Arahan Teknik Jalan 13 87 A Guide To The Design of Traffic Signal PDF

Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 13/87
A Guide to
the Design of
Traffic Signals
7.0m
5.0m
Roads Branch
Public Works Department Malaysia
Jalan Sultan Salahuddin
50582 Kuala Lumpur
ARAHAN TEKNIK (JALAN) 13/87
JABATAN KERJA RAYA
CAWANGAN JALAN
IBU PEJABAT J.K.R.,
JALAN SULTAN SALAHUDDIN
50582 KUALA LUMPUR. HARGA : RM 12.00
Page 1
PREFACE
This Arahan Teknik (Jalan) on "A Guide to the Design of Traffic Signals" is to be used for the
design of traffic signals at all intersections. It is to be used in conj unction with Arahan Teknik
(Jalan) 11/87 s "A Guide to the Design of At - Grade intersections" and rather relevant Arahan
Tekniks.
This guideline presents fundamental concepts and practices related to traf fic signal design that are
to be adopted. In the past, road engineers have been relying totally on the suppliers to come up
with signal timings and location design. With this gp;ideline, it is hoped that road engineers will
now be responsible for every aspcet of traf fic signal design instead of adopting the supplier's
design.
This Arahan Teknik vill be updated from time to time and in this respect, any feedback from users
will be most welcome. Any comments should be sent to Cawangan Jalan, lbu Pejabat JKR,
Malaysia.
Page 2
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
1.1 OBJECTIVES OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL CONTROL
1.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

SIGNAL CONTROL
CHAPTER 2 SIGNAL INSTALLATION CRITERIA
2.1 GENERAL
2.2 WARRANT ANALYSIS
CHAPTER 3 SIGNAL OPERATION REQUIREMENTS
3.1 PHASING ELEMENTS
3.2 RIGHT-TURN PHASING
3.3 SUGGESTED GUIDELINES FOR SEPARATE

RIGHT-TURN PHASES
3.4 SELECTION OF PRETIMED OR ACTUATION

SIGNAL
CHAPTER 4 SIGNAL DISPLAY AND LOCATION
4.1 SIGNAL DISPLAY REQUIREMENTS
4.2 NUMBER AND LOCATION OF SIGNAL FACES
4.3 NUMBER OF LENSES PER SIGNAL FACE
4.4 SIGNAL SIZE, BACKPLATE, POST

AND ARRANGEMENT
4.5 EQUIPMENT AND MATERIAL
4.6 FLASHING OPERATION OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS
4.7 SIGNAL MOUNTING ALTERNATIVES
Page 3
CHAPTER 5 TRAFFIC SIGNAL CONTROLLERS AND DETECTORS
5.1 GENERAL
5.2 PRETIMED CONTROLLERS
5.3 ACTUATED CONTROLLERS
5.4 CONTROLLER LOCATION
5.5 DETECTORS
5.6 LOCATION OF DETECTORS
5.7 INSTALLATION CONSIDERATIONS
CHAPTER 6 TRAFFIC SIGNAL TIMING
6.1 OBJECTIVE
6.2 DESIGN PRINCIPLES
6.2.1 Determination of basic

saturation flow, S
6.2.2 Determination of Y value
6.2.3 Determination of total lost time

per cycle, L
6.2.4 Determination of optimum cycle

time, Co
6.2.5 Determination of signal settings
6.2.6 Determination of Capacity
6.2.7 Determination of delays and queues
6.3 GUIDING PRINCIPLES
Page 4
CHAPTER 7 DESIGN OF PROGRESSIVE SIGNAL TIMING
7.1 ADVANTAGES
7.2 APPLICATIONS
7.3 PROGRESSIVE SIGNAL SYSTEM DESIGN
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GLOSSARY
APPENDIX A : DESIGN EXAMPLE
APPENDIX B : VEHICLE - ACTUATED SIGNAL FACILITIES
Page 5
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
2-1 Peak hour volume warrant-urban or low speed
2-2 Peak hour volume warrant-rural or high speed
3-1 Two phase cycle
3-2 Three phase cycle
3-3 Four phase cycle
3-4 Heaviest right turn protected (leading green)
3-5 Heaviest right turn protected (lagging green)
3-6 Both right turns protected - no overlap (lead dual right)
3-7 Both right turns protected - no overlap (lag dual right)
3-8 Both right turns protected with overlap (quad right passing)
3-9 Lead lag
3-1.0 Directional separation
4-1 Cone of Vision for two lane approach
4-2 Typical arrangements of lenses in signal faces
4-3 Signal head configuration
4-4 Simple two--pole span
4-5 Bast arum with one overhead and one side mount
signal head
6-1 Traffic Signal Calculations Reserve Capacity Diagram
7-1 Typical time space diagram
Page 6
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
2-1 Vehicular Volume Requirements for Warrant 1
3-1 Comparison of Right-turn phase alternatives
4-1 Minimum Visibility distances
4-2 Adjustments for Grade Guidelines
5-1 Safe Stopping distance and detector setback
6-1 Relationship between effective lane width and

saturation flow
6-2 Correction factor for the effect of gradient
6-3 Correction factor for the effect of turning radius
6-4 Correction factor for turning traffic
6-5 Conversion factors to P.C.U.'s
6-6 Tabulation of A= (I - X2)

-----------
2(1 - Xx)
6-7 Tabulation of B= X2
----------
2(1 - x)
6-8 Correction term of equation d = cA + B - K

---
q
as a percentage of the first two terms
6-9 Level of Service for Signalised Intersection
6-10 Level of Service of Road
Page 7
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 OBJECTIVES OF TRAFFIC (c) Increase the traffic han

SIGNAL CONTROL dling capacity of the
intersection.
The overall objective of signal
control is to provide for a safe (d) Provide a means of
and efficient traffic flow interrupting heavy traf-
through intersections, along fic to allow other traffic
routes and in road networks. to enter or cross.
At individual intersections, the
primary purpose is to assign (e) Can be coordinated to
right-of-way for alternate provide for nearly con-
roads or road approaches in tinuous movement of
order to maximise capacity, traffic at a desired
minimise delay and reduce speed along a given
conflicts. route.
On a road system or network (f) Promote driver confi-

the overriding objective is to dence by assigning
optimise the safety and effi- right-of-way.
ciency of traffic flow on the
system, which sometimes Traffic signal installation even
results in compromises at indi- though warranted by traffic
vidual intersections. conditions and properly or
improperly located, designed,
or operated, can produce the
following d1sadvantages:-
1.2 ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF (a) Increase total intersec-
SIGNAL CONTROL tion delay especially
during off peak periods.
Traffic control signals,properly
located and operated may (b) Probable increase in
provide one or more of the fol- certain types of acci-
lowing advantages: dents (rear end colli-
sions)
(a) Provide orderly move-
ment of traffic through (c) Can interrupt the pro-
an intersection. gressive flow of traffic
on a route causing
(b) Minimise the number of increased delay and
conflicting movements stopping.
ARAHAN TEKNIK ( JALAN ) 13 / 87 Page 8

INTRODUCTION
(d) When improperly locat-

ed causes unnecessary
delay and promote dis-
respect for this type of
control.
(e) When improperly timed,

causes excessive
delay, increasing driver
irritation.
(f) In rural areas whore

distinct peak hours traf-
fic exist, serious acci-
dents can occur during
off-peak hours (eg.
midnight) when some
drivers on the major
road may jump the red
light.

Chapter 2 : SIGNAL INSTALLATION CRITERIA
2.1 GENERAL In general the following steps

should be taken prior to the
A request. to install new traffic installation of traffic signal
signals (or upgrading an exist- control:-
ng signalised intersection)
may originate from various (a) Determine the function
sources. The most usual of the intersection as
sources include : it relates to the overall
road system. A system
(a) Responsible agencies of major roads should
( e.g. JKR, City Hall, be designated to chan-
Municipalities etc. ) nel major flow from one
section of the city to
(b) Traffic : Enforcement another. Intersection
Agencies ( e.g. Police ) controls must be relat-
ed to the major road
(c) Industrial or commer- system.
cial developers and
operators (b) A comprehensive study
of traffic data and phys-
(d) Media/General Public ical characteristics of
the location is neces-
From whatever source the sary to determine the
request may originate the need for signal control
responsible agency must and for the proper
determine whether such design and operation of
requests are justified. It is for the control.
this purpose that the following
criteria of selection were (c) Determine if the geo-
developed. These criteria metric or physical
should be viewed as guide- improvements or regu-
lines, not as hard and fast val- lations will provide a
ues. Satisfaction of a criteria better solution to the
does not : guarantee that the problem of safety or
signal is really needed. efficiency than the
Conversely, the fact that a cri- installation of signal
teria is not fully satisfied does control.
not constitute absolute assur-
ance that signalisation would (d) Use establised war-
not serve a useful purpose. rants to determine if
Awareness of local conditions intersection control is
and sound engineering judge- justified.
ment would make the guide
lines more effective.

SIGNAL INSTALLATION CRITERIA
2.2 WARRANT ANALYSIS For the minor road, the higher

volume approach (one direc-
Generally the following war- tion only) is used.
rants should be considered
before installing any signal An "average" day is defined
control. They are namely :- as a weekday representing
volumes normally and repeat-
(1) Vehicular Operations edly found at the location.
(2) Pedestrian Safety (S)
(3) Accident Experience
Traffic control signals should

generally not be installed
unless one or more of the
warrants in this guideline are
met.
Warrant 1 : Vehicular
Operations
(a) Total Volume
Vehicular volume affects the

efficiency and the Level of
Service of an intersection.
High traffic volume on the
major road especially during
peak hours, would invariably
cause considerable delay for
the traffic on the minor road .
For the purpose of determin-
ing the need for signal control,
both the traffic volumes on the
major and minor roads should
be considered. A signal con-
trol is warranted if the traffic
volume for each of any 8 hour
of an average day meets the
minimum requirements in
Table 2.1. For the major road,
the total volume of both
approaches is used.

Table 2-l
Vehicular Volume Requirements for Warrant I
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Number of Lanes Minimum Requirements (PCU)
Each Approach ------------------------------------------------
Majur Road (1) Minor Road (2)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Major Minor Urban Rural Urban Rural
Road Road
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 1 500 350 150 105
2 or more 1 600 420 150 105
2 or more 2 or more 600 420 200 140
1 2 or more 500 350 200 140

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(l) Total volume of both approaches

(2) Higher volume approach only
(b) Peak Hour Volume above the curve for a given

combination of approach
Peak hour volumes could also lanes shown in Figure 2.
he used to determine the
need for sigomliaation. This is The requirements are lower
applied in cases where, for when the 85 percentile
one peak boor of an average speed of major roadtraffic
day, traffic conditions are such exceeds 60 km/hr, or when
that the minor road traffic the intersection lies within a
experiences undue delay or rural area. The peak hour vol-
hazard in entering or crossing ume warrant is satisfied when
the major road. This criteria the volumes referred to fall
warrants aigoaIioatiuo when above the curve for the given
the peak hour major road vol- combination of approach
ume (total vehicles per hour lanes shown in Figure 2.2.
for both approaches) and the
higher volume minor road
approach (vehicles per hour
for are direction only) fall


(c) Progressive Warrant 2 : Pedestrian

Movements Safety
In some locations., it may be Signalisation of an intersec-

desirable to install a signal to tion also promotes pedestrian
maintain a proper grouping or safety. It is warranted for sig-
platooning of vehicles and nalisation when, for each of
regulate group speed even any 8 hours of an average
though the intersection. does day the following traffic vol-
not satisfy other warrants for ume exists :
signalisation. Several advan-
tages may accrue from this (a) On the major road, 600
type of consideration. Moving or more vehicles per
the traffic in platoons at the hour enter the intersec-
desirable speed would reduce tion (total of both
the number of stops and approaches): or where
delays. Accident reduction there is a raised medi-
may also be expected with an island 1.2 m or
reduction of stops and more in width, 1,000 or
speeds. more vehicles per hour
(total of both approach-
On a one-way road (or a road es) enter the intersec-
with predominantly unidirec- tion on the major road
tional traffic), this warrant and
applies when the adjacent sig-
nals are so far apart that they (b) During the same 8
do not provide the necessary hours as in paragraph
vehicle platooning and speed (a) there are 150 or
control. On a two--way road, more pedestrians per
the warrant is satisfied when hour on the highest vol-
the adjacent signals do not ume crosswalk cross-
provide the necessary degree ing the major road.
of platooning and speed con-
trol and the proposed and
adjacent signals could consti- When the 85-percentile speed
tute a progressive signal sys- of major road traffic exceeds
tem. 60 km/hr in either an urban or
a rural area or when the inter-
A signal installation under this section lies within the built-up
warrant should be based on area of an isolated community
the 85-percentile speed having a population of less
unless a traffic engineering than 10,000, the minimum
study indicates that another pedestrian volume is 70 per-
speed is more appropriate. cent of the requirements
above.

A signal installed under this (a) An adequate trial of

warrant at an isolated inter- less restrictive reme-
section should be of the traffic dies with satisfactory
actuated type with push but- observance and
tons for pedestrian crossing enforcement has failed
the main road. If such a sig- to reduce the accident
nal. is installed at an intersec- frequency.
tion within a signal system, it
should be equipped and oper- (b) There exist a record of
ated with control devices five or more reported
which provide proper coordi- accidents in a year.
nation. These accidents should
be of types susceptible
Special considerations should to correction by traffic
be given at schools where signal control.
large number of children
crosses a major road on the (c) There exist a volume of
way to and from school. The vehicular and pedestri-
requirement for school chil- an traffic not less than
dren to cross is based on the 80% of the require-
number of adequate gaps ments specified in war-
available in the vehicular traf- rants 1 and 2.
fic on the major road avail-
able. A signal may be installed (d) The signal installation
to artificially create these gaps will not seriously
if other methods for improve- disrupt progressive traf-
ments are not adequate. fic flow.
Any traffic signal installed

Warrant 3 : Accident solely on this warrant should
Experience be semi traffic-actuated {with
control devices which provide
Accident prone areas with proper coordination if installed
accident types which are cor- at an intersection within a
rectable by signal control war- coordinated system} and nor-
rants signalisation. This claim mally should be fully traffic-
should be substantiated by actuated if installed at an iso-
accident records for a period lated intersection.
of two to three years. The
requirements are satisfied
when :

Chapter 3
SIGNAL OPERATION REQUIREMENTS
After establishing that a signal is There are a number of phas-

warranted at a particular location, the ing options available. The sim-
next major step involves determining plest signal cycle is a two
the most appropriate method of con- phase cycle, in which each
trol. Decisions to be made at this road in turn receives a green
level includes : indication while the cross-road
receives a red indication. A
(a) Determining what are the phasing diagram for a two-
phasing requirements phase cycle is shown in
Figure 3.1.
(b) Whether the signal should be
pretimed or actuated. Three and four phase cycles
are also quite common where
there are heavy turning move-
ments. The purpose of such
3.1 PHASING ELEMENTS multiphase cycle is to prevent
traffic conflicts by giving heavy
Definitions : right-turn movements sepa-
rate signal indications. Figures
(i) A signal phase = part of 3.2 and 3.3 illustrates three
the cycle length allocat- and four-phase signal cycles.
ed to a traffic move-
ment receiving the right
of way simultaneously
during one or more
intervals.
(ii) A traffic movement- a

single vehicular move-
ment, a single pedestri-
an movement, or a
combination of vehicu-
lar and pedestrian
movements.
(iii) Cycle length = the sum

of all traffic phases.


When right turning movements are (d) Lead lag - This phasing is
heavy, protecting its movements are combined with a leading pro-
quite often essential to avoid unnec- tected right in one direction,
essary conflicts. The basic: followed by the through move-
sequences which accomodate right- ments, followed by a lag right
turn movements include : in the opposing direction. It is
sometimes used in systems to
(a) Heaviest right turn protected - provide a wider two-way
This is a "lead right" in which through band. See Figure 3.9.
the right-turning vehicles from
only one approach are pro- (e) Directional separation - First
tected and move on an arrow one approach moves with all
indication preceding the oppo- opposing traffic stopped, then
site through movement; or a the other approach moves
"lag right" when the protected with the first approach
right turn follows the through stopped. See Figure 3.10.
movement phase. See
Figures 3.4 and 3.5.
( The signal displays shown in
(b) Both right turn protected-no Figures 3.4 to 3.10 are those
overlap. When the opposing visible to the starred ( * ) right
right turns move simultane- turn movement ).
ously followed by the through
movements, it is termed "lead
dual right". If the right turns
follow the through movement
it is called a "lag dual right".
See Figures 3.6 and 3.7.
(c) Both right turns protected-with

overlap. In this operation,
opposing right turns start
simultaneously. When one ter-
minates, the through move-
ment in the same directions
as the extending right. move-
ment is started. When the
extending right is terminated,
the remaining through move-
ment is started. When this
type phasing is used on both
roads, it is termed "quad right
phasing". See Figure 3.8.






Although there are no limita- 3.2 RIGHT-TURN PHASING

tions on the numbers of phas-
es that can be utilized, as a In general the phasing issue
general rule they should be is primarily a rightturn issue.
held to a minimum, especially When right-turning volumes
in pretimed controllers. More and. opposing through vol-
than three phases tend to umes increases, a point is
increase the cycle length and reached where right-turning
delay as they reduce the traffic cannot find safe and
green time available to the adequate gaps. The provision
other phases and intersection of separate right-turn lanes
efficiency is impaired by start- will minimize the problem
ing delays, additional change somewhat by providing stor-
intervals, longer cycles, and age space for those waiting
so forth. Multiphase actuated for an acceptable gap in
controllers when properly opposing traffic to turn. If the
operated and timed tend to problem persists, the decision
reduce these undesirable to provide separate right-turn
effects. phasing should be carefully
weighed.
In determining the number of
phases required at an inter- Two common right-turn phas-
section, the goals of safety ing alternatives are the lead
and capacity may conflict. For right and the lag right.
example, in many situations
protected right-turn phases - Lead right : the protect-
are safe for right--turning vehi- ed right turn precedes
cles than permissive right the accompanying
turns. However, the added through movement.
phases may result in longer
cycle lengths, reduced pro - lag right : the right turn
gression in systems, and phasing follows the
increased delay and percent through movement.
of vehicles stopped. These
factors adversely affect traffic The most common practise is
performance, capacity, and to allow opposing right turns
fuel consumption, and may to move simultaneously. This
tend to reduce safety for all operation generally requires
traffic. separate right-turn storage
lanes.

In actuated control, it is fre- Right-turn peak period

quently desirable to split the volumes greater than
right-turn phase so that when two vehicles per cycle
the demand on one right-turn per approach still wait-
phase ceases, the opposing ing at the end of green.
through movement is
released. This works very well
with lead-right operations. In (b) Delay
lag right, it is usually desirable
for the right turns to operate Minimum right-turn vol-
simultaneously. Both umes of. greater than
sequences have advantages two per cycle during
and disadvantages as sum- the peak period, and
marised in Table 3.1. the average delay per
right turning vehicle
greater than 35 sec-
onds.
3.3 SUGGFSTED GUIDELINES
FOR SEPARATE RIGHT-
TURN PHASES (c) Accident experience
The following suggested Four right-turn acci-

guidelines may be applied dents in one year or six
when considering the addition in two years for one
of separate right-turn phasing approach.
for intersections having an
exclusive rightturn lane. Six right-turn accidents
in one year or ten in
(a) Volume two years for both
approaches.
The product of right-
turning vehicles and
conflicting through vehi- (d) Geometrics
cles during the peak
hour is greater than Two or more exclusive
100,000 on a four-lane right-turn lanes are
road or 50,000 on a necessary.
two-lane road.
Right--turn volumes
greater than 100 vehi-
cles during the peak
hour.

TABLE 3.1
Comparison of Right-Turn Phase Alternatives

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Lead Right-Turn Phase
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Advantages Disadvantages
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Iucreamem intersection capacity Right turns may preempt the
on one or two-lane approaches right of way from the oppos-
without right-turn lanes when ing through movement when
compared with two-phase traffic the green is exhibited to the
signal operation. stopped opposing movement.
Minimizes conflicts between right-turn Opposing movements may

and opposing straight through make a false start in an
vehicles by clearing the right-turn attempt to move with the
vehicles through the intersection first. leading green vehicle
movement.
Drivers tend to react quicker than

with lag right operations.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Lag-Right Turn Phase
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Both directions of straight through Right-turning vehicles can be
traffic start at the same time. trapped during the right-turn
yellow change interval as
Approximates the normal driving the through traffic is not
behavior of vehicle operators stopping as expected.
Provides for vehicle/pedestrian Creates conflicts for opposing

separation as pedestrian usually right turns at start of lag start
crosses at the beginning of straight of lag interval as opposing
through green. right-turn drivers expected
both movements to atom at
the same time.
Where pedestrian signals are used, Where there is no right turn

pedestrians have cleared the inter- lane, an obstruction to the
section by the beginning of the lag through movement during the
green interval. initial green interval is created

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Lag-Right Turn Phase
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cuts off only the platoon stragglers The hazards inherent in lag-
from adjacent interconnected inter- right operations are such that
section. they tend to restrict its use
to pretimed operations or to a
few specific situations in actu-
ated or control, such as "T'
intersections.
A green arrow cannot be

displayed during the circular
yellow, there fore, a stop-start
sitnation is necessary with
simultaneously opposing right
turns.

3.4 SELECTION OF PRETIMED (b) Can cause excessive

OR ACTUATION SIGNAL delay to vehicles and
pedestrians during. off-
3.4.1 Pretimed or Fix Timed peak periods
Signal :-
This type of signal directs traf- 3.4.2 Traffic Actuated Signals

fic to stop and permits it to
proceed in accordance with a The operation of this type of
single, predetermined time signal is varied in accordance
schedule or a series of such with the demands of traffic as
schedules. The traffic signal is registered by the actuation of
set to repeat a given vehicle or pedestrian detec-
sequence of signal indications tors as one or more approach-
regularly. es.
Advantages of Pretimed Advantages of Traffic Actuated

Signals. Signals.
(a) Simplicity of equipment (a) Usually reduce delay (if

provides relatively easy properly timed)
servicing and mainte-
nance. (b) Adaptable to short-term
fluctuations
(b) Can be coordinated to
provide continuous flow (c) Usually increase
of traffic at a given capacity (by reappor-
speed along a particu- tioning green time).
lar route, thus providing
positive speed control. (d) Provide continuous
operation under low
(c) Timing is easily adjust- volume conditions as
ed in the field. an added safety fea-
ture, when pretimed
(d) Under certain condi- signals should be put
tions can be pro- on flashing to prevent
grammed to handle excessive delay.
peak conditions.
(e) Especially effective at
Disadvantages of Pretimed multiple phase intersec-
Signals. tions
(a) Do not recognize or

accommodate short-
term fluctuations in traf-
fic demand.

Disadvantages of Traffic can be changed within certain

Actuated Signals limits to meet the require-
ments of traffic more precisely.
(a) The cost of an actuated Pre-timed control is best suit-
installations is two to ed to intersections where traf-
five times the cost of a fic patterns are relatively sta-
pretimed signal installa- ble or where the variations in
tion. traffic flow that do occur can
be accommodated by a pre-
(b) Actuated controllers timed schedule without caus-
and detectors are much ing unreasonable delay or
more complicated than congestion. Pre-timed control
pretimed controllers, is particularly adaptable to
increasing maintenance intersections where it is
and inspection skill desired to coordinate opera-
requirements and tion of signals with existng or
costs. planned signal installations at
nearby intersection on the
(c) Detectors are costly to same road or adjacent roads.
install and require care-
full inspection and
maintenance to ensure Traffic-actuated control differs
proper operation. basically from pre-timed con-
trol in that signal indication
are not of fixed length, but are
3.4.3 Traffic-adjusted system determined by and confirmed
within certain limits to the
These are centrally controlled, changing traffic flow as regis-
as, for example, by a digital tered by various forms of vehi-
computer, and have settings cle and pedestrian detectors.
which are updated from meas- The length of cycle and the
urements of the system sequence of intervals,may
through detectors. vary from cycle to cycle,
depending on the type of con-
troller and auxiliary equipment
3.4.4 Comparison of Pre-timed and utilized to fit the needs of the
Traffic Actuated Control intersection. In some cases,
certain intervals may be omit-
With basic pre-timed control, a ted when there is no actuation
consistent and regularly or demand from waiting vehi-
repeated sequence of signal cles or pedestrians.
indications is given to traffic.
By use of attached auxiliary
devices or remotely located
supervisory equipment, the
operation of pre-timed control

CHAPTER 4
SIGNAL DISPLAY AND LOCATION
To serve its intended purpose in The degree to which

directing and regulating traffic flow, the appearance -of the
two fundamental principles must be signal is expected.
carefully considered, i.e. conspicuity
and clarity. Conspicuity means that The degree to which
the signal must not only be visible, the precise location of
but must be obvious to the eye and the signal is known.
attract attention. Clarity means that
the message or direction given can The degree to which
be easily understood. In other words, the message conform
the signal must be seen in order for to the driver's knowl-
the driver to react and the required edge and expectations.
action must be obvious.
The physical details of these

4.1 SIGNAL DISPLAY elements that ,feet the driver's
REQUIREMENTS ability to see and respond to
message transmitted are pro-
For the driver to respond vided below:
effectively to the traffic signal,
these basic requirements has
to be considered. Minimum Visibility
Requirements :
The amount of light
reaching the driver's Minimum visibility for a traffic
eye. signal is defined as the dis-
tance from the stop line at
The position of the sig- which a signal should be con-
nal in the driver's field tinuously visible for various
of view. approach speeds.
The ratio of the signal- Table 4.1 shows, for example,

to-background contrast. that if the 85percentile
approach speed is 56 kph the
The amount of compet- signal faces should be visible
ing information sources from a distance of 99 m. And
(visual clutter or they should be continuously
"noise") visible from that point all the
way to the stop line at the
intersection.

As these distances do not

consider the impact of grade,
it may be necessary to adjust
the minimum visibility dis-
tances to reflect an upgrade
or downgrade approach. Table
4.2 can be used for this pur-
pose.
If the signal faces are not visi-

ble from the distance specified
by the chart, signs WD.22 and
WD.17 must be installed to
warn drivers. (Please refer to
"Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 2A/85 -
Manual on Traffic Control
Devices : Standard Traffic
Signs" for the details of the
signs)

Table 4.1
Minimum Visibility Distances
85 percentile speed, Minumum Visibility Desirable Distance, m

kph Distance, m
32 53 81
40 66 99
48 82 123
56 99 146
64 119 174
72 140 201
80 165 232
88 190 265
97 218 299
Table 4.2
Adjustments for Grade Guidelines
85 percentile speed, kph Add for Downgrade, m Subtract for Upgrade, m
5% 10% 5% 10%
32 2 5 2 3
40 3 6 3 5
48 5 9 3 6
56 6 14 5 8
64 9 20 6 11
72 12 27 9 15
80 15 37 11 20
88 18 46 14 24
97 21 58 17 29

4.2 NUMBER AND LOCATION Approach alignment

OF SIGNAL FACES that makes continuous
visibility of normally
It is advisable that there be at positioned signals
least two signal indications for impossible.
each through approach to an
intersection or other sig-
nalised location. A single indi- The placement of the signal
cation is permitted for control face depends on the visibility
of an exclusive turn lane pro- requirements for a specific
vided that this single indica- location. Generally, the pre-
tion is in addition to the mini- cise location should consider
mum two for through move- the lateral and vertical angles
ment lanes. of sight toward the signal as
determined by (1) typical driv-
Supplemental signal indica- er eye position; (2) vehicle
tions are recommended if their design; and (3) the vertical,
use will improve what would longitudinal, and lateral posi-
otherwise be marginal visibility tion of the signal face. The
or detectability of the signal first two factors are relatively
indication. Additional heads consistent. It is the third factor
used for this purpose should that varies as a function of the
be located as close as possi- intersection geometry.
ble to the driver's projected Accordingly, the optimum
line of sight. Typical situations physical layout of the individ-
where supplemental indica- ual intersection must be care-
tions may materially improve fully designed to assure that
visibility include : the signal indication lies within
the driver's cone of vision.
Approach widths in
excess of three full
lanes and very wide 4.2.1 Cone of Vision
intersecting road.
Vertically, a driver's vision is
Driver uncertainty con- limited by the top of the vehi-
cerning the proper cle's windscreen. This restric-
location at which to tion requires that the signal be
stop. located far enough beyond the
stop bar to be seen by the
High percentages of driver of a stopped vehicle.
large trucks in the traf- The lateral location of the face
fic stream that tend to is based on the driver's cone
block the view of signal of vision and the width of the
indications in their nor- intersecting cross roads.
mal location.

It has been determined by 4.2.2 Lateral Clearance

recognized human factor stud-
ies that generally a driver's On roadways whose edges
lateral vision is excellent up to are defined by a raised kerb,
5 on either side of the center the poles shall be erected so
line of the eye position (a that no part of the signal head
cone of 10 ). Vision is still very other than overhead signals
good up to 10 on either side project over the roadway. If
(cone of 20 ). At 20 on either possible the signal housing
side (cone of 40 ), the driver's should have a clearance of a
vision is judged as "ade- minimum 450 mm from the
quate". Therefore it requires kerb line.
that at least one (and prefer-
ably two) signal faces be
located within a cone 20 to 4.2.3 Height of Signal Faces
the left or 20 to the right of the
"center of the approach lanes The bottom of the housing of
extended." This constitutes a signal face, not mounted
the maximum acceptable over a roadway, shall not be
cone. less than 2.0 m nor more than
3.5 m above the sidewalk or, if
The cone of vision originates none, above the pavement
at a point which represents surface at the center of the
the center of the approach roadway. The bottom of the
lanes at the stop line. Parking housing of a signal face sus-
lane is usually excluded and pended over a roadway shall
separate turn lanes are includ- not be less than 5.5 m nor
ed unless they are controlled more than 8.5 m above the
by separate signal displays. pavement surface at the cen-
ter of the roadway.
This concept is illustrated in
Figure 4.1. The maximum
cone of vision in this figure is
shown superimposed on a
typical two-lane approach.


4.2.4 Other Locational Criteria : 4.4 SIGNAL SIZE, BACK-

PLATE, POST AND
a) Where a signal face is ARRANGEMENT
meant to control a spe-
cific lane or lanes of a. For uniformity, only one
approach, its position standard size of signal
should be unmistakably indication is used i.e.
in line with the path of the 300 mm lens. This
that movement. 300 mm lens yields a
maximum center lumi-
b) Where possible, signal nance two or more
displays which control times higher than the
through traffic must be maximum center lumi-
located within a maxi- nance of 210 mm indi-
mum of 35 metres cations. In addition, this
beyond the stopline. larger size lens
increases light output
c) Where the secondary and provides better vis-
signal face is more ibility.
than 35 m and less
than 45 m beyond the b. All these signal indica-
stop line, a supplemen- tions must be mounted
tal near-side signal indi- on a black backplate
cations is required. with an orange colored
border.
c. The post must be col-

4.3 NUMBER OF LENSES PER ored in black and
SIGNAL FACE orange strips with a
0.3m interval (See
Each signal face, except in Arahan Teknik Jalan
pedestrian signals, shall have 2B/85 - Traffic Sign
at least three lenses, but not Applications)
more than six. The lenses
shall be red, yellow or green d. Visors should be used
in color, and shall be given a in all installations.
circular or arrow type of indi-
cation. Allowably exception to e. For typical arrange-
the above is were a single ments, see Figure 4.2.
section green arrow lens is
used alone to indicate a con-
tinuous movement.

4.5 EQUIPMENT AND Automatic changes from flash-

MATERIAL ing to stop-and-go operation
shall be made at the begin-
All equipments and materials ning of the major road green
must conform to BS 505 interval, preferably at the
"Specification for Road Traffic beginning of the common
Signals". The color of the light major road green interval,
transmitted by the signals (i.e., when a green indication
shall comply with the limits set is shown in both direction on
out in British Standard 1376. the major road). Automatic
changes from stop-and-go to
flashing operation shall be
made at Lhe end of the com-
4.6 FLASHING OPERATION OF mon major road red interval,
TRAFFIC SIGNALS (i.e., when a red indication is
shown both directions on the
All traffic signal installations major road).
shall be provided with an elec-
trical flashing mechanism. A
manual switch, or where
appropriate, automatic means
shall be provided to operate
this.
The illuminating element in a

flashing signal shall be
flashed continuously at a rate
of not less than 76 nor more
than 84 times per minute. The
illuminated period of each
flash shall be not less than
half and not more than two-
thirds of the total flash cycle.
When traffic control signals

are put on flashing operation,
the following meanings imply,
(a) The system breaks

down or
(b) Low-traffic period con-

trol (usually after mid-
night)


Where there is no common All post or pole mounted sig-

major road green interval, the nals must be installed 2.0 m
automatic change from flash- to 3.5 m above the sidewalk
ing to stop-and-go operation or pavement surface at the
shall be made at the begin- centre of the highway if no
ning of the green interval for sidewalks exist. Typical post
the major traffic movement on mounted signal installations
the major road. It may be nec- are shown in Figure 4.3.
essary to provide a short,
steady all red interval for the Advantages-of Post-Mounted
other approaches before Signals are :-
changing from flashing yellow
to green on the major Low installation costs
approach.
Easy maintenance, no
roadway interference
4.7 SIGNAL MOUNTING Generally considered

ALTERNATIVES as most aesthetically
acceptable.
There are three basic ways
that signal indication may be Generally good loca-
mounted : tions for pedestrian sig-
nals and push buttons.
1. post or pole mounted
2. span-wire mounted
3. mast-arm mounted
The type of mounting used

depends to some extend on
local practice, aesthetic
appearance and cost.
4.7.1 Post-or pole mounted signals

The term post-mounted sig-
nals usually refers to signal
head assemblies mounted on
their own - 100 mm to 150
mm dia. metal post. Signals
may also be mounted on
poles used for other purposes
(eg. lighting poles or tele-
phone).


Where wide medians Advantages of two-pole sim-

with right-turn lanes ple span
and phasing exist, pro-
vide good visibility. Low installation-costs.
Disadvantages are : Allows good lateral

placement of signals
Requires underground for maximum conspicu-
wiring which may offset ity.
initial cost advantages
Minimum number of
May not provide loca- poles to clutter side-
tions which meet mini- walk area
mum conspicuity
Easy to install, little or
Generally does not pro- no underground work
vide good conspicuity. required.
May not provide mount- May be combine'd with

ing locations such that utility poles.
a display with clear
meaning is provided.
Height limitations may

provide problems
where approach is on a
vertical curve.
4.7.2 Span-wire mounted signals :
In a span-wire installation, all

or most of the traffic signal
faces are mounted overhead.
In this application, strain poles
are installed at two or more
locations at the intersection, a
messenger (or support) cable
is strung between the poles,
and signal heads are attached
along the messenger. Wiring
is run overhead.along the
messenger cable to the signal
heads. Figure 4.4 illustrates a
simple span wire mounted sig-
nals.


Disadvantages of two-pole Advantages of Mast-Arm

simple span
Allows excellent lateral
Poor visibility from stop placement
line at intersections of
narrow streets. Provides good con-
spicuity from stop-line
May result in very long
spans. May provide side-
mount locations for
All heads are located supplementary signals
on one span maximiz- or pedestrian faces and
ing loading on cable push buttons.
and poles.
Generally accepted as
Often considered an aesthetically pleas-
unpleasing aesthetical- ing overhead mounting.
ly because of head
"clutter". Rigid mountings pro-
vide positive control of
Poor pedestrian visibili- signal movement in
ty of indications. wind.
No provision for serving

all corners with pedes- Disadvantages of Mast-Arm
trian push buttons.
Costs are higher than
other mounting alterna-
4.7.3 Mast-Arm Mounted Signals tives
Mast-arm mounting is a can- On very wide

tilevered structure which per- approaches it may be
mits the overhead installation difficult to properly
of the signal faces without place signal faces over
overhead messenger cables the lanes they control.
and signal wiring. The cable
connecting the signal heads to
the controller is run inside the
pipe and arm structure. The
mast-arm mounting can be
effectively combined with
pole-mounted signals.
Example of mast-arm installa-
tions is given in Fig. 4.5.

Chapter 5
TRAFFIC SIGNAL CONTROLLERS AND DETECTORS
The designer should decide on the accommodate short-term fluc-

types of control he/she wants in the tuations in traffic demand, it
traffic system. The types of signal can cause excessive delay to
system controls have been dis- vehicles and pedestrians
cussed in Chapter 3. In the case of where there exists a high
vehicle actuation control, the design- degree of variability in the traf-
er has to further decide on the type fic flows.
and location of the vehicle detectors
required. It is proposed that all signal
installations should be of the vehicle 5.2.1 Timing Characteristic :
actuated control type.
Pretimed controllers has the
following characteristics from
5.1 GENERAL a timing standpoint :
Traffic signal controller can be (a) Provide a fixed amount

classified into either pretimed of time for each phase
or actuated. Semi-actuated, interval
full actuated, and volume-den-
sity modes can be provided (b) Each phase or move-
within the current state-of-the ment can be divided
art basic actuated controller into a number of dis-
unit. cretely timed interval
such as phase green,
flashing walk, yellow
5.2 PRETIMED change and all red
CONTROLLERS clearance. The same
timing is provided for
This common type of con- each of these intervals
troller operates according to a regardless of demand.
predetermined cycle lengths
and phase intervals. It is fre- Pretimed controllers do have
quently used when there are a degree of flexibility in vary-
predictable and stable traffic ing timing. Changes in timing
volumes. It provides a simple, can be accomplished to pro-
economical means of traffic vide different, cycle lengths,
control, and because of its interval timing, and/or offset.
simplicity, it is very reliable Timing plans are usually
and relatively easy to main- selected on a time-of-
tain. Because pretimed control day/dayof-week basis by
does not recognise or means of time clocks.

TRAFFIC SIGNAL CONTROLLERS
AND DETECTORS
5.3 ACTUATED d) Minor phase receives

CONTROLLERS green after actuation
provided major phase
A traffic-actuated controller has completed mini-
operates with variable vehicu- mum green period.
lar and pedestrian timing and
phasing intervals which e) Minor phase receives
depend on traffic volumes or minimum initial green
the presence of pedestrians. period.
The flows are determined by
vehicular detectors placed in f) Minor phase green is
the roadway or by pedestrian extended by additional
actuation of push buttons. The actuations until preset
basic applications of actuated maximum limit is
control include semi-actuated, reached or a gap in
full-actuated, and volume den- actuations greater than
sity. the unit extensions
occur.
5.3.1 SEMI-ACTUATED g) Additional actuation will

CONTROLLERS be remembered if max-
imum has been
These devices provide the reached on minor
mean for traffic actuation on phase and will return
one or more, but not all of the green after major
intersection approaches. It is phase interval.
applicable primarily to an
intersection of a heavy - vol- h) Yellow change and all-
ume, urban or suburban traffic red clearance intervals
arterial with a relatively lightly are preset for each
travelled minor road. The phase.
essential operating features of
the controller are : This kind of control is excel-
lent for use where a light side-
a) Detectors are on minor road volume cannot safely
approaches only. cross major flows without sig-
nalisation. If sideroad flows
b) Major, road receives a are sporadic, the regular inter-
minimum green period ruption of the major flow with
in each cycle. pre-timed control cannot be
justified. Where both road vol-
c) Major road receives umes fluctuate widely, semi-
green indefinitely after actuated control should not be
minimum period, until used, since there are no
interrupted by the detectors on one or more
minor phase detector, legs.
actuation.
AND DETECTORS
5.3.2 Full - Actuated Controllers f) Each phase has a

recall switch
This provides for actuation by
vehicles on all legs of the - when both recall
intersection. It is applicable switches are off
primarily to an isolated inter- the green will
section of roads that carry remain on one
approximately equal traffic vol- phase when no
umes, but. where distribution demand is indi-
between approaches varies cated on the
and fluctuates. It then other phase.
becomes necessary to take
into consideration the - when one recall
demands on all approaches. switch is on, the
The essential operating fea- green will revert
tures of the controller are : to that phase at
every opportuni-
a) Detectors on all ty.
approaches
- when both recall
b) Each phase has preset switches are on,
initial interval to provide the controller will
starting time for stand- cycle on a fixed-
ing vehicles. time basis in the
absence of
c) Green interval is demand on
extended by a preset either phase (ore
unit extension for each initial interval
actuation after the initial and one vehicle
interval expires, provid- interval on each
ed a gap greater than phase).
the unit extension does
not occur. Because of their actuated
nature, full-actuated con-
d) Green extension is lim- trollers cannot be coordinated
ited by a preset. maxi- with other signals without los-
mum limit (some equip- ing the flexibility for which
ment can provide two they were designed. Demand
maximums per phase). patterns for which they are
applicable, as well as the
e) Yellow change and all- inability to coordinate make
red clearance intervals the requirements of isolated
are preset for each locations (about 2 km
phase. between adjacent signals) a
fairly strong one.

AND DETECTORS
5.3.3 Volume - Density Controllers flexibility in traffic-actuated

controllers, in that it is capable
This class of device offers of taking into consideration
additional responsiveness in the number of vehicles waiting
signalisation for isolated inter- on an approach, as well as
sections. Green time is allot- the volume on the approach
ted on the basis of volumes with the green indication. Its
on approach legs. Unlike sim- use is primarily applicable to
ple actuated signal, the vol- an isolated intersection with
ume-density signals does not wide traffic fluctuations
merely react in a predeter- between roads. The essential
mined fashion to an actuation, operating features of the con-
but is able to record and troller are :
retain information regarding
volume, queue length, and a) Detectors on all
delay times. In addition, a approaches
phase will lose the green by
any one of three mechanism. b) Each volume density
phase has an initial
a) There are no vehicles green time that, can be
producing any further varied by :
demand on the
approach. - added initial,
b) The maximum green - computed initial,

phase is reached. or
c) The time gap between - extensible initial,

vehicles on the
approach exceeds the c) Passage time is the
maximum standard. extended green time
created by each addi-
The last mechanism is the tional actuation after
"density" function of the sig- the initial green time
nal. At the beginning of a has elapsed. This time
green phase, the maximum is set as that required
time gap might be, for exam- to travel from the
ple, 5 seconds. As the green detector to the stop
phase continues, the maxi- line.
mum time gap decreases. The
phase is lost when the maxi- d) Passage time is
mum gap is exceeded, or reduced to a minimum
when the maximum length of gap after a preset time.
phase is reached, whichever
comes first. This type of con-
trol provides the greatest

AND DETECTORS
e) Maximum green or (d) The cabinet will not be

extension limits are unduly exposed to acci-
preset for each phase. dental damage caused
by passing traffic.
f) Yellow change and all-
red clearance intervals
are preset for each 5.5 DETECTORS
phase.
Traffic detectors are a primary
requisite of actuated signal
controls as they sense vehicu-
5.4 CONTROLLER LOCATION lar or pedestrian demand and
relay these data to the local
intersection controller or mas-
The signal controller may be ter controller so that the
attached to any convenient appropriate signal indications
pole or, if a console cabinet is may be displayed. The selec-
used, it may be placed wher- tion of the type, design, and
ever desired, provided that ,in installation of the various
either case the location cho- types of detectors is a func-
sen satisfies the following :- tion of the operational require-
ments and physical layout of
(a) A power supply can be the area to be detectorised.
conveniently obtained. The functional characteristics
of the most commonly used
(b) There will be an unob- detectors are described
structed view of all below.
approaches to the
intersecton in the event
of manual operation. 5.5.1 Types and Functions of
When this condition Vehicular Detectors
cannot be satisfied and
manual operation is fre- The type of vehicle detection
quently required, it may system used for an actuated
be desirable to install a signal control depends on the
special remote unit at a operational requirements of
more favourable posi- the intersection in terms of the
tion with its switches in type and use of data needed
parallel with those of by the controller to operate
the controller proper. efficieVtly. Most. new installa-
tions use either inductive loop
(c) The cabinet does not detectors, magnetic detectors,
unduly obstruct the or magnetometers. The physi-
pedestrian right of way. cal design and construction of
these commonly used
detectors is summarized
below:
AND DETECTORS
(a) Inductive Loop The directional and nondirec-

Detectors : Loop detec- tional magnetic detector uti-
tors are by far the most lizes a coil of wire with a high-
commonly used today ly permeable core placed
and are the standard beneath the surface of the
form of detection in roadway. When a vehicle
many agencies. comes near or passes over
Essentially, this detec- the coil, the constant lines of
tor installation consists flux passing through the coil
of a loop which may be are deflected causing a volt-
one or more turns of age to by developed in the
wire in a saw-cut slot in coil. A high--gain amplifier
the road surface in the causes the voltage to operate
exact area where vehi- a relay and transmit to the
cles are to be detected. controller the message that a
The ends of this loop vehicle has been detected.
are connected by cable For these detectors to sense
to an electronic amplifi- a change in the magnetic
er usually located in the field, the vehicle must be in
controller. A vehicle motion. Vehicles travelling
passing over, or resting less than 10 kmph are gener-
in the loop, will unbal- ally not detected.
ance a tuned circuit Consequently, magnetic
which is sensed by the detectors can provide the
amplifier. equivalent of passage or
motion data, but not occupan-
(b) Magnetic Detectors : cy or presence data.
There are three types
of magnetic detectors :- (c) Other Types of
the standard magnetic Detectors
detector, a directional
magnetic detector, and Earlier detectors that have
the magnetometer. All been use overseas include
three types consist of pressure pads, radar, and
two components, an in- sonic detectors. Their use is
road sensor, and an now very limited.
amplifier unit. Although
all 3taagnetic detectors The pressure detector
operate on the basis of requires a metal frame
a change in the lines of installed in the pavement to
flux from the earth's support and hold in place a
magnetic field, the pressure plate. The detector is
magnetometer is a spe- activated by the weight of a
cial type of magnetic vehicle causing a closure of
detector. contact plates sealed in the
rubber pressure plate which

AND DETECTORS
sends a signal to the con- selector connected to the con-

troller. This detector is no troller. However, this type of
more in use. detector has never been used
in this country.
Radar detectors operate on
the Doppler effect.
Microwaves are beamed 5.5.2 Application of Vehicle
toward the roadway by a Detectors
transmitter. A vehicle passing
through this beam reflects the The application and design of
microwaves back to the the detection component of
antenna denoting the motion actuated traffic signal contol is
of a vehicle. explicitly related to controller
operation which in turn is
The sonic detector also uses related to the physical and
the Doppler principle. it trans- traffic characteristics of the
mits pulses of ultrasonic ener- location.
gy toward the roadway
through a transducer. A vehi- There are a number of ways
cle passing through this in which detector application
reflects the energy at a differ- and design can be
ent frequency back to the approached. Detector location
transducer which denotes a and configuration is depend-
presence or passage of a ent on
vehicle. These detectors are
of special value, when it is not a) Type and capability of
possible or practical to install controller
loops, magnetic, or magne-
tometer detectors (e.g., on b) Control mode
bridges or approaches with
poor base materials). c) Traffic variable to be
measured
The high-intensity light detec-
tor is a special purpose detec- d) Geometry of the inter-
tor system used for priority section and approach-
control for emergency and es
transit vehicles. It utilizes a
high-intensity light emitted at a e) Traffic flow characteris-
specific frequency from a tics (e.g., volume,
transmitter mounted on the speed, etc.)
vehicle and a detector mount-
ed on or near the traffic sig-
nal. When the light from an
emergency or priority vehicle
is detected, the detector
relays a signal to a phase

AND DETECTORS
Short loop detectors (up to 6 minutes is commonly speci-

meter in length) constitutes fied. A conventional detection
the simplest and most widely loop configuration longer than
used type of detector applica- 6 meter may not detect a
tion. This short loop (small small motorcycle.
area) configuration is intended
to detect a vehicle upstream
of the stop' bar. When a vehi-
cle passes over the detector, 5.6 LOCATION OF
a "call" is placed and the con- DETECTORS
troller responds as pro-
grammed. Ideally, the detector location
should consider the speed,
Short loop detectors may take type, and volume of approach-
a number of forms and be ing vehicles as well as the
located at varying distances type of controller unit.
upstream of the stop bar Table 5.1 presents a range of
depending on the operational suggested detector setbacks.
requirements. A common The values are determined as
application is to space the a function of deceleration rata,
detector loop about 30m reaction time, and decelera-
upstream of the stop bar. tion distance.
However this may vary in
practise depending on the The detector requirements for
approaching vehicular speed. low-speed approaches differ
from the requirements associ-
Long loop detection can also ated with high-speed
be used and it is essentially a approaches. Modern controller
presence detection in that it units are able to detect and
registers the presence of a register the number of vehi-
vehicle in the zone of detec- cles that. have passed over
tion as long as the detector is the detector. With this capabil-
occupied. This method is ity, it is sufficient for a low-
expensive but multiple small speed approach or an urban
loops could be used to over- condition approach to install
come this problem. just one detector. This detec-
tor should be placed about
30m upstream of the stop bar.
5.5.3 Detection of Small Vehicles Adjustments to the variable
Initial Green Time can accom-
A presence detector should be modate the traffic built up at
able to detect all licensed the stop bar during the red
motor vehicles including a period. This facility is available
small motorcycle and hold its in present controller units.
call until the display of a green
to the phase. A hold time of 3

AND DETECTORS
Table 5. 1
Safe Stopping Distance

and
Detector Setback
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Deceleration rate, d = 3.28 m/s
Deceleration time, t = V/d, seconds
Speed, V = m/o
Reaction time, r = I second
Reaction Distance, 8 = r s V metre
Deceleration distance, D = l/2 Vt metre
Safe stopping distance, S = B + D metre

= r u V + l/2 Vt
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Speed V Decel. Reac. Decel. Total Detector

( km/h ) ( m/s ) Time, t Dist, R Dist, D Dist, S Setback
( secs ) ( metre ) ( metre ) ( metre ) ( metre )
24 6.7 2.20 6.7 7.4 14.1 14

32 8.9 2.93 8.9 13.1 22.0 22
40 11.2 3.67 11.2 20.5 31.8 32
48 13.4 4.40 13.4 29.5 42.9 43
56 15.6 5.13 15.6 40.1 55.7 56
64 17.9 5.87 17.9 52.5 70.4 70
72 20.1 6.60 20.1 66.4 86.5 *
80 22.3 7.33 22.3 81.9 104.2 *
88 24.6 8.07 24.6 99.2 123.8 *
96 26.8 8.80 26.8 118.0 144.8 *
105 29.0 9.53 29.0 138.4 167.5 *
* Use multiple detectors

AND DETECTORS
5.7 INSTALLATION Very large loops of up to 9

CONSIDERATIONS meter in width and 16 to 1-8
meter feat in length can pro-
To operate effectively, detec- vide an extension of green
tors must be properly time when occupancy increas-
designed and carefully es to a saturation point in a
installed. An improperly given direction.
installed detector can serious-
ly degrade the efficient opera-
tion of the controller ' or even
render the controller inopera-
tive.
Essentially, the inductive loop

detector wire is normally a l3-
or 14-gauge conductor
embedded in a saw-cut slot
approximately 75 mm below
the pavement. A sealant, such
as asphalt, epoxy,
polyurethane, or polyester
compounds, is used to seal
the loop in the pavement. An
alternate, more durable con-
struction is to place the turns
of wire in a plastic conduit
within or just below the pave-
ment surface or within a plas-
tic sleeve laid in the, saw-cut
in the pavement. This method
is preferred.
The width of the loop is nor-

mally 1.8 meter while the
length can range from 1.8
meter to 30 meter. The effec-
tive area of detection normally
extends about 0.76 m outside
the loop.

CHAPTER 6
TRAFFIC SIGNAL TIMING
6.1 OBJECTIVE
The objective of signal timing is to alternately assign the right-of-way

to various traffic movements (phases)in such a manner as to minimize
average delay to any single group of vehicles or pedestrians and to
reduce the probability of accident producing conflicts.
6.2 DESIGN PRINCIPLES
6.2.1 Determination of saturation flow, S
The capacity of a traffic-signal controlled intersection is limited by the

capacities of the individual approaches to the intersection. This capac-
ity of an approach is measured independently of traffic and other
controlling factors and is expressed as the saturation flow.
Saturation flow is defined as the maximum flow, expressed as equiva-

lent passenger cars, that can cross the stop line of the approach
where there is a continuous green signal indication and a continuous
queue of vehicles on the approach.
Basic saturation flow (S) expressed in passenger car units per hour
with no parked vehicles is given by
i) where effective approach width W > 5.5 m
S = 525 W p.c.u./hr
ii) and where W < 5,5 m, see Table 6-1.
Where there are parked vehicles, effective approach width is to be

reduced by LW where
LW = 14 - 0.9 ( Z-7.6 ) / k
Where Z (>7.6 m) is the clear distance of the nearest parked car from
the stop line (m) and k is the green time (sees).

If the whole expression becomes negative, the effective lose should be taken as
zero. The affective loss should be increased by 50 percent for a parked lorry or
wide van.
Note : The British formula, assuming m green time of 30 seconds, infers that
there is no effect on the approach capacity if parking is approximately
61 m (20O ft) or more away from the stop line.
This basic saturation flow is then has to be corrected for the effect of gradient,
turming radium, and the proportion of turning traffic.
Table 6-l
Relationship between effective lane width and

saturation flow
w(m) 3.0 3.25 3.5 3.75 4.0 4.25 4.5 4.75 5.0 5.25
s 1845 1860 1885 1915 1965 2075 2210 2375 2560 2760
( pcu/h )
a) Gradient
See table below

Table 6-2
Correction factor for the effect of gradient
Correction Factor, Fg Description
0.85 for upward slope of 5%

1.00 for level grade
1.03 for downward slope of 1%
b) Turning radium
Saturation flows for approaches with exclusive turning traffic

need to be corrected with factor that takes into consideration
the magnitude of the turning radius, R. See table below.
Table 6-3
Correction Factor for the effect of turning radius
Correction Factor, Ft Description
0.85 for turning radius R < 10 m

0.90 for turning radius where 10 m < R < 15 m
0.96 for turning radius where 15 m < R < 30 m

c) Turning traffic
When u lane comprises straight-on and turning traffic, the pro-

portion of turning traffic is one of the factors determining the
saturation flow, S.
Table 6-4 specifies correction factors for various percentages of

turning traffic over the total traffic on the approach lane.
Table 6-4
Correction factors for turning traffic
% turning traffic Factor for right-turn, Factor for left-turn,

Fr F1
5 0.96 1.00
10 0.93 1.00
15 0.90 0.99
20 0.87 0.98
25 0.84 0.97
30 0.82 0.95
35 0.79 0.94
40 0.77 0.93
45 0.75 0.92
50 0.73 0.91
55 0.71 0.90
60 0.69 0.89
Note :
1. If a lane comprises both right and left turning traffic, the

total factor will be Fr x Fl
2. In cases where total saturation flow of the exits is lower

than of the approaches, the lower value has to be taken
into account.

6.2.2 Determination of Y value
Y = q/S
where y = ratio of flow to saturation flow
q = actual flow on a traffic-signal approach

converted in pcu/hr ( See Table 6-5 for
conversion )
S = saturation flow for the approach in pcu/hr.
The y value for a phase is the highest y value from the approaches
within that phase.
n
For the whole junction, Y= E yi
where n = number of phase
yi = highest y value from the approach within

that phase i.
This Y value is a measure for the accupancy of the intersection.

Y should preferably not be higher than 0.65. If the value found is
higher than 0.85, it is recommended that the geometrics of the inter-
section be upgraded to increase the capacity.
Table 6-5
Conversion factors to pcu's
Vehicle Type Equipment pcu value
Passenger cars 1.00

Motor cycles 0.33
Light vans 1.75
Medium lorries 1.75
Heavy lorries 2.25
Buses 2.25

6.2.3 Determination of total lost time percycle, L
From Webster and Cobbe, the total lost time per cycle is
n n
L = E ( I - a ) + E1
I=1 I=1
where I = the intergreen time between the phases a

the amber time, usually taken as 3
seconds.
a = the amber time, usually taken as 3

seconds.
1 = drivers reaction time at begin of green per

phase. In practise, this time is set to 2
seconds but 0 - 7 seconds can also be
used.
Note :
i) The shortest total lost time is the most economic one because
the greater part of the cycle can be used by traffic flows.
ii ) Intergreen, I = R + a (in seconds) where R = all red interval
iii ) To check for adequacy of amber time, a
a = V + W+L
----- ---------
2A V
where
a = amber time ( sec )

2
A = acceleration ( taken as 4.58 m/S )
V = approach speed ( m/s )
W = width of intersection crossed ( m )
L = length of vehicle ( suggested 5.5 m )

6.2.4 Determination of optimum cycle time, Co
An expression for the optimum cycle time, Co,is given in Road

Research Technical Paper No. 56 as
Co = 1.5L + 5 ( in seconds )
------------
I-Y
This optimum cycle time, Co, gives the minimum average delay for the
intersection. But this delay is not greatly increased if the cycle time
varies within the range of 0.75 to 1.50 of the calculated Co.
For practical purposes, cycle time should be between 45 seconds to

120 seconds, although an absolute minimum of 25 seconds can be
used.
8.2.5 Determination of signal settings
Effective green time is the green time plus the change interval minus
the lost time for a designated phase.
The total effective green time = cycle time minus total lost time.
g + g + ........... + g = Co - L
1 2 n
where n denotes the number of phases and gn is the effective green

time of phase n.
For optimum conditions
g = y ( for a 2 phase cycle )

1 1
-- --
g y
2 2

With the above ratio, the following formulas apply to each individual
phase.
g = Yn (Co - L) ( in seconds )
n ----
Y
where g = effective green time of the n

n signal phase
Yn = calculated Y-value of the same signal

phase.
For a 2 phase cycle
9 = Yl ( Co L )
1 ---
Y
and g = Y (Co L)
2 2
---
Y
The actual green time, G = 9+I+R
The controller setting time, K = G-a-R

= g+1-a
Therefore for a two-phase example
K = g+1-a
1 1
and K = g+I-a
2 2

6.2.6 Determination of Capacity
a) Practical capacity, Y prac
The maximum possible value of Y which can be accommodat-

ed is
Y max = 1-L
-----
CM
where L = total lost time ( sec )
C = maximum cycle time (sec)

m
*
For practical purposes, Cm = 120 seconds
than Y = 0.9 - 0.0075 L

prac
For design purposes Co is used rather than C

m.
b) Reserve Capacity, RC
This reserve capacity is the difference between the capacity

and the actual flow. As a percentage of the present flow, RC is
given by
RC = 0.9 ( 1 - L/C max ) - Y x 100%

-----------------------------
Y
or more conveniently
RC = Y - Y
prac
-------------------- x 100%
Y
Y is the actual value at the junction.
A useful mean of calculating RC is by using the Reserve

Capacity Diagram in Figure 6-1

c) Design Life of Junction, n
n = log ( Q1 /Qo )
------------------
log ( I + GR )
where n = number of years
Q1 = 90% of ultimate capacity
Q0 = present flow
MGR = growth rate
This design life is calculated when C = 120 secs. Therefore all

the green times should be adjusted to suit this condition.
6.2.7 Determination of delays and queues
a) Average delay per vehicle on a particular intersection arm is

given by
2 2
d = 9 [C(I-~) + x ]
--- ------------- ------------
10 [ 2 ( l - ~x ) 2q ( l - x ) ]
where d = average delay per vehicle
c = cycle time
~ = proportion of the cycle that is effec-

tively green for the phase under
consideration ( i.e.g/C )
q = flow
x = degree of saturation, which is the

ratio of actual flow to the maximum
flow that can pass through the
approach ( i.e. q/,.S )

To enable the delay to be calculted more easily, the equation is

rewritten as.
d = CA + B/q - K
2
where A = (1-~)
------------- tabulated in fable 6 - 6
2 ( 1- ~x )
2
B = X
------------ tabulated in Table 6 - 7
2(1-x)
and K = correction factor tabulated in Table

6 - 8.
Note : User shall use this equation with caution at high degrees of
saturation (i.e. x approaches 1) as it will greatly overestimate
delay. When x = 1, d = "
b) Maximum queue occurs at the start of green and has an

average value of
N = qxr
or whichever is greater
N = q ( r/2 + d )
where N = number of vehicles q = flow

( veh/sec )
d = average delay per vehicle for a

particular arm ( seconds )
r = C - g = effective red time (seconds)

To calculate 'Reserve Capacity' use the left hand diagram to obtain a point
corresponding to the 'Lost time' and the maximum cycle time suitable for the
junction, extend a line horizontally from this point to the right hand diagram to
meet a vertical line corresponding with the Y value - the Reserve Capacity ( RC )
may be read at the point of intersection. Example : Lost Time 10 seconds; Cycle
time 75 seconds; Y value 6; Reserve Capacity 30%.

TABLE 6 - 6
Tabulation of A = (l- ~2 )
--------------
2 ( l - ~x )
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
x 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.80 0.90
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
O.l 0.409 O.337 0.253 0.319 0.188 O.158 0.132 0.107 0.085 0.066 0.048 0.032 0.005
0.2 0.413 0.383 0.261 0.227 0.196 0.166 0.138 0.114 0.091 0.070 0.052 0.024 0.006
0.3 0.418 0.340 0.269 0.236 0.205 0.175 0.147 0.121 0.088 0.076 0.067 0.026 0.007
0.4 0.422 0.348 0.378 0.246 0.314 0.184 0.156 0.130 0.109 0.003 0.063 0.039 0.008
0.5 0.426 0.356 0.288 0.256 0.325 0,195 0.167 0.140 0.114 0.091 0.089 0.033 0.009
0.55 0.423 0.360 0.393 0.362 0.231 0.201 0.172 0.145 0.119 0.095 0.073 0.036 0.010
0.60 0.431 0.364 0.299 0.267 0.237 0,207 0.179 0.151 0.125 0.100 0.078 0.038 0.011
0,65 0.433 0.368 0.304 0.273 0.243 0.214 0.185 0.150 0.131 0.106 0.083 0.042 0.012
0.70 0.435 0.372 0.310 0.280 0.250 0.331 0.192 0.165 0.138 0.113 0.088 0.045 0.014
0.75 0.438 0.376 0.316 0,286 0.257 0.228 0.200 0.172 0.145 0.120 0.095 0.050 0.015
0.80 0.440 0.381 0.322 0.293 0.265 0.236 0.208 0.181 0.154 0.128 0.102 0.056 0.018
0.85 0.443 0.386 0.329 0.301 0.373 0.245 0.217 0.190 8.163 0.137 0.111 0.063 0.021
0.90 0.445 0,390 0.336 0.300 0.281 0.354 0.227 0.200 0.174 0.148 0.123 0.071 0.026
0.92 0.446 0.392 0.388 0.312 8.205 0.258 0.231 0.205 0.179 0.152 0.126 0.076 0.028
0.94 0.447 0.394 0.341 0.315 0.280 0.262 0.236 0.210 0.183 0,157 0.133 0.081 0.032
0.96 0.448 0.396 0.344 0.318 0.292 0,266 0.240 0.215 0.189 0.163 0.137 0.086 0.037
0.98 0.449 0.398 0.347 0.322 0.296 0.271 0.245 0.220 0.194 0.168 0.143 0.083 0.042
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

TABLE 6 - 7
2
Tabulation of B = x
-----------
2(l-u)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
x 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
0.l 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.0l0 0.0Il 0.013 0.0l5 0.0l7 0.020 0.022
0.2 0.225 0.028 0.031 0.034 0.038 0.042 0.046 0.050 0.054 0.059
0.3 0.064 0.070 0.075 0.081 0.088 0.094 0.101 0.109 0.116 0.125
0.4 0.133 0.I42 0.152 0.162 0.173 0.184 0.l96 0.208 0.222 0.235
0.5 0.350 0.265 0.282 0.299 0.317 0.336 0.356 0.378 0.400 0.425
0.6 0.450 0.477 0.586 0.536 0.569 0.604 0.641 0.680 0.723 0.768
0.7 0.817 0.869 0.926 0.987 1.05 1.13 1.20 1.29 1.38 1.49
0.8 0.60 1.73 1.87 2.03 2.21 2.41 2.64 2.91 3.23 3.60
0.9 4.05 4.60 5.28 6.18 7.36 9.03 11.5 15.7 24.0 49.0
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

TABLE 6 - 8
Correction term of equation d = cA + B - K

as a percentage of the first ---
two terms q
M
x ~ 2.5 5 10 20 40
0.2 2 2 1 1 0
0.3 0.4 2 1 1 0 0
0.6 0 0 0 0 0
0.8 0 0 0 0 0
0.2 6 4 3 2 1
0.4 3 2 2 1 1
0.4 0.6 2 2 1 1 0
0.8 2 1 1 1 1
0.2 10 4 5 3 2
0.4 6 2 4 2 1
0.5 0.6 6 2 3 2 2
0.8 3 1 3 3 2
0.2 14 11 8 5 3
0.4 11 9 7 4 3
0.6 0.6 9 8 6 5 3
0.8 7 8 8 7 5
0.2 18 14 11 7 5
0.4 15 13 10 7 5
0.7 0.6 13 12 10 8 6
0.8 11 12 13 12 10
0.2 18 17 13 10 7
0.4 16 15 13 10 8
0.8 0.6 15 15 14 12 9
0.8 14 15 17 17 15
0.2 13 14 13 11 8
0.4 12 13 13 11 12
0.9 0.6 12 13 14 14 12
0.8 14 15 17 17 15

0.2 8 9 9 9 8
0.4 7 9 9 10 9
0.95 0.6 7 9 10 11 10
0.8 7 9 10 12 13
0.2 8 9 10 9 8
0.4 8 9 10 10 9
0.975 0.6 8 9 11 12 11
0.8 8 10 12 13 14
* M is the average flow per cycle = qc

6.3 GUIDING PRINCIPLES period of each

approach.
Some guiding principles to be (Longer cycle
used in accomplishing the lengths have a
objective of this chapter are higher capacity
as follows : since over a
given time peri-
a) The number of phases od, there is a
should be kept to a lower frequency
minimum : each addi- of starting delays
tional phase reduces and clearance
the effective green time intervals).
availale for the move-
ment. of traffic flows. - A 120 second
(Increases lost time cycle length
due to starting delays should be the
and clearance intervals maximum used,
or intergreen intervals). irrespective of
the number of
b) Short cycle lengths phases: above a
yield the best perform- 120 second
ance in terms of provid- cycle, there is an
ing the lowest average insignificant
delay, provided the increase in
capacity of the cycle to capacity and
pass vehicles is not rapid increase in
exceeded. total delay.
- For two-phase c) The level of service of

operations, short the signalised intersec-
cycle lengths (40 tion must be the same
to 60 seconds) as the level of service
are generally of the road system at
recommended to that location. See
produce mini- Tables 6.9 and 6.10
mum delay. below.
- Longer cycle
lengths (over 60
seconds) will
accommodate
more vehicles
per hour if there
is a constant
demand during
the entire green

Table 6 - 9
Level of Service for signalised Intersection
LEVEL OF SERVICE STOPPED DELAY FOR VEHICLE

( SEC )
A < 5.0
B 5.1 to 15.0
C 15.1 to 25.0
D 25.1 to 40.0
E 40.1 to 60.0
F > 60.0
Table 6.10
Level of service of Road
AREAS CATEGORY OF ROAD LEVEL OF SERVICES
Expressway C
Highway C
RURAL Primary D
Secondary D
Minor E
URBAN Expressway C
Arterial D
Collector D
Local Street E

Chapter 7
DESIGN OF PROGRESSIVE SIGNAL TIMING
A signal system is defined as having iii) Vehicle speeds should

two or more individual signalised be more uniform
intersections which are link together because there will be
for coordination purposes. To obtain no incentive to travel at
system coordination all signals must excessively high speed
operate with the same (common) to reach a signalized
cycle length, although in rare intersection before the
instances some intersections within start of the green inter-
the system may operate at double or val, yet slower drivers
one-half the cycle length of the sys- will be encouraged to
tem. Although at. individual inter- speed up to avoid hav-
sections, the intervals (red, green, ing to stop for a red
and yellow) may vary according to light.
traffic conditions, it is desirable that
the arterial for which coordination is (iv) There should be fewer
being provided have a green plus accidents because pla-
yellow interval equivalent to at least toons of vehicles will
500 of the cycle length. arrive at. each signal
when it is green, there-
by reducing the possi-
bility of red-signal viola-
7.1 ADVANTAGES tions or rear-end colli-
sions. Naturally, if there
Some of the advantages of are fewer red intervals
providing coordination among displayed to the majori-
signals are : ty of motorists, there is
less likely to be Lrouble
(i) A higher level of traffic because of driver inat-
service is provided in tention, brake failure,
terms of higher overall slippery pavement, and
speed and reduced so on.
number of stops.
v) Greater obedience to
(ii) Traffic should flow the signal commands
more smoothly, often should be obtained
with an improvement in from both motorists and
capacity and decrease pedestrian because the
in energy consumption. motorist will try to keep
within the green inter-
val,and the pedestrian

DESIGN OF PROGRESSIVE
SIGNAL TIMING
will stay at the kerb 7.2.1 One-Way Road

because the vehicles
will be closer, spaced. The simplest form of coordi-
nating signals is along a one-
(vi) Through traffic will tend way road, or to favor one
to stay on the arterial direction of traffic on a two-
road instead of on par- way road that contains highly
allel minor roads. directional traffic flows.
Essentially, the mathematical
relationship between the band
speed S and the offset L can
7.2 APPLICATIONS be described as
In a discussion of the two-way S = D

and one-way street applica- -------- (7.1)
tions of system timing, the fol- 0.278L
lowing terms are frequently
used :
where S = speed of pro-
1. Through-band : the gression (km/hr)
space between a pair
of parallel speed lines D= spacing of sig-
which delineates a pro- nals (m)
gressive movement on
a time-spare chart. L= offset in seconds
2. Band speed : the slope

of the through-band 7.2.2 Two-Way Road
representing the pro-
gression speed of traf- For a two-way movement, four
fic moving along the general progressive signal
arterial. systems are possible : (1)
simultaneous, (2) alternate,
3. Bandwidth : the width (3) limited (simple) progres-
of the through-band sive, and (4) flexible progres-
expressed in seconds sive. The relative efficiency of
(or percent. of cycle any of these systems is
length), indicating the dependent on the distances
period of time available between signalized intersec-
for traffic to flow within tions, the speed of traffic, the
the band. cycle length, the road-way
capacity, and the amount of
friction caused by turning
vehicles, parking and unpark-
ing maneuvers, improper or
illegal parking or loading, and

SIGNAL TIMING
pedestrians. In general, a For example, a system of sig

twoway progression with max- nalized intersections at 1/2 km
imum bandwidths can be spacing could have a band
achieved only if the signal speed in simultaneous system
spacings are such that vehicu- 30 km/h, respectively, with a
lar travel times between sig- 60 sec cycle. With closely
nals are a multiple of one-half spaced intersections, howev-
the common' cycle length : er, a simultaneous system
otherwise, inevitable compro- may encourage excessive
mises have to be made in the speeds as drivers tend to trav-
progression design. el through a maximum num-
ber of intersections during the
In a simultaneous system, all green interval.
signals along a given street
operate with the same cycle In the alternate system, each
length and display the green successive signal or group of
indication at the same time. signal shows opposite indica-
Under this system, all traffic tions to that of the next. signal
moves at one time, and a or group. If each signal alter-
short time later all traffic stops nates with those immediately
at. the nearest signalized adjacent, the system is called
intersection to allow cross- single alternate. If pairs of sig-
road traffic to move. nals alternate with adjacent.
pairs, the system is termed
The mathematical relationship double alternate: and so on.
between the band speed (in
both directions) and signal The band speed in a single-
spacing in a simultaneous alternate system is
system can be described as
follows. S = D
--------- (7.3)
S = D 0.139 C
-------- (7.2)
0.278C In a double-alternate system,
the band speed is determined
where S = speed of pro- by the same formula, with D
gression (km/hr) being the distance between
the midpoints of adjacent
D= spacing of sig- pairs. Generally speaking, the
nals (m) alternate system may provide
excellent traffic; service,
C= cycle length in depending on the distances
seconds between signals and the cycle
length. Equal distances pro-
vide the best result.

SIGNAL TIMING
In a simle progressive system, equations (7.1) to (7.3) may

a common cycle length is be solved for C (cycle length)
used and the various signal by using the measured oper-
faces controlling a given road ating speed for S and the typi-
provide green indications in cal distance between pro-
accordance with a time sched- posed signals for D. The
ule to permit continuous oper- resultant cycle lengths falling
ation of platoons along the in a usable range should be
road at a designed rate of compared with the cycle
speed, which may vary within length computed for each indi-
different parts of the system. vidual intersection. If one
cycle length approximates or
In a flexible progressive sys- slightly exceeds those com-
tem, the signal offsets, splits, puted for a majority of individ-
and/or cycle length of the ual intersection it, should be
common cycle are changed to selected on a trial basis. First,
suit. the needs of traffic : however, each individual inter-
throughout the day. For exam- section must be reexamined
ple, an inbound progression to assure that it can operate
toward the central business effectively with the selected
district during the morning cycle length. Sometimes
peak can be changed to an rephasing or geometric and/or
outbound progression during operational improvements at
the remainder of the day an intersection will be
merely by adjusting the. signal required. If such changes are
offsets, or a longer cycle not feasible, and the operation
length can be used during the with this cycle length would
morning and evening peak seriously impaired one. or
hours in order to provide more intersections, a new trial
greater capacity than during cycle length should be select-
the off-peak period. ed. In practice, the cycle
length already established for
signal systems intersection or
closely adjacent to the system
7.3 PROGRESSIVE SIGNAL under study will frequently dic-
SYSTEM DESIGN tate the cycle length to be
used.
7.3.1 Selection of a cycle length
In the selection of a trial cycle

length, the criterion that band
speeds be at or near the
mean operating speed of vehi-
cles on the street is frequently
used. If the spacing in the
system is fairly regular,

SIGNAL TIMING
7.3.2 Manual design method for intersections. A horizontal

arterial routes working line'is drawn across
the graph on which the green
To develop an arterial-based or red phase of each signal-
timing plan, a considerable ized intersection at the left
amount of data must be col- edge of the diagram, signal
lected initially, including phases are constructed on the
vertical reference line with
(i) Intersection spacing either a green or red phase
centered on the working line.
(ii) Road geometric A progression speed line
which has a slope represent-
(iii) Traffic volumes ing the desired progression
speed is drawn starting at the
(iv) Traffic regulations such beginning of the green phase
as parking, speed limit, at the first signalized intersec-
and turn restrictions tion. Far each succeeding
intersection, either a red or
(v) Speed and delay infor- green signal phase is cen-
mation. tered on the horizontal work-
ing line to obtain an equal
Using the data, a number of bandwidth for each direction
timing plans are then deter- of flow. Should progressive
mined together with the indi- movement, be desired in only
vidual timing requirements at one direction, this procedure
each signalized location. For may be modified such that the
each plan a cycle length is - beginning of the green phase
selected which is common to at each intersection is placed
the arterial route, and a on the progression speed line.
graphical analysis of the type
illustrated in Figure 7.1. is
undertaken by a trial-and-error
process to determine offsets
for each of the desired timing
plans.
Figure 7.1 is a two-dimension-

al graph portraying a two-
directional coordinated arterial
system with distance on the
horizontal scale and time on
the vertical scale. The inter-
sections are located on the
distance scale with vertical
reference lines drawn at the
centerline of all signalized

SIGNAL TIMING

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. "Highway Capacity Manual 1965" - Highway Research Board Special

Report 87, Washington DC, 1965.
2. Homburger, Wolfgang S, & Kell, James H, "Fundamentals of Traffic

Engineering - 10th Ed., "Institute of Transportation Studies, Univ. of
California, Berkely, California 1981.
3. Kell, James H & Fullerton, Iris J. "Manual of Traffic Signal Design",

Institute of Transportation Engineers, New Jersey 1982.
4. Pignataro, Louis J, "Traffic Engineering, Theory and Practise,"

Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1973.
5. "Practical Guide for Planning and Design of At-Grade Intersection" -

Japan Society of Traffic Engineers, April 1985.
6. "Traffic: Engineering Handbook", Institute of Traffic Engineers,

Washington 1965.
7. Webster, F.V. and Cobbe, B.M. "Traffic Signals" - Ministry of Transport,

Road Research Technical Paper No. 56, London, April 1966.
8. Yu, Jason C, "Transportation Engineering, Introduction to Planning,

Design, and Operations", Elsevier, New York 1982.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Intergreen period : The period of time between the termination of the green
signal for one phase and the beginning of the green
signal for the next phase to receive right of way.
Interval : A discrete portion of the signal cycle during which the signal
indications remain unchanged. Interval Sequence: Specifies the
order in which the various intervals are displayed.
Interval Timing : The passage of time which occurs during an interval.
Loop Detector : A device capable of sensing a change in inductance of a

loop sensor imbedded in the roadway caused by the
passage or presence of a vehicle over the loop.
Maximum extension : Difference between maximum green and mini-

mum green. The normal cycle time + max exten-
sion times should preferably not, exceed 120
sees.
Maximum green : The maximum (preset) period a green signal can last
after a demand has been made by traffic on another
phase.
Magnetometer : A device capable of being actuated by the magnetic dis-

turbance caused by the passage or presence of a vehi-
cle. A magnetic flux generator/sensor is installed in the
roadway and connected to sensor applifier electronics.
Measures of
Effectiveness(MOEs) : Indices of the effectiveness of the system in
improving traffic flow. Common bases of compari-
son include congestion, density, lane occupancy,
stops, delay, and queue length.
Minimum green : The shortest period of time a green signal may be dis-
played during any phase.
Occupancy : The percentage of roadway occupied by vehicles at an

instant in time. In general use, it is a measurement
based upon the ratio of vehicle presence time (as indi-
cated by a presence detector) over a fixed per:rod of
total time.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Offset : The time difference or interval in seconds between the start of

the green indication at one intersection as related to the start of
the green interval at another intersection or from a system time
base.
Offset Selection : Choosing one of several possible offsets either manually

or automatically either by time-of-day or in response to
some directional characteristics of traffic flow.
Parameter : (1) A quantity in mathematics that, may be assigned any arbi

trary value and that remains constant during some calculation;
(2) a definable characteristics of an item, device, or system.
Pattern : A unique set. of traffic parameters (cycle, split., and offset)

associated with each signalized intersection within a predefined
group of intersection (a section or subzone)
Phase : A part of the traffic signal time cycle: allocated to any combina-
tion of traffic movements receiving right of way simultaneously
during one or more intervals.
Phase Overlap : Refers to a phase which operates concurrently with one

or more other phases.
. Phase Sequence : The order in which a controller cycles through all

phases.
Plan : A plan gives the relationship between phases and signal groups
in terms of time. The possibilities of a plan can be laid down in
a time cycle diagram of one or more intersection control units.
Presence Detection : The sensing of a vehicle passing over a detector.

True presence is when the pulse duration is equal
to the actual time the vehicle remains in the
detector field of influence.
Primary Signal Face : The signal face which is nearest to and facing on-
coming traffic. It is ordinarily situated on the near
side of the carriageway facing approaching traffic,
but may be duplicated on the off-side.
Recall : An operational mode for an actuated intersection controller

whereby a phase, either vehicle or pedestrian is displayed each
cycle whether demand exists or not. Usually a temporary emer-
gency situation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Relay : An electromagnetic switching device, having multiple electrical

contacts, energized by electrical current through its coil. It is
used to completed electrical circuits.
Saturation flow : The maximum flow that can pass through an intersection
approach under prevailing traffic and roadway condi-
tions, assuming that the approach had 100% of real time
available as effective green time.
Secondary Signal Face : A signal face facing on-coming traffic supplement-

ing the primary signal face and remote from it.
Signal group : A set of one or more signal indications which are

switched on and off simultaneously.
Signal Head : An assembly containing one or more signal faces that

may be designated accordingly as one-way, two-way,
etc.
Signal Indication : The following of a traffic signal lens or equivalent device

or a combination of several lenses or equivalent: devices
at the same time.
Signal face : That. part, of a signal head that contains lenses and associated
components (such as bulbs, reflectors, visors) provided for con
trolling traffic in a single direction. Turning indications may be
included in a signal face.
Split : A percentage of the cycle length allocated to each of the various

phases in a signal sequence.
Stops : The number of times vehicles stop in the system. Used as a

measure of effectiveness to assess the effectiveness of a tim-
ing pattern. A computer controlled system goal is to minimize
stops.
traffic : Vehicles, persons or animals, traveling on a highway

considered collectively.

APPENDIX A
Design Example This example consists of step by

step design calculations to further explain the concepts found in
Chapter 6. The junction's geometric and traffic flow values for
this design example are only hypothetical

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX A
2. Peak-hour flows
The peak-hour flows are obtained from 16-hour classified traffic

counts and data are converted into pcu's by using the factors in
Table 6-5. The converted values are as shown :-

APPENDIX A
An average value of the morning and evening peak is than tabulated.
FROM APPROACH DIRECTION
NORTH Total pcu : 218 LT : 48

ST : 135
RT : 35
LT : 53
SOUTH Total pcu : 281 ST : 180
RT : 48
LT : 78
EAST Total pcu : 439 ST : 193
RT : 168
LT : 98
WEST Total pcu : 423 ST : 145
RT : 180
Projected design values
Lets say the project will be implemented the following year.
So, n = 1 and with GR = 5% (assume).
1
PCU = PCU x (1.05)
future present
With this formula the following design values are use for signal design
calculations.

APPENDIX A
Design value
Approach from Total pcu Movement pcu
LT : 50
NORTH 229 ST : 142
RT : 37
LT : 56
SOUTH 295 ST : 189
RT : 50
LT : 82
EAST 461 ST : 203
RT : 176
LT : 103
WEST 444 ST : 152
RT : 189

APPENDIX A
3. Saturation flows
The information for the approaches permits the following calculations :
NORTH : S = 1965 pcu/hr for W = 4.Om ( from table 6-1 )
Factors
Gradient : Fg = 1.09 for -3% grade ( table 6-2 )

Left-turn
Traffic : ( 50/229)x100%=22%, F1=0.98 ( table 6-4 )
Right-turn
Traffic : (37/229)x100%=16%, Fr= 0.90 ( table-6-4 )
Adjusted saturation flow
S = S x Fg x F1 x Fr
= 1965 x 1.09 x 0.98 x 0.90
= 1889 pcu/hr
SOUTH : S = 1965 pcu/hr for W = 4.Om (from table 6-1)
Factors
Gradient : Fg = 0.91 for +3% grade ( table 6-2 )

Left-turn
Traffic : ( 56/295)x100%=19%, F1=0.98 ( table 6-4 )
Right-turn
Traffic : ( 50/295)x100%=17%, Fr=0.89 ( table 6-4 )
Ss = S x Fg x Fl x Fr
= 1965 x 0.91 x 0.98 x 0.89
= 1560 pcu/hr

APPENDIX A
EAST :
a) Left Lane :
S = 1915 pcu/hr for W = 3.75 m ( from table 6-1 )
Factors
Gradient : Fg = 1.0 for level grade ( table 6-2 )

Left-turn
Traffic : (82/285)x100%=29%, F1=0.95 ( table 6-4 )
S = S x Fg x Fl
EL
= 1915 x 1.0 x 0.95
= 1819 pcu/hr
b) Right Lane :
Factors

Turning
Radius : Ft = 0.85 for R < 10m ( table 6-3 )
S = S x Fg x Ft ER
= 1915 x 1.0 x 0.85
= 1628 pcu/hr

APPENDIX A
WEST :
a) Left Lane :
Factors

Left-turn
Traffic : ( 103/255)x100%=40%, F1=0.93 ( table 6-4 )
S = S x Fg x F1
EL
= 1915 x 1.0 x 0.93
= 1781 pcu/hr
b) Right Lane :
Factors

Turning
Radius : Ft = 0.85 for R < 10 m ( table 6-3 )
S = S x Fg x Ft
ER
= 1315 x 1.0 x 0.85
= 1628 pcu/hr

APPENDIX A
The next step is to determine the phasing for the intersection.
For the purpose of this example, let's consider a 3 phase fixed time traffic
signal with the phases including pedestrian phase are as shown below.

APPENDIX A
Y - VALUE
PHASE ¢1 ¢2 ¢1
MOVE MENT WL EL WR ER M S
IDENTIFICATION
q 225 285 189 179 229 295
s 1781 1817 1628 1628 1889 1560
q/s 0.143 0.157 0.116 0.108 0.121 0.189
Y 0.157 0.116 0.189
EY = 0.157 + 0.116 + 0.189

= 0.462
SINCE EY < 0.85 ( Which is the limiting value )

WE CAN PROCEED WITH THE TIMING CALCULATIONS.

APPENDIX A
5. Amber time, a
The amber time (a) for the North and South approaches are the same
since vehicles from that approach has to travel 12.25m to clear the
intersection.
a = 13.4 m/s 12.25 m + 5.5 m

N and S ----------------- + ----------------------
2 x 4.58 m/s 13.4 m/s
= 2.79
= 3 seconds
a = 13.4 m/s 9 m + 5.5 m

E and W ----------------- + -------------------
2 x 4.58 m/s 13.4 m/s
= 2.54
= 3 seconds
Use a = 3 seconds
6. Intergreen time, I
I=a+R
where R = all red interval ( taken as 2 seconds )
Therefore, I = 3+2
= 5 seconds
7. Total lost time, L
n n
L = E(I-a)+ E1
i=1 i=1
= 3 ( 5-3 ) + 3 ( 2 )
= 12 seconds

APPENDIX A
8. Optimum cycle time, Co
Co = 1.5L + 5
-----------
1-Y
= 1.5 ( 12 ) + 5
------------------
1 - 0.462
= 43 seconds
Design Co can be between 0.75 to 1.50 of the calculated Co.
For simplicity, take design Co = 60 seconds
9. Total effective green time
Total effective green time = Co - L

= 60 - 12
= 48 seconds
10. Effective green time, g
g = y(C-L)
--
Y
g = 0.157 ( 48 )
01 ---------------
0.462
= 16 seconds
g = 0.116 ( 48 )
02 ---------------
0.462
= 12 seconds
g = 0.189 ( 48 )
03 ---------------
0.462
= 20 seconds

APPENDIX A
11. Actual Green Time, G
Gi = gi+li+Ri
( in this worked example, all the 1's and R's are the same for every
phase ).
G 01 = 16 + 2 + 2
= 20 seconds
G 02 = 12 + 2 + 2
= 16 seconds
G 03 = 20 + 2 + 2
= 24 seconds
12. Check for pedestrian requirement for green time
G = 5+ W
ped ------ - I
1.22
( Note: Check only the critical pedestrian crossings where W is the

widest )
G = 5+ 9 -5
------
1.22
= 7.38
= 8 seconds
In our calculations, green time available for pedestrian crossing is in

phase 1.
G = 20 seconds, therefore it is O.K.

APPENDIX A
13. Controller setting time, K
Ki = Gi-a-R
K 01 = 20 - 3 - 2
= 15 seconds
K 02 = 16 - 3 - 2
= 11 seconds
K 03 = 24 - 3 - 2
= 19 seconds
15. Reserve Capacity of Junction
R.C. = 0.9 ( 1-L ) - Y

---
Cm
------------------- x 100%
Y
Let Cm = 120 seconds
From the above calculations : L = 12 seconds,

Y = 0.462
R.C. = 0.9 ( 1-12/120 ) - 0.462

-------------------------------- x 100%
0.462
= 75%
The Reserve Capacity Diagram, by using Figure A - 2, RC = 75%.

APPENDIX A
16. Design Life of the junction, n
n = log ( Q1/Qo )
-----------------
log ( 1 + GR )
Assume GR = 5%
Q is the practical capacity that can be accomodated with 120 seconds cycle.
For ease, the variables for each approach are tabulated as below.

APPENDIX A
Movement N S W W E E
L R L R
S 1889 1560 1781 1628 1819 1628

g 44 44 37 27 37 27
Co 120 120 120 120 120 120
Capacity
Q = gS / C 693 572 549 366 561 366
90% ult.
cap Ql 624 515 494 329 505 329
Present flow
Qo 229 295 255 189 285 176
Note : The above g values are calculated when

Co = 120 sec
Then check for various movements.
N: Ql = 624
Go = 229 n = log ( 624/229 )
GR = 5% --------------------
log ( 1 + 0.05 )
= 21 years
S: Ql = 515 n = log ( 515/295 )

Qo = 295 -------------------
GR = 5% log ( 1 + 0.05 )
= 11 years
WL : 01 = 494 n = log ( 494/255 )

Qo = 255 -------------------
GR = 5% log ( 1 + 0.05 )
= 14 years

APPENDIX A
WR : Q1 = 329 n = log ( 329/189 )

Go = 189 -------------------
GR = 5% log ( 1 + 0.05 )
= 11 years
EL : Q1 = 505
Go = 285 n = log ( 505/285 )
GR = 5% -------------------
log ( 1 + 0.05 )
= 12 years
ER : Q1 = 329
Qo = 176 n = log ( 329/176 )
GR = 5% -------------------
log ( 1 + 0.05 )
= 13 years
Design Life, n = 11 years
17. Delays
N : q= 229 pcu/hr = 229/3600 pcu/sec

S= 1889 pcu/hr
g= 20
C= 60
~= g/C = 20/60 = 0.333
x= q= 229
-----------------
~S 0.33 ( 1889 )
= 0.36

APPENDIX A
dN = 9 [ 60 ( 1-0.333 )² 0.362² ]
--- ------------------------- + --------------------------
10 [ 2( 1-0.333x0.36 ) 2 ( 229 )( 1-0.36 ) ]
--------
3600
= 0.9 ( 15.16 + 1.59 )
= 15 seconds
S: q = 295 pcu/hr = 295/3600 pcu/sec

S = 1560 pcu/hr
g = 20
C = 60
~ = 9/C = 20/60 = 0.333
x = q = 295
--- -----------------
~S 0.33 ( 1560 )
= 0.57
dS = 9 [ 60 ( 1-0.333 )² 0.572² ]
--- ------------------------ + ---------------------------
10 [ 2( 1-0.333x0.57 ) 2( 295 ) ( 1-0.577 ) ]
--------
3600
= 0.9 ( 16.47 + 4.61 )
= 19 seconds
WL : q = 255 pcu/hr = 255/3600 pcu/sec

S = 1781 pcu/hr
g = 16
C = 60
~ = g/C = 16/60 = 0.27
x = q = 255
--- -----------------
~S 0.27 ( 1781 )
= 0.53

APPENDIX A
d
WL = 9 [ 60 ( 1-0.27 )² 0.532² ]
--- ---------------------- + ---------------------------
10 [ 2 ( 1-0.27x0.53 ) 2( 255 ) ( 1-0.53 ) ]
--------
3600
= 0.9 ( 18.66 + 4.22 )
= 21 seconds
WR = q = 189 pcu/hr = 189/3600 pcu/sec

S = 1628 pcu/hr
g = 12
C = 60
~ = g/C = 12/60 = 0.2
x = q = 189
--- ---------------
~S 0.2 ( 1628 )
= 0.58
d = 9 [ 60 (1-0.2 )² 0.582² ]
WR --- --------------------- + ----------------------------
10 [ 2( 1-0.2x0.58 ) 2( 189 ) ( 1-0.58 ) ]
-------
3600
= 0.9 ( 21.72 + 7.63 )
= 26 seconds
EL : q = 285 pcu/hr = 285/3600 pcu/sec

S = 1819 pcu/hr
g = 16
C = 60
~ = g/C = 16/60 = 0.27

APPENDIX A
x = q = 285
--- -------------------
~S 0.27 ( 1819 )
= 0.58
dEL = 9 [ 60(1-0.27)² 0.58² ]

--- ---------------------- + ------------------------
10 [ 2( 1-0.27x0.58 ) 2( 285) (1-0.58) ]
-------
3600
= 0.9 ( 18.96 + 5.06 )
= 22 seconds
ER : q = 176 pcu/hr = 176/3600 pcu/sec

S = 1628 pcu/hr
g = 12
C = 60
~ = g/C = 12/60 = 0.2
x = q = 176
--- ----------------
~S 0.2 ( 1628 )
= 0.54
dER = 9 [ 60 ( 1-0.2 )² 0.542² ]

--- ---------------------- + --------------------------
10 [ 2 ( 1-0.2x0.54 ) 2( 176 ) ( 1-0.54 ) ]
-------
3600
= 0.9 ( 21.52 + 6.48 )
= 25 seconds
Therefore movement WR will experience the worst delay of 26

seconds per vehicle. Its condition will be in the level of service D.
Other approaches will be in level of service C.

APPENDIX A
18. Queue lengths, N
NORTH : q = 229 pcu/hr

g = 20 s
C = 60 s
d = 15 s
r = 40 s
a) N = 229 x 40 = 2.54 pcu

------------
3600
Assume 1 vehicle = 1.2 pcu. This value depends on the

composition of the present traffic flow i.e. if more medi-
um and heavy vehicles than cars, the value should be
more than 1.
N = 2.54/1.2
= 2.12 vehicles
b) N = 229 ( 40/2 + 15 )
-----------------------
3600
= 2.23 pcu
= 2.23/1.2 vehicles
= 1.86 vehicles
Therefore, the North approach will experience an aver-

age queue length of 2.1 vehicles.
SOUTH : q = 295 pcu/hr

g = 20 s
C = 60 s
d = 19 s
r = 40 s
a) N = 295 x 40 = 3.28 pcu

------------
3600
= 3.28/1.2
= 2.73 vehicles

APPENDIX A
b) N = 295 ( 40/2 + 19 )
----------------------
3600
= 3.20 pcu
= 3.20/1.2 vehicles
= 2.67 vehicles
Therefore, the South approach will experience an aver-

age queue length of 2.73 vehicles.
WEST : q = 255 pcu/hr

g = 16 s
C = 60 s
d = 21 s
r = 44 s
a) N = 255 x 44 = 3.12 pcu

------------
3600
= 3.12/1.2
= 2.6 vehicles
b) N = 255 ( 44/2 + 21 )
-----------------------
3600
= 3.05 pcu
= 3.05/1.2 vehicles
= 2.54 vehicles
Therefore, the West left lane approach will experience

an average queue length of 2.6 vehicles.

APPENDIX A
WESTR : q = 189 pcu/hr

g = 12 s
C = 60 s
d = 26 s
r = 48 s
a) N = 189 x 48 = 2.52 pcu

------------
3600
N = 2.52/1.2
= 2.1 vehicles
b) N = 189 ( 48/2 + 26 )
----------------------
3600
= 2.63 pcu
= 2.63/1.2 vehicles
= 2.19 vehicles
Therefore, the West right lane approach will experience

an average queue length of 2.19 vehicles.
EASTL : q = 285 pcu/hr

g = 16 s
C = 60 s
d = 22 s
r = 44 s
a) N = 85 x 44 = 3.48 pcu
----------
3600
= 3.48/1.2
= 2.9 vehicles
b) N = 285 ( 44/2 + 22 )
----------------------
3600
= 3.48 pcu
= 3.48/1.2 vehicles
= 2.9 vehicles

APPENDIX A
Therefore, the East left lane approach will experience an

average queue length of 2.9 vehicles.
EASTR : q = 176 pcu/hr

g = 12 s
C = 60 s
d = 25 s
r = 48 s
a) N = 176 x 48 = 2.35 pcu

------------
3600
= 2.35/1.2
= 1.96 vehicles
b) N = 176 ( 48/2 + 25 )
----------------------
3600
= 2.4 pcu
= 2.4/1.2 vehicles
= 2 vehicles
Therefore, the East right lane approach will experience

an average queue length of 2 vehicles.

APPENDIX B
Vehicle - actuated Signal Facilities

APPENDIX B
Vehicle-actuated signals have The application of successive-

largely replaced fixed-time signals vehicle extension periods would
because of their greater flexibility result in a continuous green indica-
under varying traffic conditions. With tion if there was a continuous pas-
vehicle-actuated signals several sage of vehicles along the approach.
facilities are available to increase the To limit the length of the green peri-
response of the signals to traffic od there is preset maximum green
demand; one of these is the mini- period, which is normally set at, a
mum green period. value between 8 and 68s, although
on holiday routes some controllers
The minimum green period is allow this period to be increased by
the shortest. period of right of way a further two minutes.
that. is given to any phase. It is long
enough to clear the vehicles waiting When signals run to maximum
between the detector loop and the green then, on the expi.ry of the
stop line. Modern controllers have maximum green period on the other
minimum green periods that vary phase or phases, provision is made
between 7 and 13s, according to the for the return of the right. of way to
number of vehicles that have passed the original phase.
the detector and are waiting at, the
stop line. In practice when traffic is
heavy on all approaches, the signals
The minimum green period run to maximum green on all phases
may be extended beyond the mini- and in effect give fixed-time opera-
mum value as vehicles pass over the tion.
detector on the approach. With a
modern signal controller the length of A variation of this maximum
this vehicle extension period is relat- green period is the variable maxi-
ed to the measured speed of mum period. This facility allows the
approach at the detector. These maximum green to be extended if
vehicle extension periods are individ- the flow at the end of the maximum
ually and not. cumulatively set so green period exceeds a certain criti-
that the green period is not reset if a cal value. This critical value is con-
new vehicle extension period calcu- stantly increased until it exceeds the
lated by the controller does not measured flow or a gap change
exceed the unexpired portion of the occurs.
previous controller.
Note : This article is taken
If an interval of time between from 'Highway Traffic
vehicles crossing the detector Analysis and Design'
becomes greater than the last. vehi- Rev. Ed. London: The
cle extension period, and if there has Mac Millan Press Ltd,
been a demand for the green signal 1976 by R.J. Salter.
on another phase, then a 'gap
change' takes place and the right of
way is transferred.

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Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 13/87

JABATAN KERJA RAYA

1.1 OBJECTIVES OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL CONTROL

1.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

CHAPTER 2 SIGNAL INSTALLATION CRITERIA

2.2 WARRANT ANALYSIS

CHAPTER 3 SIGNAL OPERATION REQUIREMENTS

3.1 PHASING ELEMENTS

3.2 RIGHT-TURN PHASING

3.3 SUGGESTED GUIDELINES FOR SEPARATE

3.4 SELECTION OF PRETIMED OR ACTUATION

CHAPTER 4 SIGNAL DISPLAY AND LOCATION

4.1 SIGNAL DISPLAY REQUIREMENTS

4.2 NUMBER AND LOCATION OF SIGNAL FACES

4.3 NUMBER OF LENSES PER SIGNAL FACE

4.4 SIGNAL SIZE, BACKPLATE, POST

4.5 EQUIPMENT AND MATERIAL

4.6 FLASHING OPERATION OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS

4.7 SIGNAL MOUNTING ALTERNATIVES

5.2 PRETIMED CONTROLLERS

5.3 ACTUATED CONTROLLERS

5.4 CONTROLLER LOCATION

5.6 LOCATION OF DETECTORS

5.7 INSTALLATION CONSIDERATIONS

CHAPTER 6 TRAFFIC SIGNAL TIMING

6.2 DESIGN PRINCIPLES

6.2.1 Determination of basic

6.2.2 Determination of Y value

6.2.3 Determination of total lost time

6.2.4 Determination of optimum cycle

6.2.5 Determination of signal settings

6.2.6 Determination of Capacity

6.2.7 Determination of delays and queues

6.3 GUIDING PRINCIPLES

7.3 PROGRESSIVE SIGNAL SYSTEM DESIGN

APPENDIX A : DESIGN EXAMPLE

APPENDIX B : VEHICLE - ACTUATED SIGNAL FACILITIES

2-1 Peak hour volume warrant-urban or low speed

2-2 Peak hour volume warrant-rural or high speed

3-1 Two phase cycle

3-2 Three phase cycle

3-3 Four phase cycle

3-4 Heaviest right turn protected (leading green)

3-5 Heaviest right turn protected (lagging green)

3-6 Both right turns protected - no overlap (lead dual right)

3-7 Both right turns protected - no overlap (lag dual right)

3-9 Lead lag

3-1.0 Directional separation

4-1 Cone of Vision for two lane approach

4-2 Typical arrangements of lenses in signal faces

4-3 Signal head configuration

4-4 Simple two--pole span

6-1 Traffic Signal Calculations Reserve Capacity Diagram

7-1 Typical time space diagram

2-1 Vehicular Volume Requirements for Warrant 1

3-1 Comparison of Right-turn phase alternatives

4-1 Minimum Visibility distances

4-2 Adjustments for Grade Guidelines

5-1 Safe Stopping distance and detector setback

6-1 Relationship between effective lane width and

6-2 Correction factor for the effect of gradient

6-3 Correction factor for the effect of turning radius

6-4 Correction factor for turning traffic