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EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
Upon completion of this unit, you will know what attenuation and distortion are, and
how they can affect the shape of the transmitted signal. You will be able to explain
what causes attenuation and distortion. You will know about a method of evaluating
signal quality in high-speed transmission systems.
DISCUSSION
Attenuation
In transmission lines that are lossy, the transmitted signals lose some energy as they
travel down the line. This occurs because the energy gradually dissipates in each
series resistance, R'S, and parallel resistance, R'P, per unit length of the line.
The energy lost in each R'S is by heating of the conductors (I2R losses). The energy
lost in each R'P is by heating of the dielectric material used to construct the
conductors (shunt or dielectric losses), as Figure 1-55 shows.
Figure 1-55. Signals lose some energy in each R'S and R'P.
The energy losses cause the level of the transmitted signal to gradually decrease as
the signal travels down the line, as Figure 1-56 shows. The decrease in signal level
over distance is called attenuation. Attenuation increases as the distance from the
transmission point increases.
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Attenuation and Distortion
Attenuation is normally expressed in decibels (dB). The formula for calculating the
attenuation in signal power at a distance D from the sending end of a line is as
follows:
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Attenuation and Distortion
Table 1-3 indicates the attenuation, A, for different PD/PS ratios. Each time the ratio
decreases by a factor of 2, the signal power is attenuated by 3 dB.
1 0
0.5 -3
0.25 -6
0.125 -9
For example, the attenuation in signal power at a distance D from the sending end
of the line, if the ratio PD/PS is 0.75, will be -1.25 dB.
When voltage measurements, which are most common, are performed instead of
power measurements, the formula for calculating the attenuation in signal power at
a distance D from the sending end of the line becomes:
For example, the attenuation in signal power at a distance D from the sending end
of the line, if the ratio VD/VS is 0.75, will be -2.5 dB.
Line manufacturers usually provide graphs that indicate the attenuation per unit
length, Į, of a line as a function of signal frequency. They must do this because at
higher frequencies, the attenuation per unit length, instead of being constant,
increases with frequency due, among other things, to a phenomenon known as skin
effect.
The skin effect is illustrated on Figure 1-57. At direct current (DC) or low frequency,
the current density is quite uniform across the conductor. At higher frequencies, the
current density tends to concentrate near the surface (hence the term "skin") of the
conductor, thereby increasing the resistance to current flow and, in turn, the
attenuation per unit length, Į.
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Attenuation and Distortion
These components are waves that are all sinusoidal in shape, but are of different
frequencies and amplitudes. They include a fundamental, or first harmonic, at the
frequency of the signal, and several higher-order harmonics whose frequencies are
multiples of the fundamental frequency.
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Attenuation and Distortion
The frequency spectrum differs from one type of signal to another, as Figure 1-58
shows. For example, a rectangular signal consists of a set of odd harmonics, while
a sawtooth signal consists of both even and odd harmonics.
Distortion
• In lines that are lossless or that have very low losses, relative permittivity stays
approximately constant with frequency. Consequently, the fundamental and
harmonics of the transmitted signal all propagate at the same velocity along the
line. As a result, the signal at the receiving end of the line is a faithful reproduction
of the transmitted signal, as the left-hand section of Figure 1-59 shows. The
signal is said to be distortionless.
• In lines that are lossy, however, relative permittivity varies with frequency.
Consequently, the fundamental and harmonics of the transmitted signal
propagate at differing velocities. This phenomenon is known as dispersion.
Dispersion causes distortion: the signal at the receiving end of the line has a
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Attenuation and Distortion
shape that is quite different than that of the transmitted signal, as the right-hand
section of Figure 1-59 shows.
If, additionally, the fundamental and its harmonics are of relatively high
frequencies, they will be attenuated differently since, as earlier mentioned, the
attenuation per unit length is frequency dependent at higher frequencies. This will
tend to aggravate distortion in the received signal.
Thus, the change in shape of the transmitted signal in the figure occurs because the
rise time and fall time of the transients in the transmitted signal are longer in the
received signal.
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Attenuation and Distortion
Figure 1-60. Attenuation and distortion affect the recovery of the original NRZ data.
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Attenuation and Distortion
Procedure Summary
In this procedure section, you will measure the attenuation of the STEP
GENERATOR output signal at the receiving end of a 48-meter (157.4-foot) line. You
will then answer theoretical questions about distortion.
Note: Since the lines used on the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board
are not long enough to permit observation of the effects of dispersion,
the procedural section on distortion will consist of theoretical questions.
PROCEDURE
Attenuation
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Attenuation and Distortion
Figure 1-62. Observing the attenuation of the STEP GENERATOR output voltage along the line.
Now, connect the STEP GENERATOR 100-ȍ output to the trigger input of
the oscilloscope, using a coaxial cable.
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Attenuation and Distortion
G 3. In the LOAD section of the circuit board, make sure all the toggle switches
are set to the O (OFF) position. Then, connect the LOAD-section input to
the common via resistor R3 (50-ȍ resistor) by setting the appropriate
switches in this section to the I (ON) position.
Channel 1
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC
Channel 2
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC
Time Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ȝs/div
Trigger
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 V
Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Mȍ or more
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Attenuation and Distortion
Note that the voltage of the pulses in the STEP GENERATOR signal is
lower at the receiving end of the line, as Figure 1-63 shows. This occurs
because
G 6. Measure the voltage (height) of the pulses at the sending end of the line, VS.
VS = V
G 7. Measure the voltage (height) of the pulses at the receiving end of the
line, VD.
VD = V
G 8. Using the measured voltages, VS and VD, calculate the attenuation in pulse
power at the receiving end of the 48-meter (157.4-foot) line by using the
formula below.
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A= dB
Distortion
G 10. If you look at Figure 1-65, which of the following statements could explain
why the received signal has a shape that is quite different than that of the
transmitted signal?
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Attenuation and Distortion
G 11. If you look at Figure 1-66, which eye pattern corresponds to the best
probability of recovering the transmitted pseudo-random NRZ data without
error?
a. Eye pattern A
b. Eye pattern B
c. Eye pattern C
d. Eye pattern D
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Attenuation and Distortion
G 12. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.
CONCLUSION
• Distortion is a change in the shape of the transmitted signal that also occurs in
lines that are lossy. Distortion is caused mainly by dispersion, a phenomenon by
which the fundamental and harmonics that compose a transmitted signal
propagate at differing velocities. Distortion can also be caused by the high-
frequency signal components being attenuated differently, since attenuation is
frequency dependent.
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Attenuation and Distortion
REVIEW QUESTIONS
a. is due to the dissipation of part of the signal energy by heating of the load.
b. is a decrease in the signal level as the signal travels down the line.
c. decreases as the distance from the transmission point increases.
d. decreases as the signal frequency is increased.
a. current density across the line conductors to remain uniform if the signal
frequency is increased.
b. resistance to current flow of the line conductors to decrease as the signal
frequency is increased.
c. current density to concentrate near the surface of the line conductors at low
signal frequencies.
d. attenuation per unit length to increase as the signal frequency is increased.
a. include, among others, harmonics whose frequencies are odd and/or even
multiples of the fundamental frequency.
b. include, among others, a fundamental at twice the frequency of the signal.
c. are all of the same frequency.
d. are all rectangular in shape.
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Attenuation and Distortion
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