittings.

Classification of Pressure Vessels
For the purposes of design and analysis, pressure vessels
are subdivided into two classes depending on the ratio of
the wall thickness to vessel diameter: thin-walled vessels,
with a thickness ratio of less than 1:10; and thick-walled
above this ratio.

The principal stresses (see Section 13.3.1) acting at a

point in the wall of a vessel, due to a pressure load. If the
wall is thin, the radial stress s3 will be small and can be
neglected in comparison with the other stresses, and the
longitudinal and circumferential stresses s1 and s2 can be
taken as constant over the wall thickness. In a thick wall,
the magnitude of the radial stress will be significant, and
the circumferential stress will vary across the wall. The
majority of the vessels used in the chemical and allied
industries are classified as thin-walled vessels.
Thickwalled vessels are used for high pressures and are
discussed in Section 13.15.
PRESSURE VESSEL CODES AND STANDARDS
RULES OF THUMBS- drums
Relatively small

Horizontal (usually)

Vertical  gas/liquid separator

Optimum length : diameter = 3 (2.5-5.0)

Holdup time = 5 min (reflux drum), (5-10 min  product feeding
(tower)
Feeding furnace30 min half full is allowed
KO drum should not has no less than 10 times the liquid volume
passing through per minute
The settling velocity for Liquid/liquid separators is 2-3 in/min

Popular Thickness = 6 in
Rules for : VESSEL PRESSURE

Design T : -20 F- 650 F (50o > Operating T)

Design P : 10%  10-25 psi > max operating P

Design P (0-10psig, 600-1000F)= 40 psig

Vacuum Operation: P= 15 psig & full vacuum

Min Wall thickness= 0.25 in

Corrosion allowance = 0.35 in

Allowable working stress = ¼ ultimate strength of material

Rules of thumbs- Storage
Vertical tanks (<1000 gal)

Horizontal ; 1000-10000gal

Beyond 10000gal vertical tank

Bretahing losses expansion roof

Freeboard=15% (capacity < 500 gal), 10% (>500 gal)

Capacities => 1.5 times the size of connecting transportation

equipment
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES &
EQUATIONS
PRINCIPLE STRESSES

THEORIES OF FAILURES

ELASTIC STABILITY

SHELLS OF REVOLUTION

FLAT PLATES

DILATION OF VESSELS

SECONDARY STRESSES
PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS
 DESIGN PRESSURE

 TEMPERATURE

 MATERIALS

 MAX ALLOWABLE STRESSES

 CORROSION

 DESIGN LOAD

 WALL THICKNESS (MINIMUM PRACTICAL)

DESIGN PRESSURE
A vessel must be designed to withstand the maximum pressure

For vessels under internal pressure, the design pressure (= maximum

allowable working pressure or MAWP) is taken as the pressure at which the
relief device is set.

normally be 5 to 10% above the normal working pressure,to avoid spurious

operation during minor process upsets.

When the design pressure is decided, the hydrostatic pressure in the base of
the column should be added to the operating pressure, if significant.

Vessels subject to external pressure should be designed to resist the

maximum differential pressure that is likely to occur in service.
DESIGN TEMPERATURE
allowable stress will depend on the material temperature
(due to the strength of metals decreases with increasing
temperature)

Evaluated as the maximum working temperature of the

material, with due allowance for any uncertainty
involved in predicting vessel wall temperatures.

The minimum design metal temperature (MDMT) should

be taken as the lowest temperature expected in service.

The designer should consider the lowest operating

temperature, ambient temperature, auto-refrigeration,
process upsets, and other sources of cooling.
MATERIALS
 constructed from plain carbon steels, low and high alloy
steels, other alloys, clad plate, and reinforced plastics.

 The selection must take into account the suitability of

the material for fabrication (particularly welding), &
the compatibility with the process environment

 The codes and standards include lists of acceptable

materials,in accordance with the appropriate material
standards.
CORROSION
 The corrosion allowance is the additional thickness of metal
added to allow for material lost by corrosion and erosion, or
scaling.

 Minimum wall thicknesses calculated using the rules given in the

code are in the fully corroded condition

 Corrosion is a complex phenomenon, and it is not possible to give

specific rules for the estimation of the corrosion allowance
required for all circumstances.

 The allowance should be based on experience with the material of

construction under similar service conditions to those for the
proposed design.

 For carbon and low-alloy steels, where severe corrosion is not

expected, a minimum allowance of 2.0mm should be used; where
more severe conditions are anticipated, this should be increased to
4.0 mm.
 determined by applying a suitable safety factor to the
maximum stress that the material.

 the maximum allowable stress is the lowest of

1. The specified minimum tensile strength at room

temperature divided by 3.5;

2. The tensile strength at temperature divided by 3.5;

3. The specified minimum yield strength at room

temperature divided by 1.5;

4. The yield strength at temperature divided by 1.5.

 LOADS Subsidiary
Loads
1. Local stresses caused by supports, internal
structures, and connecting pipes.

MAJOR LOADS
1. Design pressure: including any 2. Shock loads caused by water hammer or by
significant static head of liquid surging of the vessel contents.
2. Maximum weight of the vessel
and contents, under operating
conditions. 3. Bending moments caused by eccentricity
of the center of the working pressure relative
3. Maximum weight of the vessel to the neutral axis of the vessel.
and contents under the hydraulic
test conditions.
4. Wind loads. 4. Stresses due to temperature differences
and differences in the coefficient of
expansion of materials.
5. Earthquake (seismic) loads.
5. Loads caused by fluctuations in
6. Loads supported by, or reacting temperature and pressur
on, the vessel
WALL THICKNESS
 As a general guide the wall thickness of any vessel
should not be less than the following values ; the values
include a corrosion allowance of 2 mm:
 Flash drums. Vessels into which flow a mixture of liquid and vapor. The goal is
to separate the vapor and liquid. For design calculations it is normally
assumed that the vapor and liquid are in equilibrium with one another and that
the vessel is adiabatic (no heat lost or gained). One must simultaneously
satisfy a material balance, a heat balance, and equilibrium. In HYSYS/UniSim,
this can be done using either a Separator or a Tank.

 · Surge tanks. These are storage tanks between units, and can serve a
variety of purposes. They can dampen fluctuations in flow rate, composition
or temperature. They can allow one unit to be shut down for maintenance
without shutting down the entire plant. Use a Tank in HYSYS/UniSim.

 · Accumulators. These are storage tanks following distillation column

condensers. For partial condensers, this flow may be a mixture of vapor and
liquid. The outlet flow may be regulated by a level controller in order to avoid
the tank either flooding (liquid out the top) or going dry (vapor out the
bottom). Use a Separator or Tank in HYSYS/UniSim.
 For example, reflux drums provide surge between a
condenser and its tower and downstream equipment; a drum
ahead of a compressor will ensure freedom from liquid
entrainment and one ahead of a fired heater will protect the
tubes from running dry; a drum following a reciprocating
compressor will smooth out pressure surges, etc. Tanks are
larger vessels, of several hours holdup usually.

 For instance, the feed tank to a batch distillation may hold a

day's supply, and rundown tanks between equipment may
provide several hours holdup as protection of the main
storage from possible off-specification product and
opportunity for local repair and servicing without disrupting
the entire process
 STORAGE TANKS
 are regarded as outside the process battety limits, on tank
farms.

 sizes are measured in units of the capacities of connecting

transportation equipment: 34,500gal tank cars, 8000 gal tank
trucks, etc., usually at least 1.5 times these sizes.

 Time variations in the supply of raw materials and the

demand for the products influence the sizes and numbers of
storage tanks.
Tanks are larger vessels, of several hours holdup usually. For instance, the feed tank to
a batch distillation may hold a day's supply, and rundown tanks between equipment
may provide several hours holdup as protection of the main storage from possible off-
specification product and opportunity for local repair and servicing without disrupting
the entire process.

Storage tanks are regarded as outside the process battety limits, on tank farms. Their
sizes are measured in units of the capacities of connecting transportation
equipment:34,500gal tank cars, 8000 gal tank trucks, etc., usually at least 1.5 times
these sizes. Time variations in the supply of raw materials and the demand for the
products influence the sizes and numbers of storage tanks. of vapor space or
freeboard, commonly 15% below 500 gal and 10% above 500 gal. Common erection
practices for liquid storage tanks are:
The distinction between drums and tanks is that of
size and is not sharp.

Usually they are cylindrical vessels with flat or

curved ends, depending on the pressure, and either
horizontal or vertical.

In a continuous plant, drums have a holdup of a

few minutes. They are located between major
equipment or supply feed or accumulate product.
 Liquid storage tanks ate provided with a certain amount
of vapor space or freeboard, commonly 15% below 500
gal and 10% above 500 gal.

 Common erection practices for liquid storage tanks are:

 a. for less than 1000 gal, use vertical tanks mounted on
legs.
 b. Between 1000 and lO,OOOgal, use horizontal tanks
mounted on concrete foundation.
 C. Beyond 10,000 gal, use vertical tanks mounted on
concrete foundations.
DRUMS
 Liquid drums usually are placed horizontal and gas-
liquid separators vertical, although reflux drums with
gas as an overhead product commonly are horizontal.

 The length to diameter ratio is in the range 2.5-5.0, the

smaller diameters at higher pressures and for liquid-
liquid settling.
 A rough dependence on pressure is
CATEGORIES FAILURE IN PRESSURE VESSEL
Material-Improper selection of material; defects
in material.
Design-Incorrect design data; inaccurate or
incorrect design methods; inadequate shop
testing.
Fabrication-Poor quality control; improper or
insufficient fabrication procedures including
welding; heat treatment or forming methods.
Seruice-Change of service condition by the user;
inexperienced operations or maintenance
personnel; upset conditions
Some types of service which require special attention
both for selection of material, design details, and
fabrication methods are as follows:
a. Lethal
b. Fatigue (cyclic)
c. Brittle (low temperature)
d. High temperature
e. High shock or vibration
f. Vessel contents (Hydrogen Ammonia, Compressed air,
Caustic, Chlorides)
Types of failure
Elastic defirmation-
refers to any changes in the shape or size of an object due to- an
applied force (the deformation energy in this case is transferred
through work) or a change in temperature (the deformation energy in
this case is transferred through heat).

Brittle fracture-Can occur at low or intermediate temperatures.

Excessive plastic deformation-

Stress rupture-Creep deformation as a result of fatigue or cyclic

loading, i.e., progressive fracture.
Types of failure
Elastic defirmation-
deformation refers to any changes in the shape or size of an object due
to- an applied force (the deformation energy in this case is transferred
through work) ora change in temperature (the deformation energy in
this case is transferred through heat).Elastic instability or elastic
buckling, vessel geometry, and stiffness as well as properties of
materials are protection against buckling.
Brittle fracture-Can occur at low or intermediate temperatures.
Brittle fractures have occurred in vessels made of low carbon steel in
the 40’50°F range during hydrotest where minor flaws exist.

Excessive plastic deformation-The primary and secondary stress limits

are intended to prevent excessive plastic deformation and incremental
collapse.

Stress rupture-Creep deformation as a result of fatigue or cyclic

loading, i.e., progressive fracture. Creep is a time-dependent
phenomenon, whereas fatigue is a cycle-dependent phenomenon.
Types of failure
Elastic defirmation-
deformation refers to any changes in the shape or size of an object due
to- an applied force (the deformation energy in this case is transferred
through work) ora change in temperature (the deformation energy in
this case is transferred through heat).Elastic instability or elastic
buckling, vessel geometry, and stiffness as well as properties of
materials are protection against buckling.
Brittle fracture-Can occur at low or intermediate temperatures.
Brittle fractures have occurred in vessels made of low carbon steel in
the 40’50°F range during hydrotest where minor flaws exist.

Excessive plastic deformation-The primary and secondary stress limits

are intended to prevent excessive plastic deformation and incremental
collapse.

Stress rupture-Creep deformation as a result of fatigue or cyclic

loading, i.e., progressive fracture. Creep is a time-dependent
phenomenon, whereas fatigue is a cycle-dependent phenomenon.
Plastic instability-Incremental collapse; incremental collapse is
cyclic strain accumulation or cumulative cyclic deformation.
Cumulative damage leads to instability of vessel by plastic
deformation.

High strain-Low cycle fatigue is strain-governed and occurs

mainly in lower-strengthhigh-ductile materials.

Stress corrosion-It is well known that chlorides cause stress

corrosion cracking in stainless steels; likewise caustic service
can cause stress corrosion cracking incarbon steels.

Corrosion fatigue-Occurs when corrosive and fatigue effects

occur simultaneously. Corrosion can reduce fatigue life by
pitting the surface and propagating cracks.
design 1. Formulas are valid for:
a. Pressures < 3,000 psi.
b. Cylindrical shells where t 5
0.5 R, or P 5 0.385 SE.
c. Spherical shells and
hemispherical heads where t 5
0.356 R, or P 5 0.665 SE.

2.All ellipsoidal and torispherical

heads having a minimum specified
tensile strength greater than 80,000
psi shall be designed using S =
20,000 psi at ambient temperature
and reduced by the ratio of the
allowable stresses at design
temperature and ambient
temperature where required.
General vessel formula
REQUIRED THICKNESS
 General Vessel Design Tips
1. Be sure to leave sufficient disengaging height above
demisters,1 otherwise a healthy derate must be applied.

2. For liquid/liquid separators, avoid severe piping geometry

that can produce turbulence and homogenization. Provide an
inlet diffuser cone and avoid shear-producing items, such as
slots or holes.

3. Avoid vapor entry close to a liquid level. Reboiler vapor

should enter the bottom of a fractionator a distance of at
least tray spacing above high liquid level. Tray damage can
result if the liquid is disturbed.

4. Avoid extended nozzles or internal piping that the operator

cannot see, if at all possible.
5. Make sure items such as gauge glasses, level controls,
or pressure taps do not receive an impact head from an
incoming stream.

6. Use a close coupled ell for drawoff from gravity

separators to eliminate backup of hydraulic head.

7. Check gravity decanters for liquid seal and vapor

equalizing line (syphon breaker).

8. For gauge glasses, it is good to have a vent at the top as

well as a drain at the bottom. These should be inline for
straight-through cleaning.
PROBLEMS

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