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LDP 613: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN PROJECT PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION AND EXTERNAL STUDIES

SCHOOL OF CONTINUING AND DISTANCE EDUCATION

In Collaboration with

CENTRE FOR OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING

PROJECT PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

LDP 613: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN PROJECT


PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

AUTHORS

MOSES M. OTIENO

CHARLES WAFULA
LECTURE ONE MEANING AND PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENT

1.1 Introduction

This lecture has been designed to equip you with skills on the things that surround you and on
how to manage them well. It will cover the following critical areas: Meaning of environment,
principles governing the management of environment, ecology and ecosystems and
environmental resources and their classifications.

Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

1. Define the term Environment

2. Explain the basic principles of environmental management.

3. Explain the relationship between environment and sustainable development

4. Describe ecology and ecosystems as applied in environmental management

5. Identify environmental resources within Kenya and their classification

1.3 Definition of Environment

The study of environment management is in many cases about man and the things that
surround him, that is, the study of living and non- living things. The subject of environmental
management frequently arouses suspicion among politicians and economists especially in the
developing countries and Kenya is no exception.

Some groups of people within our communities have a tendency of feeling that the subject of
environment is a concern for the rich and the educated class. The politicians on the other
hand believe that which is about denying them their political space in the community and
hence tend to oppose it unnecessarily.

In this lecture therefore we have tried to explain the meaning of the concept ‘environment'.
The main principles governing environmental programs, activities and the benefits of
managing the environment. This is intended to make all people including you to appreciate
the need for supporting various efforts being made to make our environment safer and
friendly without compromising development and growth.
The word environment is defined as the totality of conditions and influences that affect the
way things live and develop (Munyua and Onyari, 1996). Things as used here means both the
living and non living things which drive or influence the way living things are formed or
modified or developed in their process of growth. United Nation Environmental Programme
UNEP has also defined environment as the basis of living on this planet.

The word environment can therefore be defined in terms of the following.

 Air, land or water


 Plant, animal and human life
 The social, economical and cultural conditions that influence the life of man or a
community
 Any building, structure, machine or other device made by man
 Any solid, liquid, gas, odour, heat, sound, radiation resulting directly or indirectly
from the activities of man

Environmental management has to do with the way one runs his or her business audit can
have a significant impact on the environment. By monitoring and managing the impact of our
business and being aware of our environmental responsibilities, we can ensure that our
projects are environmentally friendly while reaping the added value from the business.

Whatever the level of impact, there are incentives, guidelines, tools and information required
to help people manage impact of their businesses and minimize where appropriately. By
introducing sound environmental management practices and reducing environmental impact
projects can profit from cost savings through efficiency or productivity gains. The other
benefits include;

1. Receiving assistance and grants from the government

2. Spending less on raw materials, energy and water

3. Receiving recognition through numerous environmental awards

4. Finding new market opportunities for "green" goods and services

5. Improving workplace safety through reduced use of industrial chemicals and


reduced waste.

6. Reducing accidents and wastes due to mistakes or errors.

1.4 Environmental Management Principles

The following principles provide a basis for organizations pursuing environmentally


responsible operations. They may help formulate environmental policies appropriate to
individual businesses.
1.4.1 Environmental Protection

Project managers should protect the environment by trying to reduce any adverse impact of
their project's activities and products on the atmosphere, water, land and among all the living
organisms to a level where the cost to society do not the benefits. This will include:

1.4.2 Environmental Management

Project managers should recognize environmental management as an essential and critical


aspect of corporate activities. The lead on environmental management should come from the
top. As with other corporate priorities, Chief Executives need to set objectives and monitor
progress. There should be a well-defined management structure. In particular, there should be
a clear line of responsibility for the implementation of environmental management. Where
necessary, specialist advisors should be employed to assist line management in discharging
their responsibilities.

The main tasks of senior management in environmental management include:

 Developing future performance objectives

 Forecasting and assessing challenges and opportunities


 Developing a strategy and preparing contingency plans
 Developing policies
 Delegating responsibilities
 Allocating resources
 Motivating, controlling and co-coordinating employees.

Below are the procedures of achieving the main tasks of senior management in environmental
management

 Establish and maintain policies, programs and practices for conducting operations
in an environmentally sound manner.
In order to establish and maintain policies, programs, practices for conducting
operations in an environmentally sound manner, it may be necessary to conduct an
initial environmental review of the company's operations to establish exactly where
the company stands with respect to environmental risks. Policy statements vary from
short statements of intent to voluminous policy manuals. Ultimately the success or
failure of an environmental policy will depend on management's ability to spell out
specific objectives for employees.
 Set clear, measurable and realistic goals for minimizing the impact on
the environment. Environmental performance indicators should be developed
to measure the company's record in terms of, for example, resource efficiency,
safety, pollution and nuisance.
 Integrate environmental decision making in all aspects of business planning and
operations.
1.4.3 Performance Assessment

 Meet or exceed all applicable environmental standards and regulations. Where


standards and regulations do not exist, companies should establish standards to restrict
adverse environmental impact.
 Improve environmental performance by taking into account technical developments,
scientific understanding, and consumer needs and changing legislation set by the
relevant authorities.
 Measure and review environmental performance by conducting regular audits to
evaluate progress against set standards and goals, compliance with laws and
regulations and implementation of these principles.

1.4.4 Communication

Communicate with government, employees, shareholders, local communities, the general


public, the media and environmental groups about the environmental performance of
company operations and products to discuss environmental matters with relevant groups.

Ensure that customers, distributors, suppliers and the public have information to enable them
to transport, store, recycle and dispose of products to minimize environmental impact.

Co-operate with industry associations, government agencies, scientific and environmental


groups to shape policies and legislation. Participate in educational initiatives and programs to
raise environmental awareness and to develop an understanding
of the contribution which industry can make to minimize environmental impact.

1.4.5 Employee Commitment

Educate, train and motivate employees to conduct their activities consistent with these
Environmental Management Principles and the company's own policies. Formulate, discuss
and agree objectives with various individuals and operations involved. If appropriate, to
allocate environmental objectives and targets to individual employees and make them
accountable for the achievement of those objectives.

1.4.6 Products and Processes

 Evaluate relevant project activities scientifically, including the setting of the


production facilities, for their impact on the environment, and implement reasonable
countermeasures.
 Give priority (in the research, design and development stages of making a product) to
cost effective ways of lessening the possible impact on the environment at each stage
of a product's production, distribution, appropriate use and disposal. To plan all
aspects of the production process carefully with regard to the choice of raw materials,
their durability, ease of repair and the recycling of parts.
 Develop, design, build and operate facilities which seek to reduce resource inputs and
waste output, consistent with sustainable development criteria.
 Reduce pollution levels by measures such as good housekeeping, substitution of
materials, modifications of product design and process, and resource recovery.
1.4.7 Emergency/Contingency Plans

Prepare and test emergency response plans for dealing with environmentally damaging
incidents and to respond to such incidents by protecting the health of employees, the public
and the environment.

Ensure that adequate information is given to all concerned parties.

1.4.8 Other Parties


Encourage contractors, suppliers, business associates and joint venture partners to adopt
environmental management policies and practices which are consistent with their activities.

1.4.9 Technology and Skills Co-operation

Facilitate the transfer of environmentally sound and appropriate technology and management
skills to suppliers and customers.

1.4.10 Assessment and Management of Environmental Risk

Assess, to the extent practicable using available methods and technology, the potential
environmental impacts of project operations, products and services so that avoidable
environmental problems can be prevented.

Take business decisions related to operations, products and services bearing in mind the
balanced environmental and economic and social development needs of the community.

Establish a policy and strategy to reduce, and, where practicable, eliminate the discharge of
environmentally harmful substances.

Activity 1.1

What are some of the principles you consider critical in environmental management? Give
reasons why you consider them critical.
1.5 Environment and Sustainable Development

Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use that aims at meeting human needs while
preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for
future generations. The term was used by the Brundtland Commission which coined what has
become the most often-quoted definition of sustainable development as development that
‘meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs' (Reclift, 1997)

Sustainable development ties together concerns for carrying out capacity of natural systems
with the social challenges facing humanity. As early as the 1970s "sustainability" was
employed to describe an economy in equilibrium with basic ecological support systems.
Ecologists have pointed to the limits of growth and presented the alternative of a steady state
economy in order to address environmental concerns.

The field of sustainable development can be conceptually broken into three constituent parts:
environmental sustainability, economic sustainability and socio-political sustainability. Let us
now discuss these parts.

a) Environmental Sustainability

Environmental sustainability is the process of making sure that current processes of


interaction with the environment are pursued with the idea of keeping the environment as
pristine as naturally possible based on ideal-seeking behavior.

An unsustainable situation occurs when natural capital, which have be described as the sum
total of nature's resources, is used up faster than it can be replenished. Sustainability requires
that human activity only uses nature's resources at a rate at which they can be replenished
naturally. Inherently the concept of sustainable development is intertwined with the concept
of carrying capacity. Theoretically, the long-term result of environmental degradation is the
inability to sustain human life. Such degradation on a global scale could imply extinction for
humanity and or other species.

b) Sustainable Growth Mode

The relationship between environment and the society, under this mode, the concept is
considered as purely utilitarian. Conservation is one of several policy goals Technological,
administrative and economic tools are employed to gradually shift the economic development
path towards one, which maintains the regenerative capacity of renewable resources and
switches from the use of non-renewable to renewable resources (Rees, 1990).

c) Sustainable Development Mode

Under this mode, environmental conservation and/or preservation become the sole basis for
defining a criterion with which to judge developmental policy. Environmental ethic becomes
a key theme for analysis. This mode envisages fundamental changes to the status quo
through a shift in the way economic progress is pursued. Suitable development would mean
a change in consumption patterns toward patterns that augment environmental capital (Pearce
et al, 1987). By shifting the development path, it is argued that it will be possible to leave
intact (or indeed increase) the stock of assets (both natural and man-made) available for
future generations.

Sustainable development ensures that producers and consumers face up to the real social
costs of their action. Individual preferences can operate to determine the specific package of
resources employed for the moment and those left as future assets. In cases where use or
depletion of a particular environmental asset, for example, the ozone layer affects the
sustainability for the total global system, then it is clear that individual choices must be
constrained so that they operate within safe limits.

In the context of resource allocation, equity and provision of welfare services are seen as
central to the sustainability debate. Emile Salim (1988) cited in Rees, (1990) that sustainable
development implies economic growth that raises per capita income and distribution in the
society, quality of life and which eliminates poverty. Poverty and environmental degradation
have become part of worsening aspect of under-development. It leaves many societies with
little option but to extract what they can in the short term from the resource base, resulting in
the depletion of fertile soils, forest, and ground water. This in turn increases rural poverty as
the cycle continues.

1.5.1 Goals of Sustainable Development

The concept of sustainable development encompasses the following aims:

i. Help to the very poor who, without necessary help, are left with no option
but to destroy the environment
ii. Pursuance of a pattern of economic development that lead to self-reliance
in the utilization of available resources
iii. Cost effective development process that does not degrade environmental
quality nor reduce the productivity of its soils in the long run
iv. Health, clean water and shelter for all
v. The promotion of people-centered initiatives in which people are the key
resource
vi. The notion that sustainable society is one that lives within self-
perpetuating limits of the environment. Such a society recognizes the
limits of its sustainable growth by seeking the best means to achieve the
desired growth while avoiding aimless growth.

1.5.2 Origin of Sustainable Development

The origin and meaning of the concept may be traced back to the concerted efforts, in the late
1960s, which are directed toward preventing pollution. Pollution was then mainly a concern
for the western world (pollution in the developing countries had generally not reached
alarming level). It was out of this concern that the 1972 Stockholm Conference was
convened. There was also concern that pollution would become a third world problem too, it
was argued that if developing countries followed the pattern of development that the west had
taken and which had least regard for the environmental protection.
1.5.3 Sustainability and Eco-development

Eco-development has two roots, that is, ecology and development. Thus eco-development
means an ecologically sound development that achieves harmony, instead of creating conflict
between man and nature or between the society and the physical environment. It also means
non-destructive relations among all the above, within limits of economic necessities and
technological possibilities. Ignacy sachs, a proponent of econ-development, defined it as:

"An approach to development aimed at harmonizing social and economic objectives with
ecologically sound management, in spirit of solidarity with future generations, based on the
principle of self-reliance, Satisfaction of basic needs, a new symbiosis of man and earth;
another kind of qualitative growth, not zero growth, not negative growth". (Glaeser B. 1984)

Eco-development is a process of development that ensures that ecological concerns are


complied to during developmental efforts. Under the process, planners pursue economic
development while acknowledging the limits within which the environment can sustain that
process. Eco-development has following aspects:

1. Primary Needs

Eco-development ensures that all groups of people, especially those in the developing world
are able to get their primary needs and that they participate in all the concerns of development
process.

2. Self-Reliance

Eco-development involves the application of local resources to enhance development and


directly contributing to self reliance among the people living within that environment.

3. Environmental Compatibility

Environmental preservation or conservation of natural and cultural heritage is regarded as an


integral part of eco-development.

4. Sustainability

Glaeser (1984) states that sustainable development requires the following key factors:

 Harmonization of consumption patterns and time use lifestyles;


 Appropriate technologies using ecologically compatible designs;
 Low energy use with emphasis on enhancing renewable energy sources;
 Fresh look at the way we use environmental resources with a view to preserve the
same or recycle those that are recyclable;
 Ecological principles to guide land use and settlement patterns;
 Participatory planning and grass root activation;
 Deliberate actions towards preserving and improving the physical environment for the
benefit of man and the environment itself.
The concept of sustainability was first brought to public attention through a publication on
ecology - "World Conservation Strategy" (1980), which defined sustainability mainly in
terms of, maintaining essential ecological processes and life-supporting systems, preserving
genetic diversity and sustainable use of species and ecosystems.

1.5.4 Agenda 21 and Sustainable Development

The main agenda at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit that was attended by world leaders
representing more than 170 governments was sustainable development that entails global
environmental concerns. The key outcome of the summit was Agenda 21 which addressed
sustainable development at both local and international levels (Njuguna, 2009)

The basic idea of Agenda 21 was that people should live within the limitations of the planet
and share its resources equitably and use them sustainable. The protocol was hailed as an
agenda for the 21st century and as a timely means for the provision of development at the
same time helping controlling, protecting and conserving natural environment.

Other highlights of Agenda 21 were appeals for governments across the world to put
necessary measures in place that would enable all people to participate in the decision-
making processes in all developmental matters. It also acknowledged the fact that
sustainable development would fail if policy-makers continually imposed decisions from
above instead of enlisting the interest and participation of all the people. The partnership
between policy makers and the citizenry, normally called participatory approach to socio-
economic development, is therefore a key concern of Agenda 21.

1.5.5 Requirements for Sustainable Development

We are now going to discuss requirements for sustainable developments. Sustainable


development requires a formal system that secures effective people's participation in
decision-making. Such a system also provides for environmental interventions in all
political, economic and social processes of a particular region. Other requirements of
sustainable development include.

a) Environmental Considerations

One basic element of sustainable development is the entrenchment of environmental


considerations in policy formulation. In the past, the connection between environmental and
economic policies was barely acknowledged. It is common knowledge that sustainable
development demands the integration of these policies both in theory and in
practice. Conflicts between proponents of environmental and those of economic respectively
have been reduced, as economic objectives are placed within a common framework in which
a variety of other parallel objectives can be recognized.

Environmental concerns have been a major factor in the formulation of the concept of
sustainable development. As noted earlier in this lecture, environmental concerns generally
focused on pollution in the industrialized nations. In developing nations however,
environmental issues are more basic. They include problems caused by high population
growth rates, rural-to-urban migration, growth of slums and squatter settlements, inadequate
sanitation, soil erosion, frequent famine and drought and abject poverty in many
regions. These are problems that characterize under-development. Societies in both
developed and under-developed countries have to address their respective environmental
issues as they seek to undertake are said to be environmentally complaint and therefore
sustainable.

b) Equity

Sustainable development incorporates an invariable commitment to equity. Thus, it


emphasizes not only on the creation of wealth along with resource conservation, but also on
the fair North-South distribution of resources. This is largely in reference to the wealthy
communities, notably in the Northern hemisphere and the poor ones which are mainly in the
South. Fair distribution of resources is also expected within communities in the same region
or countries. The term also incorporates inter-generational equity, that is, a fair distribution
of environmental benefits between generations.

c) Uplifting Socio-Economic Status

Sustainable development also implies something more than economic advancement. This
means that terms like "economic welfare" when used within the content of sustainable
development would be inclusive of non-financial components. These components include
quality of the environment itself, socio-economic status of peoples for example, their health
and level of education, the quality of work, the existence of cohesive communities and the
vibrancy of cultural life - none of which can be measured by GNP.

d) Satisfying Basic or Essential Human Needs

Sustainable development further aims at satisfying basic or essential human needs, starting
with the needs of the poorest and the needy in the society without any harm done to the
natural and cultural heritage. These needs include biological (e.g. food and sleep), cultural
(e.g. entertainment and music), material (e.g. money and bicycles) and in and non-material
(e.g. psychological) Needs of course are complex and particular to different
persons. Meeting these needs, and especially those of the poorest in the society, is the goal of
sustainable development.

e) Citizen Participation

Sustainable development requires that a satisfactory number of the people who are to be
affected by a development process should be also involved, at the very least, through their
voluntary contribution, in project formulation and implementation in their respective
localities. These people are given all the necessary direction and momentum. In this case,
therefore, participation is as much a goal of sustainable development as it is a means of
achieving it.

f) Self-reliance

Self-reliance is a unifying objective, it is a confidence-building factor emphasizing on


dependence on a country's own resources including the often ample and reliable
manpower. At individual level, the term implies that one is able and feels proudly able to
bear one's own burden without being helplessly dependent on outside
support. Metaphorically, the burden is the cost and effort involved in sustainable use of
individual or nation's resources for self-reliance. Self-reliance refers to independence
achieved through rational use or allocation of nation's natural and human resources in the
process of sustainable development.

Self-reliance further refers to the ability and freedom of ordinary working people, who
constitute the majority in society, to choose their lifestyles based on their culture and the
available resources. Such a life-style has to be free from any pressure or interference from
vested groups such as big political powers, political groupings and multinationals
corporations. It should be noted that society's or even individual needs are dynamic in the
sense that options open to the people or to the society change and expand within the process
of sustainable development.

1.6 Ecology and Ecosystems- Food Chain, Webs and Energy Transfer

1.6 Ecology and Eco- systems

The concepts of ecology and ecosystems are most useful in a discussion of environmental
management. An ecosystem is a complex set of relationships among living resources, habitats
and residents of a region. Ecology is defined as the scientific study of the processes
influencing the distribution and abundance of organisms, the interactions among organisms,
and the interactions between organisms and the transformation and flux of energy and matter
(Munyua and Onyari, 1996).

Within ecosystems there are flows of energy and matter. Basically the energy enters the
system in form of sunlight which is utilized by green plants in a process known as
photosynthesis. The energy flows through the system and is lost mainly as heat. Matter cycles
within the ecosystem with most chemical elements being recycled through the system
repeatedly.

Each ecosystem has an input of materials from the atmosphere and other ecosystems. This
relationship is very critical for the survival of all living things on the universe. We all depend
on the environment for our survival and comfort. The environment consists of all those things
and systems that exist close or surround each other. Therefore we need to maintain this
relationship for development to take place.

Using local examples, explain factors which may influence sustainable development in
Kenya.

1.6.1 Food Chains and Food Webs Transfer

Food chains are the transfer of food energy from its source in plants through a series of
organisms which eat and be eaten by others. Individual food chains do not, occur in isolation.
In any ecosystems, there will be many different food chains occurring at the same time, and
they will be inter-connected with one another to form a ‘food web'.

Projects conducted by various organizations should be in on this concept since they affect not
only one individual but many individuals. The concept of ecology and ecosystems is a critical
one for project management in that the activities of project programs should not be allowed to
interfere or disturb the relationship between organisms in our environment, for example,

1.7 Environmental Resources and their Classifications

Kenya has diverse resources which need to be protected through various agencies and laws.
Some of these resources are critical and play a major role in the present and future
development of the country. These resources range from land, mineral resources to forest and
wildlife. These resources are interrelated and need a holistic approach to their management.
These resources are classified as follows.

1.7.1 Land and Land-Based Resources

Land is the basic capital and resource on which development in Kenya is based. It provides
primary human requirements such as food, fibre and fuel, while supplying raw materials for
manufacturing, as well as providing space for human habitation and recreation. Rising human
requirements are placing ever increasing demands on land. Some of these demands often
conflicts in terms of land use.

1.7.2 Forest Resources

Forests cover a very small proportion of Kenya's total land area but they rank high as one of
the country's most important national assets. They conserve biological diversity, water and
soil and are a major habitat for wildlife. There is need for united approach by all the
concerned to conserve our forests if Kenya is to develop rapidly.

1.7.3 Wildlife Resources

Wildlife constitutes an important national resource with substantial socio-economic, cultural,


scientific and environmental values and should be properly managed.

1.7.4 Wetlands

Wetlands in the country include swamps, deltas, bogs, flood plains, areas bordering water
bodies such as mangrove forests, riverside ecosystems, lake shores, coral reefs and marine
mud-flats which have moisture part of the year.

1.7.5 Rangeland Resource

Much of Kenya's land is classified as rangelands which are characterized by scanty and
unreliable rainfall. The rangeland resource is enormous but the ecosystems are fragile
requiring appropriate management strategies to ensure sustainable productivity.
1.7.6 Other Resources

The other resources which Kenya has been endowed with include

a) Mountain Ecosystems

b) Mineral resources

c) Water resources

d) Fisheries and marine resources

e) Energy Resources

f) Atmospheric resources

Activity 1.3

Briefly highlight the importance of proper management of resources within Kenya.

LECTURE TWO ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

2.1 Introduction

In lecture one, we discussed the meaning of environment, principles governing the


management of environment, environment and sustainable development, ecology and
ecosystems and environmental resources and their classification. In this lecture we are going
to introduce you to Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). Our focus will be on the
meaning of EIA, role of EIA, EIA guidelines in Kenya and challenges involved in EIA.
2.2 Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

1. Explain the meaning of Environment Impact Assessment


2. Explain the role of EIA in good environmental practice in Kenya
3. Identify the Environmental Impact Assessment systems applicable in Kenya.
4. Examine Environment management guidelines inKenya
5. Explain the Environmental laws: International, Kenyanperspectives
6. State the Challenges of environmental impact assessment

2.3 Meaning of Environmental Impact Assessment

Environmental assessment is a procedure that ensures that the environmental implications of


projects are taken into account before the project decisions are made.The purpose of the
assessment is to ensure that decision makers consider the ensuing environmental impacts to
decide whether to proceed with the project. The International Association for Impact
Assessment (IAIA) defines an environmental impact assessment as "the process of
identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant
effects of development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments
made

2.4 Role of Environmental Impact Assessment in the Management of Projects in Kenya

In principle, EIA helps in the planning, monitoring and management of projects in Kenya in
order to minimize their negative impact to the community. The main roles centre on the
following:

2.4.1 Sustainability and Strengthening of Local Issues

The country has three different faces; firstly, it has unique nature values, not only on a
national but also on an international scale. Secondly, the land uplift results into an interesting
land use pattern and real estate structure. The land area has been developed rapidly by private
developers, which, in turn means there is a need to control and monitor the whole process of
development of land to ensure equitable and controlled development. The third factor results
mainly from the county's unique location from the mainland to the sea land to the mountains
to the plains, type of local way of life cannot be found elsewhere.
2.4.2 Documentation

The Environmental Impact Statement deals with a planning dilemma, that is, how to assess
the impacts of a plan, which does not include detailed design drawings and therefore no
detailed predictions of impacts, can be made. All the actors realize that the decision to
implement the plan has already been made, and the development in that direction cannot be
ceased or stopped by any means. In the assessment, impacts are regarded as warning signs,
and are merely transformed into potential mitigation measures than described as direct or
indirect impacts.

It is up to the competent authorities to ensure that enforcement will be in line with the
findings of the Environmental Impact Statement. But a lot of responsibility falls to the
Proponent who will carry on with detailed design activities such as forestry, road upgrading
and building, and drainage of forests and fields.

In the surveying tradition, reorganization is perceived as improving rational use of land


resources. Here pros and cons of the project are in terms of classical economics. The Public
Participation Tradition assumes that local inhabitants and interest groups should have a key
role in all measures affecting their environment. The Nature Conservation Tradition has its
own well known principles. All these are the concerns of EIA in Kenya.

2.4.3 Capacity Building and Institutional Strengthening

In spite of the fact that the authors of EIA may not be objective evaluators, they try to find
out the key issues for others to learn from, for example, the National Land Survey is willing
to learn how to develop its practices in Kenya and elsewhere. The Environmental Authorities
need good practice examples of Strategic Environmental Assessment in Spatial Planning.
And especially, the Public needs evidence that their participation has not gone by the board.

2.4.4 General Discussion

Environmental Impact Assessment procedures cannot solve the problems of Kenya in a


rapidly changing economic, social, environmental, and land use framework but it provides a
flat form of evaluating the developmental policies of the country against those of other
countries. At least the procedure gives an opportunity to discuss and assess the situation in a
transparent and open-minded way. It may also appear that re-organization benefits are
relatively small compared against the risk of losing the traditional cultural setting. This may
in turn lead to serious reconsideration of the developmental policies for a better future.

Take Note
Environmental impact assessments are sometimes controversial.

2.5 Environment Impact Assessment Procedures in Kenya

In Kenya the procedures for environmental impact assessments are largely governed by the
Environmental Management and Coordination Act (1999), and other considerations given
due attention in the project selection, sitting and design. It should however be noted that there
is no universal procedure to be followed for each project because the application of EIA
varies with the types of projects or project area or region and there is no one "right" way
given the comprehensive variety of issues that must be considered(Njuguna, 2007).

Based on the empirical evidence collected in developing countries and various other parts of
the world, it has been found out that one way of approaching EIA cost effectively is to
familiarize the person who makes the decision with the steps involved in the EIA, the
importance of timing each step, and the resources required in the project design and
implementation.

Generally the steps or processes involved in carrying out an Environmental Impact


assessment are as follows:

2.5.1 Preliminary Actions

Preliminary actions or activities are some of the issues to be identified and activities to be
undertaken at the very initial stages when planning, conceptualizing, defining and
formulating an environmental impact assessment. The activities involved at this stage include
identifying a decision maker or makers selecting a co-coordinating person deciding on work
allocation writing description of proposed action and reviewing the existing legislation.

The issue of identifying the decision maker may appear simple but it is one of the most
difficult and complicated issues to handle in the EIA process. This is because in Kenya and
indeed in many developed and developing countries, there is normally conflict in terms of
who is the person with the authority over a certain project or programme. This fact is even
made more complicated in a situation where the project or programme requires to be carried
out or falls under different ministries. Therefore it is very helpful from the onset to state
clearly which person, or persons, or group will have the responsibility of making the final
decisions on a particular project or a programme.

Another preliminary activity involves selecting a coordinator who will manage the EIA study
on behalf of the decision- maker. The work of the co-ordinator is more or less like the
supervisor on the ground who will ensure that the study proceeds along the lines set out by
the scoping exercise and that the outcome of the study will be in the form that is useful to the
decision maker. A coordinator therefore is supposed to have some technical skills on the
environmental impact assessment as his role is technical in nature. In some rare cases the
decision maker himself carries the role of the coordinator.

The third preliminary activity is the allocation of work. This involves allocation of
responsibilities to be carried out and by whom. What should be noted here is that there are
several alternatives of allocating the activities and it varies from one country to another. For
example, in United States of America (U.S.A), the practice is that the developer conducts the
assessment while the Environment Protection Agency serves in a review and "watch dog"
capacity. In other countries like in Bahrain, the government agency actually carries out the
environmental impact study

In text Question

What is the current practice in Kenya regarding work allocation?

Whatever model of allocation of work is to be followed the primary thing is that allocation of
work should be done early in the life of the project.

The next preliminary activity that follows the allocation of work is the description of the
proposed action. It involves coming up with a write up which should be brief (not more than
ten pages) that specifies exactly the action that the study is intended to solve the list of
constraints to be encountered and the proposed action to be taken. The activity of writing a
description of a proposed action is technical in nature and it is normally recommended that
the writing of the proposed action should be done by the co-ordinator or an equally qualified
person.

The last of the preliminary activities is the review of the all existing laws, regulations and
ordinances that would apply to the proposed action. The motive behind this action is to
identify any areas of conflict and iron them out at the earliest.

Take Note
The list of preliminary activities listed above is not exhaustive. It is limited to activities that
are necessary in many projects

2.5.2 Identification of Impact (Scoping)

The second major step for conducting an environmental impact assessment is scoping. It
consists of two parts or processes. The first part requires a compilation of all possible impacts
whether severe or trivial by getting information from as many sources as possible. Once this
information is obtained, the list is compiled and then the list is carefully examined and a
manageable number of key impacts are selected for study. The rest of the impacts are
normally discarded. Another area where identification is done is on the legislative or
regulatory requirements. The scoping process therefore helps in establishing the extent for
any additional studies, enables the proper scheduling of activities to be studied, assists in
getting the staffing required, and also helps in complying with the prevailing laws and other
regulations.

Scoping requires working closely with all the interested parties and other stakeholders in the
project to be implemented. In some countries like in USA, there are strict laws that require
scoping to be done at early stages of the EIA and also in coordination with interested parties,
agencies and the public.

There are a number of sources for getting the information that can be used for scoping. The
most ideal source for developing a checklist of impacts is by synthesis from other EIAs on
similar actions. Other sources could include UNEP's referral system, the Division Early
Warning System (DEWA) and other national environmental agencies in different countries;
completed EIAs on similar actions; and from a growing number of textbooks and resource
materials that list potential environmental effects of different development or industrial
activities.

Impact identification is normally done under scoping. It involves collecting all data on the
environment that can in one way or the other can be affected by the planned project.

2.5.3 Baseline Study

The baseline study is the establishment of what existed in the area prior to an action. It does
not need to be extensive nor all inclusive since in the cause of scoping, most important
impacts would have been identified. However baseline study would be required in order to
measure the baseline levels of those environmental parameters that the most important
impacts will affect. Therefore the baseline study should be formulated from the short list of
impacts identified under scoping.

The activities required under baseline survey are field work and a review of the existing
documents. At this stage resources will be required for personnel and some basic training in
the technical field. It is also at this stage that technical specialists are required to put their
inputs into the environmental impact assessment.

2.5.4 Impact Evaluation (Quantification) and Predication

After identifying the impacts of a proposed project, the next logical step will be to know or
measure the degree or extent of that impact. This is carried out through an impact evaluation
process. For example, if the impact identified for people living in a village nearby to a
proposed factory was noise, impact evaluation should be able to measure the extent of effects
that will occur as a result of the changes in the noise levels in that particular village. To
determine the nature of expected impact, it is essential to predict the noise level at the village
during the time period when the factory will be operating and also to predict the level before
the installation of the factory. Then a series of calculations can be done to determine the
sound output of the factory and a computer model may be used to calculate the noise levels
which may occur as a result of introducing the new noise source.

A point to be noted here is that for some impacts, there are predictive techniques for example,
air pollutant dispersion models which enable prediction of future conditions of environmental
parameters to be ascertained, but for other impacts it may be necessary to rely on the "best"
judgment of the experts based on their knowledge and experience.

2.5.5 Mitigation Measures

Once the impacts have been identified and quantified, some may be found to be significant
and adverse. Therefore this calls for measures which might reduce or prevent the expected
impacts. It is often not possible to eradicate an adverse environmental effect but it is feasible
to reduce the intensity. These measures of reducing the adversity are referred to as mitigation
measures. Examples of mitigation measures are installing of dust collectors, sludge ponds,
noise mufflers, and crop rotation.

Take Note

Proper assessment should be done to determine the extent to which each mitigation

measure might reduce the impacts, or prevent them altogether.

2.5.6 Impact Assessment or Comparison of Alternatives

The next step after mitigation measures is to assess the extent of impact and compare them
with the available alternatives. At this stage all information gathered from all other steps are
made available. In addition, all environmental losses and gains will be assessed along with
the economic costs and benefits to produce a full picture for each project alternative. The
intended output of this step is a series of recommendations from which the decision-maker
will choose a course of action.
In order to compare the alternatives it will be necessary at this stage to have the following
information: all information on costs and benefits and all the positive and negative
environmental impacts for the project.

2.5.7 Documentation and Communication of Impact Information

This is perhaps the most important step in Environmental impact assessment. It involves
preparation of the environmental impact statement or report. The report should be prepared in
a manner that it can be understood by non-expert decision makers and members of the public
if given access.

The report should be prepared in simple language that can be easily understood, and should
ideally have the following features;

Executive summary use visual displays, tables, graphs and diagrams as much as possible
keep the text to the minimum necessary focus on the likely impacts avoid jargon and highly
technical language include in the technical appendix the methodology used.

2.5.8 Decision Making

Once a report has been prepared, it is then forwarded to the person who is going to make a
decision. Many times the decision maker may be one or several government officials, a
manager or a Board of Directors. Once the decision maker goes through the report he is
expected to make any of the following decisions; the project proceeds, the project proceeds
with the amendments, and the project is cancelled with amendment

Take Note

The primary objective of undertaking an EIA is to help the decision maker to make a sound
decision on the project.

Therefore the report generated should convey to the decision maker the nature of the problem
that was addressed, the possible alternatives that were considered and the pros and cons for
each one of them.

2.5.9 Post Audits

This is considered as the last step in the environmental impact assessment. Post audits are
conducted to determine how close those predictions were to the reality. Given its nature, it is
normally not possible to have it done immediately after the decision making process.
Therefore in most cases it is done by another team which is set up later after the EIA process
has been completed.

2.6 Environmental Laws: International and Kenyan perspectives

Now that you are familiar with the steps followed while undertaking an environmental impact
assessment, let us now look at the legal framework for the environment. We will start by
discussing environmental laws as applied in Kenya and also try to have a perspective of
international law. In this respect we may focus on one or two countries in order to have a
clear understanding of the international aspect.

2.6.1 Environmental Laws in Kenya

In Kenya, environmental laws can be traced back to 1994 when the government adopted the
National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) and later the Environmental Management and
Coordination Act was enacted in 1999.The Act consolidates the various legislation that
touched on the environment mainly the constitution of Kenya, land tenure and land use
legislation, forestry legislation, wildlife legislation, water laws and agricultural legislation.
One of the most important features of this act is that it created the National Environmental
Management Authority (NEMA) which was given the mandate to oversee and monitor the
status of environment in Kenya. The functions of the National Environment Management
Authority are to:

 Monitor the state of environment


 Advise the government on issues of policy legislation and coordination touching on
the environment
 Harmonize and integrate environmental concerns during development planning
 Ensure compliance with environmental laws, regulations, impact assessments and
other standards on environment
 Promote environmental education and awareness

Take Note

NEMA has the legal authority to exercise general supervision and coordination over all
environmental policies .

The Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act (EMCA) requires that all key
projects, proposed or on-going, should carry out environmental impact assessments. Those
projects which are found to have destroyed or violated any environmental laws are obliged
to pay the fine or compensation and remedy or rectify the ills caused.
2.6.2 International Environmental Laws

Internationally, increased public awareness over the damage done to the natural environment
has resulted into international environmental agreements. Some of these agreements have
been discussed in lecture eight of this module under the global initiatives to conserve the
environment. What is important to note here is that in most countries where laws intend to
protect the environment are in operation and environmental assessment legislation is
incorporated within the main environmental legislation or enacted as a separate act. The
purpose of this act is to protect, conserve, and ensure wise management of the environment in
the country or a specific region

Examples of the more elaborate environmental legislations are Canadian Environmental


Protection Act (1999) and the United States National Environmental Policy Act (1999).

The National Environmental Policy Act (1969) is considered one of the most comprehensive
and all encompassing environmental legislation in USA and many other parts of the world.
Under the Act, the Federal Government is required to prepare the national environmental
protection policy and create a council for environmental quality to monitor national progress
toward environmental policy goals.

2.7 Challenges of Environmental Impact Assessment

Environmental impact assessments are measures or estimates of consequences of


management decisions on one or more environmental indicators. They may be simply
methods for identifying changes in the environment, or they may be tools for decision-
making which also assess the magnitude and significance of these changes.

In this section we shift from describing environmental laws to discussing some of the
challenges and potential difficulties that may be encountered while faced with developing
systems to assess these impacts. These are conceptual challenges which are not, for the most
part, likely to have quick technical solutions. The issues to be discussed are organized into
three sections, that is the identification and integration of environmental indicators, the bias
against future impacts or, alternatively, our greater ease and ability in measuring and
assessing current and tangible impacts and the reality of data limitations, which constrain the
development of assessment models in covering the breadth of environmental parameters that
are being measured.

2.7.1 Choosing Environmental Indicators and Deciding How to Integrate Them

As we have noted earlier, many environmental indicators are needed to fully describe the
environmental impacts of any proposed project to be implemented. To use the example of
pesticide toxicity, there is no single species or group of biota that is most sensitive to all
pesticides and thus useful as a surrogate for all others in toxicity testing. This truism applies
to other environmental perturbations as well -- we cannot rely on a single indicator species or
abiotic effect to tell all we need to know about impacts of any management decision.
Scientists are therefore faced with the need to test and evaluate impacts on various groups of
biota, and then integrate the results in order to create a composite assessment of
environmental impacts of a pest control method or other management strategy. One can grasp
the conceptual challenge this poses by thinking about how one would go about weighting and
summing an evaluation of impacts on human beings in relation to impacts on other biota,
especially if the impacts were dissimilar in magnitude and type.

2.7.2 The Challenge of Quantification

Another challenge to creating a composite assessment of environmental impacts of proposed


projects or programmes is finding a meaningful common currency to describe different types
of impacts. In answering many questions about environmental impacts, monetary values do
not adequately describe non-market costs, such as the loss of an individual life, loss of
biodiversity, impacts on 'non-game' species, disruption of an ecosystem, future costs of
current soil erosion, or loss of non-replaceable resources. Ongoing research in several
disciplines (and inter-disciplines) is aimed at devising means of valuing environmental and
other non-market goods. Much of this work falls under the rubric of 'resource ecological
economics' (Daly 1991; Daly and Townsend 1993, Daly and Cobb 1994, Guinee and
Heijungs 1995, Krishnan, Harris and Goodwin 1995).

2.7.3 Bias against Future as Compared to Present Impacts

There are several ways in which we can be biased against considering future, as compared to
present impacts. The issues that tend to concern us most are those that occur in our immediate
space and time frame. This implies that current activities which lead to environmental
impacts at more distance places and times tend to receive less attention. For example, a
project to test ecotoxicity of pesticides emphasizes their short-term lethality rather than their
chronic and cumulative impacts. Or we may be more interested in the short-term reduction in
pesticide use that occurs when pest-resistant varieties are introduced than in the long-term
impact on pest populations caused by the use of pest-resistant varieties. Long-term and
cumulative impacts are more difficult to comprehend and quantify than short-term impacts
and there are less data generally available. As a result, less weight tends to be given to these
impacts in environmental assessments.

A second way in which we can be biased against the future as compared to the present is by
not considering impacts associated with future events (Garetz 1993) such as leaking of
improperly stored pesticides in the future. Assessing future impacts of future events can be
more uncertain than assessing impacts of current events, but this does not mean that such
impacts are less important. For example, the Superfund Program and Hazardous Waste
Program were established primarily on the basis of future rather than current risks.

2.7.4 Data Limitations

Data are required at one point while carrying out an environmental impact assessment for
proposed projects. Data can be divided into different classes, that is, recognizing the variety
of types of data enables us to place the availability of data into perspective. Data which
describe intrinsic properties of a system are unlikely to change with time. Examples of these
are soil data, rainfall and climate records. Other data are valid for short time periods, such as
farm management information, which therefore was to be collected frequently. Other data
may also vary according to the type of assessment, or as new knowledge becomes available.
For these reasons it is difficult to define a minimum data set for the proposed projects which
will be widely applicable or remain constant for a long time.
LECTURE THREE ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

3.1 Introduction

In lecture two, we introduced you to Environmental Impact Assessment where we covered:


meaning of EIA, role of EIA in good environmental practice in Kenya, Environment Impact
Assessment procedures in Kenya, Environmental laws with International and Kenyan
perspectives, and finally the Challenges of EIA.

In this lecture we are going to discuss the Meaning of Environmental Development, the
Relationship between Environment and Development, Integrating Environmental Issues into
Development that is, Waste management, Pollution and Land degradation, Drought and
Desertification and Impact of Development on the Environment.

3.2 Objectives

At the end of this lecture you should be able to:

1. Explain the meaning of environmental development,

2. Analyze the relationship between development and environment.

3. Discuss the various techniques of integrating environmental issues into development.

4. Explain the impact of development on the environment.

3.3 Meaning of Environmental Development

Environmental development is concerned with all aspects of the developmental activities


which impact on the environment. It is also concerned with the complex interactions between
development and environment. The purpose of environmental development is to seek ways
and means of achieving sustainability in all human activities aimed at such development. Its
coverage includes interactions among society ( environment) and developmental
advancements, development; technical, economic, ethical and philosophical aspects and the
environment, practical implementation; development and application of indicators of
sustainability; development, verification, implementation and monitoring of policies for
sustainable development; sustainable use of land, water, energy and biological resources in
development; impacts of agriculture and forestry activities on soil and aquatic ecosystems
and biodiversity, and much more.

Modern environmental technology applies the newest developments management to the


conservation and reduction of the negative impact of human involvement in our natural
environment. Scientists are focusing on technological advancements that are socially
equitable, economically viable and more environmentally sound. The present environment be
it physical, social, economic or even political has to a large extent been shaped by
technology. In order to fully utilize the potentials of technological advancement, a high level
of familiarity with the relationship between development and the environment is important.
This is becoming more necessary and experts are predicting that the effect of technology on
the environment and society will be even more far-reaching and wide spread in the future.
For example, technological advances have definitely benefited us in form of more material
benefits and conveniences like sufficient food, clothing, housing and health care.

People today are much better fed, clothed, and housed. People need to work less hard, and
don't need to expose themselves to many perils that their ancestors hundreds or thousands of
years back were. But along with such gains in physical convenience and wealth, there have
been some losses. One of the losses has been the degradation of our environment. We have
already lost a lot in terms of wiping out from the face of this earth many species of plant and
animal life. Also we have damaged the natural beauty, serenity, and healthy environment of
many places by industrial activity, urbanization, and mass invasion by tourists. A lot of such
damage was unavoidable. But perhaps a lot more was the result of human callousness and
excessive greed for profit rather than unavoidable outcome of technological development.

The damage that has already been done is great, but much greater damages now stare in our
face in the form of global warming. This phenomenon, which is the result of excessive
release of some gases such as carbon dioxide and the ozone in atmosphere which is due to
industrial activity, is slowly increasing the average temperature around the globe. Since
1800's global warming has increased average global temperature by more than 0.6 degrees,
and is increasing further rapidly.

To a layman this increase in temperature does not appear to matter much, but if allowed to
continue this way, it will cause mass extinction of plants and animals, and cause many other
disastrous damages to the earth which will be irreversible. This means that bringing back the
temperature to the original levels will not reverse some of the effects of global warming. For
example, one of the effects will be melting of the icecaps in the polar region which will raise
the level of waters in ocean. This process is irreversible after certain levels of temperature are
reached. Unless is stopped, global warming, the melting of ice caps will submerge under
water coastal areas all around the world. This area is home for about 15 percent of the world
population today. We will discuss in detail this phenomenon in lecture eight.

Intext Question
In your opinion, how does development and environment affect one another?

3.4 The Relationship between Environment and Development

The relationship between the natural environment and development is very critical especially
as it touches on how development affects the environment. Increased production of goods and
services has been sought through different combinations of labour, raw materials,
accumulated capital and available technology. The manner and conditions in which these
factors are related can be determined within the context of the level of development attained
within specific period of time. The idea that development is possible only when the resources
are available supports our idea that development is related to our environment. It should be
re-emphasized that the environmental issues are of great importance to the development
process of a particular region or place and should therefore be considered as an integral
aspect of development.

The current concern with the environment has arisen at a time when the energies and efforts
of the developing countries are being increasingly devoted to the global goal of development.
Indeed, the compelling urgency of the development agenda has been widely recognized in the
last decade by the international community and has more recently been endorsed in the
proposals set out by the United Nations for the second Development Decade.

The problems experienced by the industrially advanced countries have, to a large extent,
brought about the current concern with environmental issues globally. These problems are
themselves largely the outcome of a high level of development. The creation of large
productive capacities in industry and agriculture, the growth of complex systems of
transportation and communication and the evolution of massive urban conglomerations have
all been accompanied in one way or the other by damage and disruption to the environment.
These disruptions have attained such proportions, that constitute serious hazards to human
health and well- being. In some ways, in fact, the dangers extend beyond national boundaries
and threaten the world as a whole.

Take Note
The problems experienced by the industrially advanced countries have, to a large extent,
brought about the current concern with environmental issues in developing countries.

This does not in any way suggest that the developing countries are unconcerned with these
problems. They have a vital stake in them because these problems have an impact on the
global environment and on the socio-economic relations between developing and developed
countries. The developing world also has an interest in them to the extent that there are
problems that tend to accompany the process of development. These problems are in fact
already emerging with increasing severity in most developing societies. These societies wish
to avoid, as far as is feasible, the mistakes and distortions that have characterized the patterns
of development of the more industrialized societies.

As mentioned earlier, the major environmental problems of developing countries are


essentially of a different kind. They are predominantly problems that reflect poverty and
inadequate development of their societies. In other words, they are problems, of both rural
and urban poverty. In towns and the countryside, it is not merely the quality of life but life
itself that is endangered by the poor quality of water, housing, sanitation and nutrition,
sickness and disease and natural disasters. These are problems, no less greater than those of
industrial pollution, that clamour for attention in the context of the concern for human
environment. They are, verily, the type of problems which affect the greater mass of
mankind.

It is evident that, in large measure, the kind of environmental problems that are of importance
in developing countries are those that should be overcome in the process of development
itself. In the more industrialized countries, it is appropriate to view development as the major
cause of environmental problems. Poor planning and unregulated development can have a
similar result in the developing countries.

However, developing countries must view the relationship between development and
environment from a different perspective. In their context, development becomes essentially
a cure for major environmental problems. For these reasons, concern for the environment
must not and need not detract from the commitment of the world's more industrialized
nations to the task of assisting the development of the less developed regions of the
world. Although it may be argued that the concern with human environment in developing
countries can only reinforce the commitment to development, it should also serve, to provide
new dimensions to the concept of development itself. In the past, there has been a tendency
to equate he development itself.

In the past, there has been a tendency to equate the development goal with the more narrowly
conceived objective of economic growth as measured by the rise in gross national product. It
is usually recognized today that high rates of economic growth, necessary and essential as
they are, do not by themselves guarantee that urgent social and human problems will be
solved or even lessened. Indeed, in many countries, high growth rates have been
accompanied by increasing unemployment, rising disparities in incomes between groups and
regions and the deterioration of social and cultural conditions. As a consequence, new
emphasis is being placed on the attainment of social and cultural goals as part of the
development process. The recognition of environmental issues in developing counties is an
aspect of broadening of the development concept. It is part of a more integrated or unified
approach to the development objectives.

Whilst the environmental problems of developing countries are in large measure those that
have arisen from the lack of development, it is true that problems arising out of the process of
development are equally in evidence in these countries to the extent that the safety of the
environment depends on their relative levels of development. As the process of development
gets underway, the latter type of problems is likely to assume increasing importance. The
process of agricultural growth and transformation, for example, will involve the construction
of reservoirs and irrigation systems, the clearing of forests, the use of fertilizers and
pesticides and the establishment of new roads and communities. These processes will
certainly have environmental implications.

Similarly, industrialization will result in the release of pollutants that will react on the
environment in a number of ways. Urbanization is already a pressing problem for many
developing countries and some cities are experiencing problems similar to those of
industrialized counties. In addition, with the urgent need for the rural areas to sustain a
growing population, the problem of the rural environment assumes a new significance. The
problems are already severe in developing countries. But with lack of relevant educative
information and resolute action, they tend to attain formidable dimensions in the decades
ahead.

Some of the advanced environmental consequences of the development process could be


avoided by better planning and regulation as we will see in the last sections of this lecture.
However, it suffices to point out at this juncture that in some fields environmental issues open
up new positives for developing countries. The structural changes in production and trade as
well as the geographical relocation of productive enterprises which might be necessitated by
environmental considerations, should provide new opportunities for meeting some of the
developmental needs of the developing nations.

Among such structural changes, we can mention first of all the switch in balance between
natural and synthetic products and the re-opening of certain markets to the export of natural
products. In some cases, developing countries may be able to increase the inflow of foreign
capital and create new industries, if such opportunities are to be fully realized, they will
require new and concerted measures on the part of the developed and developing countries in
the field of international trade and investment. The desire to redress some of the past damage
to the environment and to minimize the environmental cost of future development will, in
most cases, represent a new claim on productive resources and an additional element in the
cost of productions. Some of this burden may be reduced in the future as science and
technology respond to the needs of environmental management.

Still, one of the major questions which arise from the increased concern with the preservation
of the environment is how the higher cost of future development should be shared between
developed and developing countries. There are misgivings in the developing countries that,
given their peripheral role in the international economy, they may not be able to take full
advantage of opportunities arising from environmental control, while at the same time they
may have to bear a disproportional part of the extra burden which such control would entail.

The increased cost burden to developing nations should be accompanied by a greater


willingness, on the part of developed nations, to provide additional assistance. On the other
hand, nations should endeavour to rectify the inefficient allocation of productive resources
arising from the indiscriminate protection of agriculture and industry. Whatever is done
should in any case provide fresh for more efficient protection of the environment.

3.5 Integrating Environmental Issues into Development

The purpose of development of any region is to provide opportunities of better living and
employment to the people. While industrial development almost inevitably creates more
employment in any region, the possibilities of adverse effects on the environment also
increases if these adverse effects are not properly contained or reduced to minimum. Thus
there occurs a situation in which the material goods increase but the quality of life
deteriorates. This requires a proper machinery of integrating environmental issues into
developmental efforts as examples given below indicates.

3.5.1 Waste Management

Concern about the environment has seen a massive increase in recycling globally which has
grown to be an important part of modern civilization. As a society we manage to produce a
vast amount of materials that are just thrown away, waste management is the collection of
these materials in order to recycle them and as a result decrease their effects on health,
surroundings and the environment. Practices in waste management are different the world
over, dependent on certain issues such as how developed the nation is, if it is a city or rural
area.The management of waste is not only the responsibility of governments and the
manufacturer, but also an individual's duty. Waste management is an issue that has to be dealt
with daily in order to control the huge amounts of waste currently passing through our towns
and cities.

Kenya is one of the countries that is giving attention and priority to how it handles its waste,
and this has resulted in the emergence of companies offering environmental services for
resource recovery and recycling. To reduce the impact of waste and unwanted resources on
the environment it is important to educate the populace about waste items and how they can
be processed or recycled.

There are several resource recovery systems in place and facilities have been developed to
deal with these issues. Natural recovery systems make use of food, organic and green waste
and which are then dealt with in in-vessel compost systems, whilst materials collected for
recycling include glass, plastic bags, metals and paper. Automated and manual methods are
used to sort materials from construction sites, such as brick, tiles and concrete and after being
sorted they are re-used for road base and construction materials. E-waste (electronic waste)
comes from items such as old computers which are taken apart in order to recover materials
like cabling, aluminum, copper, glass and plastics. Bioreactor landfills are deployed to
generate green energy through the capturing of biogas from municipal waste. There is also
help provided for councils to award innovative technologies which can be used to recover
recyclables.
The society can also all help out when it comes to waste management and recycling products.
It may not seem effective to recycle products as a household, but put all those households
together and you will produce a result. It is each person's responsibility to do what they can to
conserve resources, reduce landfill volumes and produce new materials using less energy.
Some cities in developed nations keep a record of their resource recovery systems in order to
identify if they are working effectively, evaluate them and update them if necessary, this
information can then be passed on to other areas or nations to help them in the recycle
challenge. Deciding to recycle is a simple step and surprisingly easy to start. If you are unsure
where to begin there are lots of resources, including the local environmental sector, who will
be eager to teach you how to recycle leftover waste and improve on your environment.

3.5.2 Environment Pollution

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability,


disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem i.e. physical systems or living organisms.
Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat, or light.
Pollutants or the elements of pollution can be foreign substances or energies, or naturally
occurring; when naturally occurring, they are considered contaminants when they exceed
natural levels.

Environmental pollution has now become an important global issue, gaining rapid importance
since the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE, 1972). The fast
pace of industrialization, galloping demand for energy and reckless exploitation of natural
resources during the last century have been mainly responsible for aggravating the problem
of environmental pollution, which is now set to pose serious threat to biodiversity and
ecosystem processes.

3.5.3 Land Degradation

Land degradation is a global development and environmental issue (UNCED, 1992; UNEP,
2007) but there is no authoritative, global measure. Land degradation is defined as the long-
term loss of ecosystem function and productivity caused by disturbances from which the land
cannot recover unaided (Bai and others 2008). Land degradation occurs slowly and
cumulatively and has long lasting impacts on rural people who become increasing vulnerable
(Muchena, 2008). The UN Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD), of which Kenya is
a signatory, recognizes land degradation as a global development and environment issue.
Desertification is the most severe form of land degradation. The CCD defines desertification
as land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas (also referred to as drylands)
resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities. Demands
on the land for economic development and pressures from a burgeoning population are
leading to unprecedented land use change. In turn, unsustainable land use is driving land
degradation. The result is a loss of land productivity with impacts on livelihoods and the
economy.

Unsustainable human activities that take place in already fragile areas and that are aggravated
by natural disturbance such as drought or flooding lead to land degradation and
desertification. Kenya's 2002 National Action Programme on desertification reported that
"the existing ecological conditions in drylands are harsh and fragile. These conditions are
exacerbated by frequent drought and the influx of people from the high potential areas into
the drylands. Overgrazing and subdivision of land into uneconomic land parcel sizes have
further worsened them.

Land degradation is increasing, studies in 1997 showed that 64 per cent of Kenya's land area
was potentially subject to moderate desertification and about 23 per cent were vulnerable to
severe to very severe desertification. In the northern rangelands, 12.3 per cent suffered from
severe land degradation, 52 per cent to moderate land degradation, and 33 per cent faced
slight vulnerability to degradation. The latter study identified degradation in ASALs as a
potential precursor to widespread desertification. In the early 2000s, approximately 30 per
cent of Kenya was affected by very severe to severe land degradation (UNEP 2002) and an
estimated 12 million people, or a third of the Kenya's population, depended directly on land
that is being degraded (Bai et al, 2008). The droughts of 1970-2000 accelerated soil
degradation and reduced per-capita food production (GoK, 2002).

The impact of land degradation and desertification are a reduction in crop and pasture
productivity and fuel-wood and non-timber forest products, which are closely linked to
poverty and food insecurity. The damage to soil, loss of habitat, water shortages, and siltation
reduce biodiversity and ecosystem services and has economic consequences. Land
degradation manifests itself in many forms; among them are soil erosion, increased sediment
loading of water bodies (such as Lake Olbollosat, the Winam Gulf, and Lake Baringo, all of
which feature in satellite images in this Atlas), loss of soil fertility, salinity, reduced ground
cover, and the reduced carrying capacity of pastures (as in Amboseli National Park, for
example).

Activity 3.1

1. What is the relationship between Population, environment and development?

Using examples, give reasons why land degradation is a more serious problem in Kenya.
3.6 Impact of Development on the Environment

The socio-cultural roots of the present environmental crisis lies in the paradigms of scientific
materialism and economical determinism, which fail to recognize the physical limits imposed
by ecological systems on economic activity. The economies must expand within ecosystems,
which have limited regenerative capacities. The emergence of the concept of sustainable
development in recent years has brought in the general realization that societal perceptions
must shift towards ecological determinism so as to achieve qualitative growth with the limits
of ecosystem carrying capacity. In the past, environmental aspects of industrial developments
were usually not taken into account seriously, as it was believed that this was almost
inevitable and almost necessary for the economic development. Environmental movement,
for all purpose, had its beginning in 1972, the year of the Stockholm Conference.

After Stockholm Conference of 1972 even the erstwhile underdeveloped countries realized
the environmental degradation can be disproportionately more than economic development
unless suitable safeguards are provided from the beginning. It has also been agreed that the
effects of pollution in all its aspects may not remain limited to the boundaries of developed
and developing nations. The hazards of Green House effects and the depletion/disruption of
ozone layer of the world atmosphere have become more real than just postulations. In Kenya,
for example, the environmental thinking took its cue from the developed countries and
perceived the preservation of the threatened species. Later, two areas related to prevention of
any further degradation and depletion of basic natural resources and life support system of
land, water and vegetation were identified. The need to preserve the country's production
base and to combat industrial pollution and insanitation in the interest of public health has
been felt. Institutional arrangements such as National Committee for environmental planning
and coordination was set up after independence, which was followed a little later by the
creation of Pollution Control Body.

Environmental degradation affects developing countries more fundamentally, than it does the
developed world. It is universally recognized, in developing countries, that, while economic
development is an essential process to erase poverty and hunger, at the same time, it is
equally important, to protect the environment from pollution at regional as well as national
and global levels. As such, effective measures are called for at all levels of production, to
combat pollution and to save the environment from degradation.

In Kenya, our efforts to provide to a vast and growing population, with food and comforts can
be sustained in the long run, only if we protect and preserve our environment, from further
degradation. Though agriculture is still the main-stay of the population, a sizeable section of
population is engaged in manufacturing and allied activities which affect agricultural
activities which results in hence poverty and hunger. However, the industrialization of the
predominantly farming areas has led to the degradation of environment due to industrial
pollution. The population around the industrial complexes is exposed to the hazards of
industrial pollution thereby influencing quality of life.

The problem of accumulation of industrial waste, like flyash & redmud, steel slag at rural and
urban areas respectively have assumed significant proportions, while, their utilization aspects,
have so far been neglected: (considering the fact that their alternative usages are in practice
elsewhere in their respective countries and abroad). It is, therefore, of paramount importance,
to start commercial utilization of industrial waste flyash, redmund, steel slag by involving the
industries, users, and concerned State and Central Government departments, without any
further delay. Industries should be compelled to recycle waste on a regular basis through
legislation and its strict enforcement by all countries. All these anti-pollution laws and
measures become ineffective in the absence of proper monitoring system. This can be
accomplished through regular monitoring by a competent and high powered group.

Development, population and environment are closely related issues, and take place in one
earth with finite resources. It is important to note that unlimited population growth and
permanent development, using the limited resources available cannot continue endlessly.
There is a limit as to how many human beings on this planet can support in harmony with
other species that are needed to make the human existence worthwhile. Biologists have a
concept that we would be well advised to pay attention to. We are referring to the concept of
the "carrying capacity" of a biosphere. We know that, in the animal kingdom, unlimited
population growth ultimately leads to the destruction of the habitat of the species and as a
result there is a drastic check in the growth rate, or occasionally the species will be wiped out
from the face of the earth.

In the last 600 million years, the earth has known many a massive extinction of species as a
result of drastic changes in the habitat, or as is occasionally put forward as an alternative
hypothesis, due to the impact of extra-terrestrial objects. Scientifically, no less than five
major extinctions have been fully documented. Majority of this can be scientifically
explained by changes in the climatological conditions, which ultimately affected the habitat
of the then living species. In none was mankind involved, for the simple reason that we did
not exist yet. According to the most optimistic estimates, mankind in its present form came
into existence only about half a million years ago.

At present, we may witness the beginning of another period of mass extinction of species, but
this time one of the main actors in the drama is man, who through his actions or sometimes
his lack of actions is endangering the future of the world and its inhabitants. Air pollution
from the emission of fumes caused by burning fossil fuels or as a by-product of industrial
production in the developed countries is well documented. Similarly, water pollution as a
result of indiscriminate dumping on land, the coastal areas and even the high seas is also a
known fact. Desertification as a result of deforestation or inappropriate use of land is now
also one of the sad realities of many developing countries. The quality of life both in the
developed and the developing countries is negatively affected by this deterioration of man's
habitat. Good drinking water, already a scarcity in many developing countries, is also rapidly
becoming a luxury in developed countries.

Mankind strives to improve its lot by improving its quality of life. This is achieved through
development. A very simple definition of development is the totality of activities that ensures
that the basic needs for human existence are met for an ever-increasing number of the
population. Since the early days of mankind, the basic needs have been stated in general
terms to be, the need for food, shelter and self-esteem. Food includes all kinds of nutrition,
and self-esteem also includes aspirations to better one self, through education, occupation and
self-realization. The shift from human and animal sources of energy, from dependence on
only agricultural production have all contributed to the level of development which is now
being enjoyed by about a fifth of the world population, and which is the aspiration of the rest.
Unfortunately, it seems that, at this particular time in the history of our planet, this aspiration
is not only far from being achieved in the near future, it also poses serious threats to the
continued existence of life on planet earth. Human activities have always had an impact on
the environment either in a positive, neutral or negative sense. Agriculture has affected the
distribution of plant and animal species, both the domesticated and wild ones alike.
Archaeological and historical records show that mankind has been responsible for the
destruction of its habitats as well as those of other living beings. Unknown numbers of animal
and plant species have, in the past, been forced into extinction by human actions. However, it
is thought that the consequences of the destruction of the habitat had in historical times only
limited impact on the planet as a whole. At present however, we may be at the brink of a
global catastrophe, caused by the actions of both the developed and the developing nations.

This, paradoxically, is partly caused by mankind's efforts to improve the quality of life.
Industrialization and energy use through burning of fossil fuels, use of nuclear energy, using
chemicals in the production of amenities that should make life easier, all have negative side
effects on our environment. Fertile soils, water for irrigation and for human consumption are
being polluted beyond repair, and the rate at which this happens in the developing countries is
directly influenced by the rate at which the population grows and the numbers involved.
There is evidence that even normal, one would say natural processes, have negative effects on
the environment because of the large number of emitters involved, and because, the balance
within the bio-sphere is already disturbed. It seems that we are dangerously close to a point of
no return.

Recently, the world population has been alerted to two dangers. One is the progressive
warming up of the atmosphere with the resulting change in climate, change in patterns of
rainfall, flooding of exposed areas, and negative effects on the vegetation. The second danger
is the depletion of the ozone layer, which offers protection against negative radiation of
sunlight. Both are caused by a change in the composition of the air, by the addition of large
numbers of gasses, which were either trace elements in the air, non-existent or were simply
recycled through natural processes. The relationship between carbon dioxide, oxygen and
living organisms is well known. Now it appears that perfectly normal human activities such
as agriculture and cattle breeding are also contributing to air pollution and to bringing closer
the realization of the two dangers just mentioned. It has been found that methane gas
accounts for about 16% of the warming effect of the atmosphere, and that about two thirds of
the methane gas emissions are caused by decomposition in irrigated field, and in the guts of
cattle. It is ironic that life providing activities, such as agriculture and cattle breeding are, are
now threatening our survival on this planet, and possibly also the survival of the planet itself.
It is obvious that we need to continue to produce food for the ever-growing population.

The excessive population growth in today's third world countries is not the cause of the
present precarious situation. This is the result of a long accumulation of industrial waste and
thoughtlessness on the part of the more developed nations. However, the third world, partly
because of the large numbers of inhabitants that it needs to feed, clothe and provide amenities
for, is aggravating the situation. The third world is faced with a very serious dilemma, and
unless it can contain the population growth and at the same time drastically improve the
conditions of its population, it will not be able to fulfill some of the legitimate aspirations of
its peoples. To do so, it necessarily needs to turn to industrialization, with all the inherent
consequences involved.

In Africa, developing countries are already suffering the consequences of deforestation.

Considerable parts of the tropical rain forests of Africa are already depleted. The increasing
need for firewood has also denuded much of the other forests of Africa, and the increasing
rate of desertification is well documented. Loss of arable land is a very serious matter
because it affects the livelihood of a large part of the African rural population. Deforestation
and desertification also have an important impact on the climate of the region. Shifting
patterns of rainfall, or lack of it, are also well documented. The number of human beings who
need food and fuel directly affects both processes.

Global climatic changes, brought about by global warming will have a considerable negative
impact on life, Africa will also be affected. Shifts in climates with the modifications in the
existing ecological zones will affect fauna and flora and the possibilities of agriculture and
cattle breeding. Shifts in temperature, air humidity and precipitation may be too fast for
nature to adjust to. Warming of the world may also affect the level of the sea causing it to
rise, thereby threatening many developing countries, including some African ones. In this
regard, West Africa is particularly vulnerable.

Activity 3.2

1. Briefly explain the impact of technological advancement on the environment.

LECTURE FOUR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

4.1 Introduction

In lecture three we discussed environment and development. In this lecture, we are going to
look at environment and education. We will examine in details the concepts and evolution of
environmental education and how education and environment are related. Then we will look
at the goals, objectives and the guiding principles of environmental education. We will also
establish the linkages existing between human population and environment. Finally, we will
end the lecture by examining various approaches and strategies used in disseminating
environmental education.

4.2 Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

1. Explain the concept of environmental education

2. Discuss the historical evolution of environmental education

3. Relate the relationship between education and environment

4.Discuss the goals, objectives and principles governing environmental education

5. Describe the relationship between human population and the environment

6. Discuss the various approaches used in teaching environmental education

7. Apply the skills gained in environmental education in real life situations

4.3 Meaning of Environmental Education

The word environment refers to the totality of conditions and influences that affect the way
things live and develop. Things in this sense will mean both the living and non -living things.
When used in the context of environmental management, the word environment will refer to
man's environment.

Environmental education therefore refers to understanding the skills and attitudes necessary
for enhancing environmental conservation. Environmental education involves:

1) Creating awareness to people by teaching them about the natural world around them. This
includes the study of subjects like biology and geography. Through these subjects individuals
come to learn interesting, useful and even vital facts about the surroundings they live in.

2) Cultivating acceptable and responsible attitudes in individuals towards the environment.


This will enable human kind to exist in a cohesive manner with the various environments
surrounding him.

3. Involving people to participate in matters involving their environment. In this way


individuals can ask questions about their environment and also find answers to them.
In a nutshell we can therefore say that environmental education is concerned with acquiring
the skills and attitudes necessary for enhancing environmental conservation.

Take Note

Environmental education should not be seen as merely a strategy to create awareness but also
as a means of attaining the quality of our life on earth

4.4 Historical Evolution of Environmental Education

The roots of environmental education can be traced back as early as the 18th century when
Jean-Jacques Rousseau stressed the importance of an education that focuses on the
environment in Emile, or On Education. Several decades later, Louis Agassiz, a Swiss-born
naturalist, echoed Rousseau's philosophy as he encouraged students to "Study nature, not
books." These two influential scholars helped lay the foundation for a concrete environmental
education program, known as Nature Study, which took place in the late 19th century and
early 20th century.

The nature study movement used fables and moral lessons to help students develop an
appreciation of nature and embrace the natural world. Anna Botsford Cornstock, the head of
the Department of Nature Study at Cornell University, was a prominent figure in the nature
study movement and wrote the Handbook for Nature Study in 1911, which used nature to
educate children on cultural values. Cornstock and the other leaders of the movement, such as
Liberty Hyde Bailey, helped Nature Study garner tremendous amounts of support from
community leaders, teachers, and scientists and changed the science curriculum for children
across the United States.

A new type of environmental education; Conservation Education emerged as a result of the


Great Depression and Dust Bowl during the 1920s and 1930s. Conservation Education dealt
with the natural world in a drastically different way from Nature Study because it focused on
rigorous scientific training rather than natural history. Conservation Education was a major
scientific management and planning tool that helped solve social, economic, and
environmental problems during this time period.

The modern environmental education movement, which gained significant momentum in the
late 1960s and early 1970s, stems from Nature Study and Conservation Education. During
this time period, many events - such as Civil Rights, the Vietnam War, and the Cold War -
placed Americans at odds with one another and the U.S. government. However, as more
people began to fear the fallout from radiation, the chemical pesticides mentioned in Rachel
Carson's Silent Spring, and the significant amounts of air pollution and waste, the public's
concern for their health and the health of their natural environment led to a unifying
phenomenon known as environmentalism.

Ultimately, the first Earth Day on April 22nd, 1970, a national teach-in about environmental
problems, paved the way for the modern environmental education movement. Later that same
year, President Nixon passed the National Environmental Education Act, which was intended
to incorporate environmental education into K-12 schools. Then, in 1971, the National
Association for Environmental Education (now known as the North American Association
for Environmental Education) was created to improve environmental literacy by providing
resources to teachers and promoting environmental education programs.

In Europe it was during the industrial revolution in the nineteenth century that awoke the
attention of the masses towards environmental education. During the period the living
conditions of most European countries showed that environmental problems were
approaching an unhealthy level. Professor Geddes (1854-1933) a botanist saw a close link
between the quality of education and environment. He was of the view that any improvement
in education would have a significant impact on attitudes towards nature. He is sometimes
referred to as the father of modern environment education.

Internationally, environmental education gained recognition when the UN Conference on the


Human Environment held in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1972, declared environmental education
must be used as a tool to address global environmental problems. The United Nations
Education Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the United Nations
Environmental Programme (UNEP) created three major declarations that have guided the
course of environmental education. These are:

4.4.1 Stockholm Declaration (Sweden. 1972)

This conference was held in Sweden in 1972 and it was a United Nations Conference on
Human Environment. This conference clearly recognized the relationship between the
environment and society. The conference also discussed the ways in which education can
contribute to having effective environmental policies and management. The conference
adopted seven proclamations and twenty six principles "to inspire and guide the peoples of
the world in the preservation and enhancement of the human environment".

4.4.2 The Belgrade Charter (Yugoslavia 1975)

The Belgrade Charter was the outcome of the International Workshop on Environmental
Education held in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. The Belgrade Charter was built upon the Stockholm
Declaration and adds goals, objectives, and guiding principles of environmental education
programs. It defines an audience for environmental education, which includes the general
public. This workshop was able to come up with a framework for environmental education
which was later launched as UNESCO-UNEP International Education Programme. The
programme was charged with the responsibility of developing relevant knowledge, skills,
attitudes and values for improvement of the environment both for the present and future
generations.

4.4.3 The Tbilisi Declaration (USSR 1977)


The Tbilisi Declaration "noted the unanimous accord in the important role of environmental
education in the preservation and improvement of the world's environment, as well as in the
sound and balanced development of the world's communities." The Tbilisi Declaration
updated and clarified The Stockholm Declaration and The Belgrade Charter by including new
goals, objectives, characteristics, and guiding principles of environmental education.

Later that decade, in 1977, the Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education in


Tbilisi, Georgia emphasized the role of environmental education in preserving and improving
the global environment and sought to provide the framework and guidelines for
environmental education. The Conference laid out the role, objectives, and characteristics of
environmental education, and provided several goals and principles for environmental
education.

Activity 4.1

I. Define the term environmental education.

2. Trace the history of environmental education from the 18th century to the present.

4.5 Technology and Environmental Education

Problems associated with environment are many and varied. They are different in their nature
and they vary in magnitude. Environmental problems can be broadly categorized into three
groups. The first group consists of global environmental problems which are perhaps the ones
posing the greatest dangers to humanity. They include technological products such as
insecticides and pesticides that have tendency to persist for long periods of time in such
agents like wind and water. Chemicals in the air may also frequently travel far away from
their original site of application.

Regional environmental problems affect more than one country. They include increasing
desertification, development of rivers that flow across national boundaries and air pollution
that goes beyond the boundary of one nation. The last group of environmental problems is
mostly confined within the boundary of one nation. They are often referred to as local
problems. Examples of local environmental problems include disposal of garbage,
exploitation of natural resources and a safe sewer system.

In text Question
Outline other possible principles that can be incorporated into the environmental education
programme to make it holistic in its approach?

4.6 Goals, Objectives and Principles of Environmental Education

As discussed earlier in this lecture, the goals, objectives and principles of teaching
environmental education were first formulated in a workshop at Belgrade in the year 1975
and later adopted at Tibilisi in 1977. Let us now look at each of them one by one:

4.6.1 Goals

The goals of environmental education as stipulated in the Tbilisi conference were to foster
clear awareness of the concern about economic, social, political and ecological inter-
dependence in both urban and rural areas. The goals were also meant to provide every person
with the opportunities to acquire the knowledge, values, attitudes, commitment and skills
necessary to protect and improve the environment. In addition, the goals aimed at creating
new patterns of behaviour of individuals, groups and society as a whole towards the
environment.

4.6.2 Objectives

The Tbilisi conference resolved the following as the objectives of environmental education:

1. Awareness creation that individuals and groups are made to know the environment,
its sensitivity and the problems associated with it.
2. That individuals and groups are given knowledge to help them gain a variety of
experiences and gain a deeper understanding of the environment and its associated
problems
3. Attitude creation that individuals and groups are helped to acquire a set of values
and feelings for concern on the environment in such a way that they can help in its
conservation and protection.
4. Skills acquisition that individuals and groups are given necessary skills to help them
identify and solve different environmental problems.
5. Participation that individuals and groups are given opportunity to be actively
involved at all levels, in working towards solving environmental problems.

To achieve the objectives of environmental education, the Tbilisi conference recommended


that each country set up or strengthen the organisational structures that are necessary for
achieving the said objectives.

4.6.3 Guiding Principles of Environmental Education


Since each country can develop its environmental education programme depending on its
local, social and political environment, it was felt that certain guidelines were necessary in
order to have a kind of a common approach towards environmental education. Therefore, the
Tbilisi conference came out with some guideline known as recommendation No.2, which laid
down the principles of environmental education. Some of the principles are as given below:

1. That any environmental education programme should consider environment in its


totality, that is natural and built, technological and social.
2. That the environmental programme should be continuous and life long probably
starting from pre-school and continuing through either formal and informal stages,
that is,it should not be restricted to take the formal education system like other formal
programmes.
3. That the environmental education programme should be interdisciplinary in nature by
drawing from various disciplines hence making it holistic and balanced in its
approach.
4. That the programme should focus on the prevailing and potential threats to the
environment and at the same time taking into account the historical perspective of the
same.
5. That the programme should promote the co-operation of local, national and
international stakeholders in dealing with environmental problems.
6. That the programme should also give learners an opportunity to play a role in making
decisions and accepting their consequences.
7. That the programme should relate environmental sensitivity, knowledge, problem
solving skills and values to learners of different age group but with special emphasis
to each learner's own community in the early years.
8. That the environmental education programme should help the learners to know the
signs and causes of environmental problems. It should also emphasis the complexity
of environmental problems and hence help them to develop critical thinking and
problem solving skills.
9. Another guiding principle of environmental programme is that the programme should
be able to utilize diverse learning environments and different educational approaches
to learning including practical activities and first hand experiences.

4.7 Consumers of Environment Education

After having looked at the guiding principles of environmental education, the next important
question that runs in our mind is who is the target of environmental education? It was noted
in our earlier discussion on principles of environmental education that learning about
environment should take place at all ages and levels. In other words, it should be continuous
and life-long in both the formal and informal sector.

The need for life long environmental education arises because human interaction with the
environment is for all time and in all places. The kind of environmental education to be
taught depends on the objectives of the programme which ranges from public awareness
courses to environmental training courses by specialists. Usually environmental education is
taught at the following goal levels for all age groups in both formal and informal sectors.
a) Level I

This is called ecological foundation level. It is a level where the leader is equipped with
knowledge with the aim of developing his/her ecological concepts in order to make sound
environmental decision.

b) Level II

This is also called conceptual awareness level. It is aimed at equipping the learner with issues
and values that helps him/her to develop a conceptual awareness that actions weather
individually or collectively have an impact on the environment and subsequently the quality
of life.

c) Level III

This is a level where investigation and evaluation skills are taught. Environmental education
at this level deals with cognitive processes and development of skills necessary for
investigating issues and evaluating alternative solutions.

d) Level IV

This is the last level and it aims at training the learner to apply the skills learned. It is called
the environmental action skills level and it focuses on developing skills that will allow the
learner to take necessary action, to maintain a balance between quality of life and quality of
the environment.

4.8 Approaches used in Environmental Education

After having discussed the various goal levels for teaching environmental education in both
formal and informal sectors, let us now look at the various approaches used in teaching
environmental education. An approach simply means a set of very broad guidelines on how
to plan an action on a process in education. The following are the approaches used in
teaching environmental education:

1. The Interdisciplinary Approach

This is a model of teaching environmental education where a distinct environmental


education unit course is created out of relevant components of many disciplines. The aim of
this approach is to achieve the objectives going on in the areas where the subjects interact.
According to UNESCO, interdisciplinary teaching is a teaching method in which two or more
disciplines are expressed in terms of their interrelationships (UNEWSCO-UNEP IEEP,
1985). This method assumes that the learners in the disciplines are being linked and it
advocates the integration and linking of environmental education with school subjects; with
each subject contributing to the realization of the objectives of environmental education.

2. Multidisciplinary Approach

In this model environmental education components are infused or integrated into relevant
disciplines (UNESCO, 1986). In this approach, disciplines and subjects use the environment
as a resource for their teaching. However, the appropriateness of this approach usually
depends on the characteristics of learners and the available learning resources. It also requires
that teachers using this method must have a very wide background of general knowledge and
some specialized training.

Take Note

The interdisciplinary and the multidisciplinary approaches are the main approaches in the
teaching of environmental education.

1. Problems Solving Approach

This is a practical and solution based method which aims at finding solutions to problems
related to environment. It aims at making the learners or participants to be better equipped to
provide solutions. It focuses more on the environmental problems and how they can be
solved and not on learners. Therefore it is practical oriented and not academic. It uses the
following seven approaches to solve the problem:

 The discussion group approach


 Divided environmental interpretation
 Classification of values
 Harming and simulation
 Experimental demonstration workshop
 A practical action project
 Action-oriented research.

The above seven approaches aim at identifying the problem, its causes and effects, collection
of relevant datas formulation of hypothesis and testing their feasibility, and planning for
effective action.

2. Community based Approach

This approach is mostly used in non-formal and adult education setting. It involves action by
the entire community towards the solution of the problems. It is a learning process for all
those involved. Examples of community based approaches in solving community problems
are harambee projects that are conducted to solve different problems affecting the
community.

Intext Question
Discuss activities in your home area which can qualify as community based approach in
solving problems?

LECTURE FIVE POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT

5.1 Introduction

In the preceding lecture we discussed environment and education. This lecture has been
designed to equip you with necessary skills on population and environment. It covers the
following critical areas: Meaning of population, population as part of the environment, effects
of population growth on the environment and Population control and its impact on the
environment.

5.2 Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

1. Define the term population

2. State the relationship between population and the environment

3. Explain the effects of population growth on the environment

4. Describe population control techniques and its impact on the environment


5.3 Meaning of the term population

Ecologists, economists, researchers and geographers (or demographers for that matter)
understand the term population differently. That is one reason why we have decided in this
lecture to use the term human population which is closer to the Geographers' or
demographers' concept. Human population here refers to people, their numbers, their
distribution and their activities within a defined environment. Numbers here refer to
population size, growth rate and density (which are an element of distribution).

Human population is dynamic, it increases or decreases. In some regions of the world, there
is a violent population explosion. The upsurge in population numbers started about 200 years
ago, and was first identified in Europe by Thomas Malthus. As early as 1798, Malthus
warned that the amount of food being produced in Europe would soon be insufficient for the
fast growing population. Before that time population had been growing very slowly and this
was due to two generally accepted reasons; first, there was a high death rate, particularly
among young children and, secondly, dreadful epidemics occurred that wiped out huge
sections of the population.

The Industrial Revolution in Europe is said to have been an important cause of the rapid
population growth towards the end of the eighteenth century. Scholars attribute this to four
main factors which have their roots in the Revolution:

 Improvement in medicine;
 Improvement in farming and transport;
 Better health facilities; and
 Better food and sanitation.

These factors greatly improved chances of human survival. In fact, while both remained high,
death rates were drastically reduced.

Malthus' analysis was the first attempt to systematically understand the relationship between
population change and socio-economic welfare. He asserted that man's capacity to increase
his means of subsistence is much slower than his capacity to reproduce and multiply.
Whereas production can only increase in arithmetical progression, population grows in
geometrical progression or what Hardin (1975) terms, exponentially. He based himself on the
Law of Diminishing Returns when he argued that the labor supply increases with population
growth, but there is little or no increase in capital supply. Output increases slowly while the
supply of labor increases rapidly, the net result is a fall in per capita income.

In countries like Kenya, some people have dismissed as baseless the claim that there is a need
to curb the rate of population increase. Their argument is that there is a lot of land lying
fallow that could be occupied by additional people. Furthermore, they criticize the land
tenure system which allows individuals to own a disproportionate amount of land which
could be used to settle thousands of people. Some even advocate that national parks and game
reserves be turned into habitable land to be occupied by the additional population.

Similarly, some people argue against population control from a religious standpoint. Any
efforts to control birth are thought to be against the wishes of the Creator, who, at creation,
ordered men to multiply and fill the earth. They affirm that we need not worry as everything
that occurs on earth is according to the Creator's plan. A secular variation of this view would
be that nature should be allowed to take its course in the event of overpopulation there are
natural phenomena which counteract the situation and restore the balance.

Two other views have been advanced from the economic point of view. Some argue that
more births are a blessing since the labor force increases. While this argument might be
relevant in countries like China (where production is labor intensive), it could not be
defended in countries where the main forces of production are capital intensive. Besides, the
Law of Diminishing Returns shows that an over increase in the labor force is
counterproductive.

Another school of thought (which reflects the Marxist view), has recently advanced the
theory that the so-called 'problem' of the population explosion is a creation of the
multinationals and their equally rich agents in the developing countries who fear for their
property in case of additional numbers of poor people. According to this school of thought,
most people who worry over population increase are trying to find a way to avoid
relinquishing any of the privileges they now enjoy. This comes back to the old argument that
the wealth of nations is in the hands of a few individuals and, if it were equitably distributed,
then the issue of population increase would not arise.

It would be wise to listen to those views which should not be dismissed as of little importance
given the current economic conditions. Among the world's economists and demographers, the
strongly held view is that the world is finite and resources are limited. Therefore, to
encourage excessive additional numbers of people is tantamount to willingly courting an
imminent disaster.

The concern for the nature and quality of the environment is becoming an increasingly
important focus of interest both in the developed and in the developing countries. Attention
has often been drawn to the problems presented by the current trends in the growth of
population, the difficulties of ensuring adequate food supplies for the human race and the
continued strain upon stocks of renewable and non-renewable resources. The recent intense
interest in environmental questions could also be attributed partly to increasing physical and
social environments that cities provide.

5.3.1. The History of Human Settlement

Settlements may be grouped into two major types, urban and rural. On the basis of size, settlements
smaller than towns are rural and the size of, or larger than towns, are urban. Rural settlements are
associated with the land and related activities such as farming, fishing and forestry. On the other
hand, urban centers are inhabited by people engaged in manufacturing and service activities such as
administration and commerce. Still, whereas the notion of human settlement includes phenomena
such as emigration or migration to humanize either the rural or urban setting, it also includes an
increase in the percentage of the population living in urban settlements. This phenomenon is
otherwise referred to as urbanization

Intext Question
Identify other differences between rural and urban settlements?

In historic times, progressive change among Africans and other peoples of the earth was
incidental this was an outcome of the altering patterns of natural phenomena and their effects
on the environment. There is a theory that human beings have all along been the feeble
playthings of material forces which altered the conditions under which communities lived and
on which they based their assumptions of life.

Activity .1

But to what extent, and in what ways, did man purposely seek to guarantee his survival?

Africa's Neolithic villages of the Nile Valley (which date from as early as 4,000 B.C.) already
showed signs of changes from the Neolithic agrarian pattern of the region. This urban culture
became more evident with the onset of the iron Age (around 2,000 B.C). This period slowly
opened the way toward Africa's developing her ability to harness the resources of her
environment by adopting new social and economic behaviour and techniques. It intensified
agricultural and exchange activities which depended upon communal efforts through some
form of social organization of a large number of people.

Understandingly, ethnic groups clustered around agricultural centre and these centers joined
together to form larger political groupings. In North Africa, such groupings were already in
existence between 5,000 B.C and 3,000 B.C. It would then appear that the concept of
statehood developed concomitantly with urbanization. The rural input in the form of labor
and environmental resources in these early settlements became the basis of economic and
urban growth.
It is also true that the inter-play of environment and social relationships worked to establish
belief and behavior patterns. The concept of divine kingship emerged in urban and rural
settlements as the basis of social control and inter-territorial exchange relations. In other
words, different communities found it expedient to develop social systems and divine
leadership to mediate in their social relations. Given the abundance or scarcity of
environmental resources, they needed well-coordinated social systems within which they
could collect, store and distribute resources appropriate from the environment and the
agricultural surplus created through improved methods of food production.

In sum, when discussing the subject of human settlement, it is important to note that one of
the oldest of all demographic trends is the one towards urbanization. Pre-agricultural men, by
necessity, had to be dispersed over the landscape as hunting and gathering required a vast
area of territory to produce enough food for a home. Under such conditions, it was impossible
to exist in large concentrations. But the agrarian revolution began to change all that. Because
more food could be produced in a smaller area, people began to form primitive communities.
Hence, the ability of farmers to feed more than their own families was obvious prerequisite of
urbanization. A fraction of the rural population had first to be freed from cultivation of the
land in order to form cities.

5.3.2 Growth Rate and Consequences

The Population Council notes that due to the high population growth rate, Kenya's per capita
GNP rose only by 18.6 per cent between 1968 and 1972 compared to 35.7 per cent between
1964 and 1968.

In fact, the GNP has continued to fall and there is a clear indication of increased
unemployment and poverty, particularly in urban slums and squatter areas. Beggars and
destitutes are on the increase. Moreover, continuous inflation further erodes the purchasing
power of the currency in many developing countries.

The effects of population explosion are more evident in urban and peri-urban areas where it is
becoming extremely difficult to provide people with even their most basic needs. Food
shortages could be attributed to underproduction but a more obvious reason is that, the
demand (due to the large number of consumers) is beyond the capacity of production.
Besides, formerly productive land is now leached of nutrients and exhausted.Land produces
less when there is a lack of rainfall. Weather seems to have become quite unpredictable while
the rate of population growth is constant or ever increasing. Incidences of famine are on the
increase and, when they occur, developing countries have to depend on rich developed
countries for food. Millions of urban inhabitants cannot find decent shelter, street pavements,
bazaars and disused motor vehicles have become their homes.

More population means more movement. Motorists, cyclists and pedestrians scramble for the
inadequate space available on urban streets and highways.

Unemployment is the most critical issue in developing countries. Besides, the great numbers
of those who depend on the few earners, majority of the people who are unemployed are kept
on the very brink of misery and starvation.
In desperation, many people turn to such unacceptable activities as theft, prostitution and
thuggery. Whenever the problem of basic human needs becomes less urgent, new needs for
recreational and social facilities arise. Schools are overcrowded and yet not all school age
children can be accommodated.

Activity 5.2

The critical issue is what impact the population growth will have on the limited resources
available?

How many people can the country provide for decently? Tremendous growth in the world
population was anticipated before the year 2000. Even in developing countries, this has led to
severe consequences on the environment. According to Soutwick (1985), human population
was to increase by about 55 per cent, from 4.1 billion in 1975 to 6.4 billion in the year 2000;
faster growth was expected in the less developed countries. Out of the estimated 6.4 billion
people, 5 billion was to be found in these countries.

5.3.3 Determining the Population Growth Rate

How do we determine the population growth rate? For example, when we say that the rate of
population growth in Kenya is 3.8 and that it is one of the highest in the world, how do we
arrive at that figure? The simplest method used by the demographers is to compare the Birth
Rate and the Mortality (Death) Rate of a given country or community.

This is related to people's different attitudes and lifestyles. Cultural values that include a
persistent desire for big families are still dominant. There is also tolerance for illegitimacy
and many children are born outside marriage.

Whereas birth rates are increasing, death rates are falling rapidly due to:

 Modern health measures


 Modern eating habits and lifestyles
 Rising life expectancy; and
 Declining wars and local conflicts (in the more peaceful areas of Africa).

The Death Rate in Africa is estimated at 22 percent (which is much lower than the Birth Rate
of 46 percent) and it is still the highest in the world.
5.3.4 Population Distribution

Population distribution is another very important factor in understanding problems related to


the environment. The world population may be estimated at 6 billion, but these billions are
disproportionately spread among countries; which means that population density varies.
Take, for example, the African continent. Here, population is unevenly distributed with over
three quarters of the population being found in only one third of the continent. A country like
Nigeria, which is smaller than Sudan, holds over one hundred million people while Sudan has
less than ten million people. Similarly, in Kenya, over three-quarters of the population
occupies one third of the country. Most people in Kenya live in the south-western half of the
country. A small province like Western Province has over one million people while North
Eastern Province which is larger, has a very small and scattered population.

5.3.5 Migrations

Migrations, which are seldom anticipated or planned for, alter the population of both the
country of origin and the country of destination. This is one factor that has caused
considerable population change and uncertainty in the world and, especially, in many
developing countries. There are numerous physical and socio-economic reasons for cross-
boundary migrations including civil wars. Within countries, there are general migratory
trends from rural to urban areas and from areas with relatively fewer resources to those with
more resources.

Population dynamics affect many aspects of life: political and social relations, resources, the
environment, food and nutrition, health, social services and employment. Since the time of
Malthus, population issues, particularly the ways in which rapid population growth threatens
human well-being and survival, been given more and more importance. Currently, opinions
range from drastically curbing population growth as a first step to solving all other socio-
economic problems to encouraging it to help solve those very same social problems.

Activity 5.1

1. Describe history of population


2. Discuss the effects of population growth on the environment

Explain how population growth rate is determined?


5.4 Population as part of the environment

Ecologically, people are part and parcel of the environment; they actively interact with its
components whether by divine design or by chance, or as a result of the process of evolution.
Human beings belong to a higher category of organisms or animals and have a more
developed brain, a more sensitive nervous system and a greater ability to think and
manipulate the environment. It is in this way that they are able to survive and realize their
role as humans. They depend on the environment of which they are a part to obtain their basic
needs: food, shelter and clothing. In this process, there is considerable interaction between
people and the environment.

Over time, human beings have developed more effective ways of using and controlling the
environment. They now realize that, if humanity is to survive, great care must be taken of all
natural resources. In the past centuries and with a smaller world population, the problem was
not given much importance.

Due to various reasons, including thoughtlessness, neglect of their divine duty and
selfishness, men have overused their habitat. This situation has been exacerbated by the high
rate of population growth in many parts of the world.

Although Thomas Malthus foresaw the possibility of a shortage of food supplies about two
and a half centuries ago, his warnings were not taken seriously until the middle of our
century. Malthus was quite right, for since his time, famines have claimed and are still
claiming countless lives in many areas of Africa, Asia and Latin America. Hundreds of
millions more are suffering from malnutrition.

Food shortage aside, there are reports of severe environmental pollution and depletion
of natural resources. Most of those are related to the increase in population and the
irresponsible use of the environment. Some environmentalists see this denudation and
pollution as a threat to the existence of the very human race that is causing it.

Everywhere on earth people now feel the threat of environmental problems, see the need for
identifying their causes and realize the urgency of finding solutions. Both the Governments
and NGO's are getting involved in studies and projects to save the environment.

It is true that the rapid growth of cities has raised numerous problems such as atmospheric
pollution, traffic congestion, urban overcrowding, shelter shortage, inadequate planning and
the like. Nevertheless, environmental problems are not confined to cities alone; they also
exist in the rural areas. It is therefore pertinent to note that problems related to both urban and
rural deterioration have been with us for centuries. Man as herbivore and carnivore, with a
very wide dietary range, is remarkably well equipped to exploit the variable habitats of the
world. As a hunter, fisherman and forager, he feeds on a substantial number of different plant
and animal species.

When natural systems and ecosystems are used unwisely by man, they may rapidly become
unstable with associated severe and sometimes essentially irreversible effects. Historically
speaking, the first small population of human beings probably appeared on earth between one
and two million years ago, probably on the continent of Africa. Since then, the human
population has spread out to occupy virtually the entire land surface of the planet and by the
last decade of the last century it numbered over 5 billion individuals. In their quest to provide
subsistence, shelter and recreation for specific demographic units, human beings have learned
to modify and exploit the environment to their advantage in a great variety of ways.

In Africa, in the early days of the Holocene period when the Sahara was particularly wet, the
abundant fauna and flora in the area favored man's pre-occupation with hunting and
gathering. But when the drying process of the present day Sahara region become more
pronounced by 5,000 B.C., adverse environmental changes in the area had already driven the
early African inhabitants to more complex adaptation and development of efficient ways of
exploiting the habitat. By this period, the inhabitants of the Nile Valley had already learned to
till the land in seasons, sow and irrigate it in order to get a more regular and abundant food
supply.

While agriculture and settlement had become possible in the area by this period, a similar
process was taking place elsewhere although it may not have been at the same pace. As the
Stone Age, the culture of hunting and gathering become enriched by Neolithic traits, the
adoption of agricultural practices led to man's specialization and division of labor. Whereas
the adoption of agriculture marked the genesis of a more intensified exploitation of the
habitat, the resultant multiplication and localization of food supply entailed by this
phenomenon boosted population growth; it was because of this that the need for permanent
human settlement arose. An era of competitive resource and exploitation with potentially
catastrophic short and long-range effects unimagined previously was ushered in.

Intext Question

What do we mean by human settlement?

The use of the term human settlement seems redundant; for, are not all settlements human? If
settlement is defined as the permanent place of residence of people, then not only towns and cities
but also farms in a hamlet forms a settlement. But we also talk of farms dotted about the
countryside as dispersed settlement notwithstanding the rigidity of these different images of
settlement as portrayed either in rural villages or urban centers. Economic activity may help in
defining types of settlements. The number of residents is a simple way of classifying settlements into
broad categories such as village, town, city metropolis and megalopolis.

Man is part of the environment and he/she must use it to survive. He/she uses it for the
following purposes:

 As a source of food;
 As a source of air to breathe;
 As a source of water to drink;
 As a source of resources like oil and minerals;
 As a means of travel and communication;
 To provide space for shelter and other socio-economic and physical activities;
 As a source of artistic satisfaction;
 As a setting for relaxation and leisure activities; and
 As a fit ambience to stimulate human thought, research and discovery.

Through ignorance, sheer carelessness, curiosity or desire for economic and social growth,
man has often misused or overused the environment in wasteful ways.

Some methods of land cultivation or farming have led to reduction in the soil's fertility and
productive capability over cultivation and overgrazing have led to soil erosion by wind or
water.

The overexploitation of environmental resources without providing a means of regeneration


to replace them. Deforestation, excessive mining, hunting, fishing and draining of water
resources, are some of the typical activities through which man has caused a serious
imbalance in the environment. Excessive reduction in genetic diversity has disrupted the
ecosystem.

The use of some chemicals and/or techniques to suppress or control human diseases and
enemies such as insects, animals and reptiles. These have resulted in destruction of certain
species, polluting water, air and soil with effects more detrimental to man than the presence
of the initial enemies. Certain drugs for protection against, or cure of, diseases have also had
nefarious effects on nature.

The use of secondary means of production in the process of industrialization and mechanized
farming puts much pressure on natural resources and leads to various forms of environmental
pollution: gas leaks, radiation and chemical sprays which harm and poison people, animals
and plants.

Certain patterns of human settlement can adversely affect the environment; the congestion of
people in particular areas can lead not only to pollution but also to the disruption of the
natural ecosystems of these areas. Cities today are experiencing severe environmental
problems. Settlement on river banks and seashores not only interferes with the natural course
of such features, but also leads to pollution as these waters become the dumping grounds for
human waste.

As population grows, so does, the misuse and overuse of the environment. Dangerous
chemicals and wasteful techniques are used to sustain the increasing population. More
industrialization and mechanized farming is required to provide employment and enough
food for the additional people. Research centers must be established to study the new
problems created by the increased population and its activities; the spread and concentration
of settlements, more cultivation, deforestation, mining, hunting and fishing.

5.4.1. Population and Land

It would be a mistake to think of land merely as space to be occupied without taking into
consideration the carrying capacity of the said land that is without considering the number of
people that land is capable of supporting without any danger of depreciation. While there is
considerable acreage of land in Kenya, much of it is so marginal that it can support only a
minimal number of people.

Even if people were given a piece of land in such an area, they would be reluctant to settle
there; areas with greater resources are more attractive and tend to be overcrowded.

Some thirty years ago, families in Kakamega and Kisii Districts of Kenya had an average of
ten acres of land. Today, such families have an average of half an acre. Recently, some of the
families have sought to settle in less desirable areas but even these places are becoming
overcrowded. The result is landlessness, migration to towns and development of slum areas.

As this century begins, natural resources are under increasing pressure due to high human
population growth rate which is threatening public health and development. Water shortages,
soil exhaustion, loss of forests, air and water pollution, and degradation of coastlines afflict
many areas. As the world's population grows, improving living standards without destroying
the environment is a global challenge.

Most developed and developing economies currently consume resources much faster than
they can regenerate. Most developing countries with rapid population growth face the urgent
need to improve living standards. As we humans exploit nature to meet present needs, are we
destroying resources needed for the future.

5.4.2 Technology, Human Settlement and Environmental Degradation

But how many people can the earth support? There is simple answer to this question as
‘capacity' may be defined in different ways, and may change with time. Whether capacity is
perceived as the earth's potential to barely support a teeming, crowded and squalid world or
defined in terms of the number that it might support with some measures of comfort and
dignity, one fact remains evident: the earth has its limits.

It is not yet clear whether or not or even when we will run short of environmental resources
such as land, energy, fossil fuels, water, food and renewable resources. In a previous chapter
of this book, it has been pointed out that the distinction between renewable and non-
renewable resources is not always a clear one. The crucial question to be asked about a
renewable resources is "Does the rate of production or replenishment equal the rate of
contrast, the question that may be asked is simply "how much exists and how long will it last
at the present rates of consumption?

If the rate of consumption of a given resources exceeds the maximum sustainable yield,
sooner or later the stocks will be exhausted and the human population depend on that
resource will be impoverished and possibly perish. Again, it is not absolutely certain that
technology could save the earth if it had to support staggering human numbers. Their
settlement patterns and demands would certainly tax the environment understood in this
context, as the set of natural conditions that define human living space

The environment has four functions.


1. As a source of available goods, it provides air, water, a useful and pleasant landscape and
natural recreational facilities both in urban and rural settings
2. As a supplier of renewable and non-renewable resources, it provides resources that are used
as inputs in the communities production activities
3. As a receptacle of waste, it is burdened with what is a discarded introduction and
consumption activity: solid waste, emitted, pollutants accumulated, partly or fully
decomposed, transported to other areas or transformed.
4. The environment provides space for the location of economic systems such as land for
industries and residences, agriculture and infrastructure.

As a result of these often overlapping functions, major environmental problems occur


because of the unchecked use of often environmentally imprudent or inappropriate
technologies. From the stone onwards, man has influenced the landscape by changing forests
into meadows, digging ditches and canals, building dykes and converting salt marshes into
cropland. Already in Africa, vast swathes of once productive land have been decertified.
Questions related to environmental problems emerge from the study of several pivotal
issues;

 The extent of human dependence on the natural environment and the fundamental
Character of its disruption
 The exponential properties of growth of human population and its impact on the
environment;
 The inter-locking nature of present problems of environmental deterioration, resource
consumption, and social organization and
 The limitations of technology

Patters of human settlement and the exploitation of natural resources have contributed largely
to the conditions that have bred certain chronic environmental problems. It should be
reiterated that the conditions that make the earth hospitable to its human settlers result from
complex and perhaps fragile balances among the great chemical cycles water, nitrogen,
carbon, phosphorus and sulphur, all powered by the energy of the sun. organism regulate the
environmental concentrations of nitrites, ammonia and hydrogen sulphide all of which are
poisonous.

5.4.3. Urban Settlement

The trend towards urbanization continues today; it has been especially accelerated since the
last century. The urban population of the world increased from 1,350 million in 19970 (about
37.3% of the world total population) to 1,800 million in 1980 (41.3%) BUT THE annual
growth of urban settlement remained 2.9 per cent and 28.9 per cent in 1970 and 1980
respectively. The rural population however increased at a much slower pace from 2,310
million in 1970 to 2,600 million in 1980.

The African case demonstrates the fact that rapid urbanization has not been confined to
industrialized countries. By 1968, Nairobi, the capital city of Kenya, was growing at a rate
of per cent per year. That is more than the growth rate of Los Angeles between 1950 and
1960. Accra, the capital of Ghana, is growing at almost 8 per cent per year; Abidjan the
former capital of Ivory Coast cent ; Lusaka, capital of Zambia and Lagos, former capital of
Nigeria, both at 14 per cent.
Indeed, pessimism may be generated by projecting the present rate of human population
growth worldwide into the future. In the not so distant future, the world population will
exceed 5 billion people. However alarming the future may appear it is clear that the 1970's
marked a climax and a turning point in gigantic transformation of human settlement patterns
in developed countries where previously the majority of the world largest cities were to be
found, the growth of urban centres began to slow down and a process as spread into
surrounding areas go underway. Contrastingly in developing countries, growth continued to
climb rapidly. For the first time, developing countries produced a greater proportion of big
cities compared to developed nations.

Among third world cities, only Buenos Aires had over million people by 1950. by 1980, 22
cities counted more than million people. By the year 2,000 the number of city dweller may
have doubled; 61 cities with over 4 million inhabitants and few exceed a staggering 10
million.

5.4.4 Rural Settlement and the Environment

Irrigation and drainage in settled lands has brought about abrupt and sweeping
transformations in natural systems. The controlled distribution of water over cultivated lands
and the withdrawal of excessive water through drainage have immediate effects on the crop-
producing capacity of the land. It also affects both the quantity and quality of downstream
flows.

The sudden appearance of extensive areas of irrigated crops in sub-humid and arid
ecosystems triggers the potential for dramatic changes. These systems become inherently
unstable. Because of intensive management of irrigation, arid ecosystems which have a
limited capacity to assimilate, withstand and respond to inputs of water, chemicals and
energy, find it difficult to adapt to alterations in species diversity, numbers of organisms and
the Stability of their interrelationships.

The modification of aquatic ecosystems through irrigation practices results in:

 Shifts in humidity and sedimentation


 Nutrient concentration
 Transport and resultant entrophication of fresh waters
 Wide distribution of pesticides and herbicides
 Dissemination of aquatic weeds and phreatophytic plants, and
 Bacterial and viral contamination
 It also leads to the spread of parasite vectors.

Although irrigation may bring many benefits upon human health (improving nutrition, water
supply and community facilities), it also has deleterious effects through chemical pollution
and distribution of diseases such as malaria and schistosomiasis.

Control of the spread of these diseases requires an interrelation of studies of diseases


transmission, ways in which snail or mosquito distribution may be affected by canal
maintenance, alternative patterns of human settlement and field cultivation practices.

It may also call for a fresh assessment of the practicability of changing canal design and
water distribution schedules, of circumstances in which farmers may be expected to revise
crop cultivation, and of domestic water use, including bathing and other practices. Clearly, as
human settlement and intervention in arid ecosystems become more widespread and complex,
there is an increased need and urgency to understand the physical, biological and social
processes which they trigger off or interrupt.

Given that about two of Kenya is semi-arid, there is need to understand the physical,
biological processes which relate to the natural balance of ecosystems. Semi-arid land is dry
and apparently unfavorable to dense and abundant life. Redemptive policy measures are
required to either slow down or halt the complete destruction of much tracts of land by both
natural and human agencies. Safeguarding policies must be instituted to regulate the
occupation and use of such land in order to avoid environmental crises.

It should not be forgotten that the advance of the nomads towards the edges of the Sahara has
contributed to the degradation of the natural environment: the Hilalian Arabs are accused of
having systematically cut down the fruit trees of North Africa. Goats and other animals
appear to have hastened the destruction of some of the region's woodlands. In dry areas,
therefore, while irrigation is a necessary evil that destabilizes the ecosystems, nomadic
pastoralism may contribute much more directly to the degradation of vegetation cover.

Much depends on the relationship between the pasture resources and the grazing load they
bear. The pasture resources may vary according to rainfall while the grazing load varies
according to settlement patterns and economic conditions. During the dry periods, the
pastoralists cut down trees to provide leaves for fodder. They increase their flock excessively
whenever they find it profitable to do so.

However, the birth rate of nomads is usually lower than that of settled people. This explains
why in the West Africa Sahel, the supremacy of pastoral nomads between the 15th and the
19th century contributed to the low human density in the area. However, here and the rest of
the Maghreb Africa, the onset of colonial occupation saw the expansion of agricultural
settlement first on the rich soils and then into semi-arid regions. It slowly witnessed the
sedentarisation of nomads and semi-nomads. The rapid increase in population that followed
resulted in the destruction of forest, the deterioration of vegetation and the dangerous
acceleration of soil erosion.

One may ask why soil erosion is considered such a big threat in Africa. It is obvious that the
developing economies of Africa demand the full exploitation of their resources in order to
provide a sound economic base for balanced growth in other sectors. Since water plays such a
significant role in the life of a nation, demand for the resource has increased tremendously
with increasing population and urbanization and it is fast becoming an item of short supply.

Yet, the same resource wreaks havoc when there are sudden torrential rains. The magnitude
of its threat may best be exemplified by Kenya's campaign to erect gabions in vulnerable
areas, a campaign that was further spearheaded by President Moi in the late 1970's. Here, as
elsewhere on the continent, there is an added need to fully utilize environmental resources
because of population increase. Pastures have been overgrazed: this fact led to destocking
campaigns in British Africa in colonial times.

In the north and south of the Sahara, settlement has had generally unforeseen consequences.
In these areas, natural resources have been heedlessly overexploited and therefore the
uncertainties and the threat of disequilibrium in marginal areas have been aggravated.
Moreover, people's productive and extractive activities have been circumscribed by the
environment.

Their history of settlement, similar to that of other continental areas, has governed the
conditions of their occupation of land. Thus, soil resource exhaustion is an area of
exploitation with historical roots and deserts are the extreme condition arising from soil
exhaustion.

According to Otiende et.al (1997), in Africa, soil erosion causes a colossal loss of arable land
which amounts to about 40,000 hectares per year. This specific degradation amounts to
nearly 2,000 tonnes per square kilometer in Central Algeria. A comparable situation can be
observed in the Arab countries of the Middle East. Indeed, a third of the semi-arid areas has
recently been created by man. \

It seems that although soil erosion is a universal phenomenon, there is no ultimate solution.
Restoration of land quality must be a long term project. In tropical zones, human settlement
has taken place in rain forests and flood plains; only disaster, pestilence and war have
arrested further settlement. But in semi-arid tropics and the tropical uplands, the fragility of
the soils has never allowed the human population to expand beyond low densities. It is human
economic activities in the Sahel of North and West Africa that have exhausted the soil and
created a semi-arid zone.

Elsewhere, the highlands of East Africa, the Cameroons and New Guinea are among the
tropical uplands threatened by soil erosion. These areas are among the most complex and
delicate environmental systems on earth. Given that the human population passed the 4,400
million mark in 1980 (an increase of more than 700 million over the world population in
1970), it will be difficult to satisfy the needs of expanding human population without
correspondingly modifying the environment. The basic implications of that modification can
be foreseen as threefold:

a) Some renewable resources are depleted at a greater rate than they are replenished:

b) Most renewable resources are dispersed too widely to be re-collected and re-used: and

c) Residuals are discharged into some parts of the atmospheric and oceanic ‘Sinks' beyond
the rate at which they can be absorbed.

Tropical forests are still found in many countries of the world but nearly half of their total
area is to be found in three countries alone, namely, Brazil, Indonesia and Zaire. Although
tropical forests are the world's richest biological zones and provide a wide range of useful
products (such as fuel, building materials, pulp wood, pharmaceuticals, resins, gums and
dyes), they are also the home of millions of people. Currently, they are being exploited at a
rate that is ecologically destructive and economically unsustainable. What is more, much of
the world's oxygen production takes place in these forests and their degradation is an
environmental tragedy. Inevitably, much of the forests cover will be lost in the next decade
through complete conversion to other uses and by severe degradation.

In Kenya, natural forests are protected by government policy through the Ministry of
Environment and natural resources. As a result, there is still natural vegetation called
highland forest which covers certain isolated parts of the Kenya highlands where it is found
at altitudes ranging from, 1,976 meters to 2,736 meters. Mount Kenya, Mount Elgon and the
Aberdares have this forest belt. At the Coast are found Witu Forests, Midagedi forests, the
forested Kayas, Gongoni forest, remnants of the Shimba Hills forest, Sokoke forest and
Ramisi River valley forest. Clearly, a government protection policy had to be enacted
because many of these existing forests have been reduced considerably by lumbering. In fact
charcoal burning is the greatest threat to Kenya's vegetation cover and the demand for
charcoal is accentuated by increasing human settlement in Kenya's urban centers where oil
and gas prices are becoming increasingly prohibitive.

From the foregoing information, it is clear that, although desertification is exacerbated by


severe drought, its principle cause is human overexploitation of dry lands through over-
cultivation, overgrazing, poor irrigation practices and deforestation. This proves the fact that
even though the study of ecological change is still rudimentary, there is evidence to show that
human settlement and community lifestyle have often been a dynamic element in the
disfigurement of the environment.

a) Settlement and the Pollution of the Environment

Nowadays, protection of the global environment is closely connected with a set of issues such
as the depletion of the stratospheric ozone, the long range transport of pollutants, live in large
settlements, burn fossil fuels and use technology to meet his needs. The process of air
pollution accelerated during the industrial revolution with the introduction of steam power for
factories and with greater concentrations of population in manufacturing centers. The number
and variety of pollutants increased still more markedly with the development of modern
chemical technology in the 19th century.

b) Population Explosion and Settlement Problems

The growing size of urban areas is changing the whole pattern of land use. Fast metropolitan
growth leads to degeneration of shelter and quality of life in suburban areas: slum sectors
inevitably mushroom and soon become today's biggest challenge to mankind. Nairobi's and
Kampala's slum and squatter settlements continue to grow and along with them, the social
consequences of poverty. They provide sanctuaries for deviant patterns of social behavior
including crime and prostitution.

Slums are unquestionably deplorable. They not only breed physical sickness but also
overcrowding, lack of privacy and deprivation of the basic amenities of life can be
demoralizing. Besides, it is a sad fact that any growing town soon has a fringe of such
undesirable quarters.

The populations of the urban settlements are being augmented by the following three sources:

a) the population explosion in the poorer and more backward parts of the cities;

b) the rising unemployed rural population seeking employment opportunities in the city
and
c) The attraction of the city which the rural population sees as a provider of a better
quality of life and amenities such as hospitals and schools.

As rural populations are being siphoned off into urban settlements, these three reasons
combine to give population growth the form of an urban explosion. But the juxtaposition of
people with different levels of income, different races, produces in the city (unlike in the
countryside) a social environment with unanticipated psychological effects. Though efforts
are being made to cope with the development of the cities, problems often arise faster that
they can be solved. The city is becoming more complex and the environmental degradation is
practically unstoppable.

Activity 5.3

Will mankind win or lose the struggle?

The question of human settlement has exposed the crises that exist in urban centers. But
environmental problems are not confined to urban settlements alone. They also exist in rural
areas. The truth is that man has produced imbalances not only in nature but more
fundamentally in his human relations. In rural areas, environmental problems have arisen out
of poverty, inadequate development and the process of underdevelopment itself. In turn these
have manifested themselves in problems like malnutrition, low quality housing, poor water
supply, inadequate sanitation, prevalence of diseases, illiteracy and natural disasters.

It was estimated that by 1997, eighty five per cent of Africa's population were living in the
rural areas. Since then, the rapid population growth in recent times has tended to aggravate
problems and impose further constraints on resources. Problems are further compounded by
the increasing wave of rural to urban migration and the fact that both outsiders and rural folks
themselves look at rural life as inferior in quality and comfort. The crisis exists not only in
land ecology , in social ecology too. While man in the urban area is literally undoing the
work of organic evolution by creating vast urban conglomerations of concrete, metal and
glass, in the rural areas the characteristics of low quality environments persistently include:

 unrewarding subsistence agricultural or pastoral economy;


 inadequate supplies of safe drinking water; and
 Poor housing conditions.

All of these conditions result in the replacement of a highly complex organic environment
with a simplified, inorganic one.
Furthermore, the situation is aggravated by the building of gigantic economic projects in the
rural areas which may interfere with the regions' ecological balance. In Africa, such
development projects include the Volta River Scheme in Ghana; the Aswan High Dam in
Egypt, the Orange river Project in South Africa and the Kindaruma Project in Kenya. These
projects, which were intended to provide water for irrigation and the generation of hydro-
electricity, have brought about their own unique ecological hazards and created conditions
conducive to the spread of water borne diseases in irrigated areas (e.g. bilharzias, typhoid,
cholera, trachoma and malaria).

In the past decade in every environmental sector, conditions have either failed to improve, or
they are worsening:

Public health: Unclean water, along with poor sanitation, kills over 12 million people each
year, most in developing countries. Air pollution kills nearly 3 million more. Heavy metals
and other contaminants also cause widespread health problems.

Food supply: Will there be enough food to go around? In 64 of 105 developing countries
studied by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, the population has been growing
faster than food supplies. Population pressures have degraded some 2 billion hectares of
arable land - an area the size of Canada and the U.S.

Freshwater: The supply of freshwater is finite, but demand is soaring as a population grows
and use per capita rises. By 2025, when world population is projected to be 8 billion, 48
countries containing 3 billion people will face shortages of fresh water Kenya being one of
them.

Coastlines and oceans: Half of all coastal ecosystems are pressured by high population
densities and urban development. A tide of pollution is rising in the world's seas. Ocean
fisheries are being overexploited, and fish catches are down.

Forests: Nearly half of the world's original forest cover has been lost, and each year another
16 million hectares are cut, bulldozed, or burned. Forests provide over US$400 billion to the
world economy annually and are vital to maintaining healthy ecosystems. Yet, current
demand for forest products may exceed the limit of sustainable consumption by 25%.

Biodiversity: The earth's biological diversity is crucial to the continued vitality of agriculture
and medicine - and perhaps even to life on earth itself. Yet human activities are pushing
many thousands of plant and animal species into extinction. Two of every three species is
estimated to be in decline.

Global climate change: The earth's surface is warming due to greenhouse gas emissions,
largely from burning fossil fuels. If the global temperature rises as projected, sea levels would
rise by several meters, causing widespread flooding. Global warming also could cause
droughts and disrupt agriculture.

How people preserve or abuse the environment could largely determine whether living
standards improve or deteriorate. Growing human numbers, urban expansion, and resource
exploitation do not bode well for the future. Without practicing sustainable development,
humanity faces a deteriorating environment and may even invite ecological disaster.
A. Taking action

Many steps toward sustainability can be taken today. These include: using energy more
efficiently, managing cities better, phasing out subsidies that encourage waste, [etc.]

B. Stabilizing population:

While population growth has slowed, the absolute number of people continues to increase -
by about 1 billion every 13 years. Slowing population growth would help improve living
standards and would buy time to protect natural resources. In the long run, to sustain higher
living standards, world population size must stabilize.

Environmentalists and economists are increasingly agreeing that efforts to protect the
environment and to achieve better living standards can be closely linked and are mutually
reinforcing. Slowing the increase in population, especially in the face of rising per capita
demand for natural resources, can take pressure off the environment and buy time to improve
living standards on a sustainable basis.

As population growth slows, countries can invest more in education, health care, job creation,
and other improvements that help boost living standards. In turn, as individual income,
savings, and investment rise, more resources become available that can boost productivity.
This dynamic process has been identified as one of the key reasons that the economies of
many Asian countries grew rapidly between 1960 and 1990.

In recent years fertility has been falling in many developing countries and, as a result, annual
world population growth has fallen to about 1.4% in 2000 compared with about 2% in 1960.
The UN estimated recently that population is growing by about 78 million per year, down
from about 90 million estimated early in the 1990s. Still, at the current pace world population
increases by about 1 billion every 13 years. World population surpassed 6 billion in 1999 and
is projected to rise to over 8 billion by 2025.

Globally, fertility has fallen by half since the 1960s, to about three children per woman. In 65
countries, including 9 in the developing world, fertility rates have fallen below replacement
level of about two children per woman. Nonetheless, fertility is above replacement level in
123 countries, and in some countries it is substantially above replacement level. In these
countries the population continues to increase rapidly. About 1.7 billion people live in 47
countries where the fertility rate averages between three and five children per woman.
Another 730 million people live in 44 countries where the average woman has five children
or more.

Almost all population growth is in the developing world. As a result of differences in


population growth, Europe's population will decline from 13% to 7% of world population
over the next quarter century, while that of sub-Saharan Africa will rise from 10% to 17%.
The shares of other regions are projected to remain about the same as today.

As population and demand for natural resources continue to grow, environmental limits will
become increasingly apparent. Water shortages are expected to affect nearly 3 billion people
in 2025, with sub-Saharan Africa worst affected. Many countries could avoid environmental
crises if they took steps now to conserve and manage supplies and demand better, while
slowing population growth by providing families and individuals with information and
services needed to make informed choices about reproductive health.

Family planning programs play a key role. When family planning information and services
are widely available and accessible, couples are better able to achieve their fertility desires.
"Even in adverse circumstances like low incomes, limited education, and few opportunities
for women, family planning programs have meant slower population growth and improved
family welfare," the World Bank (year).

If every country made a commitment to population stabilization and resource conservation,


the world would be better able to meet the challenges of sustainable development. Practicing
sustainable development requires a combination of wise public investment, effective natural
resource management, cleaner agricultural and industrial technologies, less pollution, and
slower population growth.

Worries about a "population bomb" may have lessened as fertility rates have fallen, but the
world's population is projected to continue expanding until the middle of the century. Just
when it stabilizes and thus the level at which it stabilizes will have a powerful effect on living
standards and the global environment. As population size continues to reach levels never
before experienced and per capita consumption rises, the environment hangs in the balance.

5.4.5 Conclusion

In describing human settlement, we have touched upon almost all aspects of human social
and economic activity and related them to environmental questions. Where we found it
useful, we have provided historical perspective because both human settlement and resource
exploitation are historical phenomena. But as noted out earlier, the understanding of
ecological change is still in a rudimentary stage although human element in their own
environment. Particularly in the last two centuries, man has been disassembling the biotic
pyramid that has been supporting humanity for countless millennia.

Because history is part of the environment, examining the rural and urban settlement patterns
in one's country and era involves seeing them in the context of the past so as to perceive and
formulate trends in ecological and social change. Such trends are important in helping to
make future projections; they underscore the need to formulate viable policies to guide
societies in their resource utilization.

However, it is equally important to note that urban and rural squalor is a most degrading
human environmental condition. Yet, while there is evidence to establish that the abuse of
land-based resources (first soils and then fossil fuels), has had a direct relationship to the rise
in power of First World nation states, the Third World countries, who own some of these
resources, have failed to exert their dominance.

African countries have been caught up in a web most frequently described as


underdevelopment. Flows of matter and energy are re-directed to increase the human
comfort, convenience and pleasure of the western societies, the repositories of advanced
technology for whom African environmental resources are perpetually extracted, exploited
and carted away. While African resources are precious and should be used sparingly and
wisely for the benefit of the African countries themselves, the human conscience of the
overdeveloped West is largely directed towards domination and exploitation. This situation
will continue to be harmful to the Southern nations.

But while the overdevelopment of the West is cushioned by the relentless exploitation of
Third World ecological resources; and while the Southern languish in liquidity problems,
unfair pricing of their resources and deteriorating climatic conditions, they have yet to
contend with the twin problem of technological advancement in the west. To underscore the
binary relationship between the Western nations resources, on one hand and the third World
nations with their almost stagnant lifestyles and fledgling political, economic and
technological resources, the West has on occasions attempted indirectly to destroy the
African environment by turning it into a dump yard for its toxic and radioactive nuclear
wastes. Many African settlements are threatened by these.

Whereas its resources are continually depleted and taken away using Western advanced
extractive technology, the African continent continues to languish in poverty and
indebtedness. This is because Africa was incorporated in the economy of production and
exchange on very unequal terms with the Western nations.

Disadvantaged by the less influential position which Africa occupies in this global economy,
the deepening socio-economic crisis of this economy has been pushed towards Africa and the
rest of the Third World by the increasing subordination of these territories to Western
interests. The watchdogs of these interests are the Western dominated monetary institutions,
the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank which force African and other
Third World countries to operate within a sort of orthodoxy favorable to the developed West.

Thus, the large-scale and systematic exploitation of Africa's natural and human resources is
affected by various forms of unequal exchange. Falling prices of most raw materials extracted
from its environment have been coupled with the shrinking share of Africa in world trade.
This has caused a growing deficit and bred a soaring debt burden currently standing at
US$1,354 million. When the debt crises in Africa and the rest of the third world is analyzed
properly, it provides a clear picture of how the global economy operates in its most
thoroughly irrational mode.

It is clearly time for a massive campaign to be launched to restore high-quality environment


to Africa and the rest of the world. There is increasing need to rethink and raise our economic
system to a level more in line with the realities of the ecology and the global resource
situation. Consequently, resources and energy must be diverted from selfish and wasteful
uses in overdeveloped nations to meet the genuine needs of underdeveloped countries.
Whereas this effort must be largely political, the campaign should be strongly supplemented
by legal and boycott action against all environmental transgressions.

This is necessary since the Northern states have failed generally to perceive the moral and
real politic implications of an ever-widening gap between the Northern ‘have' states and the
Southern ‘have-nots'. Although the foundations of civilizations have rested heavily on their
particular supplies of energy, the world community is now at an energy crossroads as
environmental resources increasingly become politicized and selfish misused. In summary,
human society, whether urban or rural, needs a coherent politico-ethical ideology to make the
meaning of and ecologically based environmental policy clear and believable.
5.5 Effects of population growth on the environment

The ever increasing number of people has led to a great scramble for the limited resources
available; land, food, energy, air and water. In the scramble, some people get little or nothing
while others profit by their positions of power to acquire tracts of land. The land tenure
policy of individual ownership leads to excessive parceling of land making farming and
agriculture either impossible or uneconomical. This leads to frustration and social conflicts
when families are unable to acquire sufficient land on which to survive.

Indigenous forest and savanna vegetation, as a home for countless wild animals, is now rare.
The destruction of some animal and plant species or some organisms has affected the
functional relationships between human beings and their physical environment. The food
chains, through which energy flows in the ecosystem and the biochemical cycles (carbon
nitrogen and phosphorus cycles), essential to life, have been disrupted.

Natural forest and good agricultural land have been indiscriminately used for human
settlement. In fact, there is no longer any extra land in high potential areas; there is little
space to allocate to schools and other essential amenities. Schools and hospitals are
overcrowded and this results in poor services and creates situations conducive to infectious
and contagious diseases.

Slum dwellers, which are mainly unemployed or underemployed, are just forced to engage in
informal activities both legal and illegal. Both congestion and limited resources have led to
increased urban crime rate, accidents, conflicts and pollution in general. Other large cities in
the world are experiencing very much the same problems.

5.5.1 Air pollution

Chemicals such as carbon monoxide from motor vehicles and other gases from industries and
factories including sulphur oxide, nitrogen oxide and hydro carbonates are continuously
discharged into the atmosphere. Pulp and paper mills, iron and steel mills, petroleum
refineries, smelters, and chemical plants also add toxic substances to the air. The situation is
made even worse by fuel and trash burning.

In Kenya, the gases emitted by the Webuye Paper Mills in western Kenya, have high
corrosive effect on iron roofs in the vicinity. There is no doubt that those emissions have
similar effects on plants, animals and man himself. Los Angeles (in California, USA), is an
extreme case of air pollution caused by industrialization. Smog first appeared there during
World War II and even now, all the efforts made by the Air Pollution Control District
(APCD), have been unable to improve the air quality. This failure may be due to the rapid
population growth. Each worker is faced with the virtual necessity of using a vehicle to move
around in an immense city which lacks an adequate public transportation system. More
people and more vehicles, systematic resistance to smog control regulations from industries
and a quasi irresistible move towards industrialization, have combined to work against
successful pollution abatement.

Cities in the developing countries may soon fall into a similar predicament. Nairobi, which
was sometime very cold, is said to have become much warmer. This may be due to the large
expanse of metallic roads and the growing number of concrete buildings. More people mean
more manpower in businesses and industries and more employment tends to attract more
people. Air pollution is a threat to health. Concentration of various gases in the air leads to
suffocation, heart and lung diseases, and poisoning, respiratory diseases, coughing blood
clotting, asthma, bronchitis and cancer.

5.5.2 Water Pollution

The growth of industries in cities leads to an increased demand for clean water. The very
same industries dissipate waste water and individual waste into the drainage system which is
soon polluted by lead, detergents, acids, ammonia, oil, and mercury. As a result, sewage
treatment and refuse disposal facilities are quickly outgrown. Over the centuries, the water
masses in the world have been considered suitable dumping grounds for all sorts of human
waste.

Population growth has also led to the need for increased agricultural production and these
results in heavier application of pesticides, herbicides and nitrate fertilizers. As a result, more
pollutants find their way into streams, rivers, lakes, seas and even underground water and this
becomes a real health hazard to users. Attempts to introduce exotic species of fish into a body
of water in order to provide more human food may also result in ecological disasters.

5.5.3 Solid Waste

One of the major problems facing most cities of the world today, including Nairobi, is lack of
space for the hygienic disposal of solid waste. Solid waste has become an aesthetic disaster in
Nairobi, whether waste is piled up to disintegrate or burnt to- dispose of it, the air becomes
unpleasantly polluted. Water percolating through burnt solid waste soon becomes polluted
and this also provides breeding grounds for disease-bearing organisms such as flies, rats and
cockroaches.

5.5.4 Geo-ecological Hazards

Whenever there is human concentration, the surface of the earth is disfigured by wasteful
methods of cultivation, overgrazing, sheer movement and deforestation. Dangerous gullies
and canyons appear; the natural ecosystem is soon disrupted. The remains of mining activities
and the mines themselves greatly affect the biosphere as they destroy the earth's beauty.

5.5.5 Pollution of Heavy Metals

Through the industrial process, metals like mercury find their way into lakes and rivers
thereby polluting the drinking water. Aquatic foods consumed by human beings, such as fish,
may cause both blindness and deafness. Smelting of metals and the burning of petroleum
produce lead-smoke toxic to the body's organs. Lead poisoning causes miscarriages among
other disastrous effects.

Heavy metals also reduce photosynthesis and endanger aquatic life. In fact the long-term
ecological effects of heavy metals on the seas have not yet been ascertained thoroughly but
can apparently be disastrous.

5.5.6 Radiation
Certain machines and substances used by man in relation to health, transport and nutritional
requirements have proved detrimental to health. X-Ray machines, certain chemicals and
roods can have serious radioactive effects on men such as genetic defects, cancer and
stillbirths.

5.5.7 Noise Pollution

Some modern technology is excessively noisy. Amplified music, sonic booms and supersonic
aircraft produce noise that is detrimental to man's hearing. Excessive noise can cause both
/temporary and permanent loss of hearing.

5.5.8 Pesticides and Nitrogen

Synthetic insecticides, chlorinated hydrocarbons (like DDT), benzenehexachloride (BHC),


aldrin, lindrane, .endrine, toxaphene.and even the organophriphates like azodrin, phodrin, and
diazonetin are all designed to kill insects, but they also affect plants, animals and man himself
in many ways. Their toxicity affects living organisms either directly or through food, water
and air.

In a number of instances, agriculture today can also be considered ecologically hazardous.


Pesticides often kill a higher proportion of the non-target population than that of pests.
Because some synthetic pesticides have a toxic effect on so many other non-target organisms,
they are sometimes labeled 'biocides.

Pesticides with persistent effects, for instance DDT have been proved to kill or reduce the
reproductive capacity in sea animals such as fish and other organisms in the soil and air.
Poisonous fumes are very mobile and can be blown about the atmosphere as dust particles;
they can also travel in air and water currents. They dissolve in water and also become
concentrated in the fats of organisms.

A concentration of DDT in the food chain poses a definite danger to the life and the
reproductive capacity of certain fishes and birds. For example, DDT caused a sharp drop in
the egg shell thickness of peregrine falcons, sparrows, hawks and golden eagles between
1945 - 1947. These are vivid examples of the disastrous effects of DDT and other pesticides.

Adding nitrogen to water bodies leads to a contamination that cannot be removed by either
boiling or chlorination. Although the organisms in it will die, the dangerous chemicals that
the water contains will not be removed or broken down. The documented fate of Lake Erie in
Canada is a case in point; the nitrate content in Lake Erie has been greatly increased due to
the runoff from the surrounding farmlands (30,000 sq. miles). These waters are now too rich
in nitrogen. Similar problems exist in other lakes in the heavily industrialized countries.

There are, therefore, several environmental problems that can be attributed to the population
explosion. Whereas overpopulation cannot be blamed exclusively for this state of affairs, it is
certainly responsible for intensified environmental pollution and other problems. Various
approaches must be used to control the population itself so that the number of people matches
the available resources.

5.6 Population Control and its Impact on the Environment


Policies on population control have generally taken two major forms: Indirect control and
direct control. Indirect control can be made effective in two different ways. First, policies
may be adopted in relation to population locations or settlements. In many countries, the
government controls human settlement by restricting it in certain places. For example, in
Kenya, certain areas are set aside for wildlife and forest conservation while others are state-
owned and reserved for future development. There are laws prohibiting settlement in some
areas which are hazardous to human life. Recently, the government has designed laws
restricting the sale of land, a process which could easily lead to two extremes: population
concentration and landlessness.

There are also policies encouraging settlement in the marginal lands in order to avoid
excessive concentration of people in some of the best agricultural areas in the country. There
are several new settlements in areas of so-called low potential such as in the dry parts of the
Rift Valley, the North Eastern Province and areas formerly infested by tsetse flies. These new
settlements have eased the population density in certain areas like Kakamega and Kisii.

Another method of indirect population control consists of restricting and monitoring


population movement. The main type of population movement in developing countries like
Kenya is migration from rural to urban areas in search of employment. This is mainly due to
the socio-economic disparity which has long existed between urban and rural areas. Urban
areas are often thought to offer greater opportunities for improving one's life. Most
governments in the developing countries have recently adopted policies to restrict migration
to towns; they strongly advocate a return to the land.

An attempt is being made to transform the rural areas and provide them with facilities similar
to those in urban areas. The policy is to decentralize industries and spread major institutions
for instance, throughout the country. One of the main objectives of the District Focus for
Rural Development in Kenya was to ensure equal development for all districts and make
them more attractive. Previous policies had emphasized development in urban areas and
ignored the rural areas.

Direct attempts to control population occur in two ways. First, setting a higher minimum age
for one to get married and start families; and secondly, family planning. The former approach
has not received as much emphasis as the latter. Everywhere, governments of developing
nations are advocating family planning; which in fact, dominates population control policies
in most countries. Several methods have been developed or identified for family planning,
but those which are commonly in use today are as follows:

Sterilization: Sterilization in males is called vasectomy and •that in female is called


tubectomy. In a rather simple and inexpensive operation, key tubes in the reproduction
system are closed to prevent the release of either sperm or ova. It is usually a permanent
method, of contraception, although the process can sometimes be reversed.

Injectable contraceptives: This method involves injecting synthetic progestin hormones into
muscles from which they are slowly released. They prevent pregnancies and suppress
ovulation by causing the production of thick cervical mucus which is impenetrable to sperm.
Intrauterine Devices (IUD): The IUD are small plastic or metallic devices that are placed in
the uterus through the cervical canal. The gadgets seem to render the uterus inhospitable to
both eggs and sperms thus preventing or stopping pregnancy.

Oral Contraceptives (the Pill): This involves regular intake of pills as prescribed by a
physician. Pills are a combination of synthetic forms of the hormones progesterone and
estrogen. Oral contraceptives stop ovulation by interfering with the cyclical Hormonal
changes required for ovulation and make the cervical mucus thick and impenetrable to sperm.
Pills are taken every day in a 21 or 28-day cycle depending on the pill type. A whole cycle
must be taken on schedule to work effectively.

Condom: The condom is a sheath or thin rubber (latex) envelope which is put on a man's
erect penis before intercourse to collect the semen, hereby keeping the sperm from entering
the woman's vagina.

Diaphragm'. This is a soft rubber cup with a stiff but flexible rim around the edge which is
inserted into the woman's vagina before intercourse. The diaphragm covers the entrance of
the uterus; as a further measure contraceptive cream or jelly is spread on the surface which
lies against the cervix in order to block sperm movement.

Vaginal contraceptives: These are foams, creams, jellies, tablets, sponge (today) and
suppositories, all chemical substances containing spermicidal. Before intercourse, the
contraceptive is inserted into the vagina, where it spreads over the vagina and cervix. These
contraceptives render the sperm inactive.

Periodic abstinence (rhythm, natural family planning, fertility awareness): This requires
the couple to refrain from sexual intercourse during the estimated time of fertility. Ways to
determine a woman's approximate time of ovulation and her fertile time include; keeping
records of the menstrual cycle, the body temperature and the consistence of the cervical
mucus (Billings ovulation method).

Despite persistent emphasis on family planning, population control methods have not proved
as successful as expected in reducing the population growth rate. This is attributed to the
following factors. Contraceptive methods are not 100 per cent effective. There are chances
varying between 0.2 and 30 per cent that women using various contraceptive methods can
still get pregnant. The use of contraceptives is sometimes associated with prostitution and
loose morals. For that reasons, some people shy away from them. Certain family planning
devices are thought by some to deny the full enjoyment of sex and prevent satisfaction.
Others may be considered cumbersome and messy. Many people lack proper and adequate
education on family planning and the use of the various methods. For a family planning
program to be effective, an attitudinal change is required so that people can accept new
methods more easily. Most fears related to family planning come as a result of ignorance and
prejudice. Occasionally, those who are supposed to promote family planning are known for
their many wives and large families; this makes their arguments less convincing.
LECTURE SIX GLOBAL PEACE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION

6.1 Introduction

This lecture has been designed to help you understand what global environmental
conservation is all about. It covers the following critical areas: meaning of environmental
conservation, benefits of environmental conservation, global dimensions of environmental
conservation, global peace and environmental conservation and challenges of environmental
conservation.

6.2 Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

1. Define environmental conservation.

2. State the benefits of environmental conservation.

3. Explain the dimensions of environmental conservation

4. Describe the relationship between global peace environmental conservation.

Identify the challenges of environmental conservation

6.3 Meaning of Environmental Conservation

Environmental conservation is sensible use of the earth's natural resources in order to avoid
excessive degradation and impoverishment of the environment. It should include the search
for alternative food and fuel supplies when these are endangered (as by deforestation and
overfishing) an awareness of the dangers of pollution and the maintenance and preservation
of natural habitats and the creation of new ones, for example, nature reserves, national parks,
and sites of special scientific interest (SSSIs).

The scientific discipline concerned with the ways in which Earth's biological diversity is lost
and the development of solutions to protect the natural functioning of ecosystems and the
species that reside within them. Extensive surveys of habitats provide valuable information
on the number, kind, and health of species that reside there. Combining this information with
knowledge of how various factors (such as habitat destruction, overharvesting, pollution,
introduced species, and the effects of global warming) contribute to species decline and
extinction enables scientists and wildlife managers to design protection plans for vulnerable
forms. Often, protection plans involve the setting aside of large parcels of existing habitat, the
elimination of foreign species, and the restoration of areas previously altered by human
activity. Climate change, reduced forest cover, depletion of fresh water basins, pollution,
drought and famine are testament to the urgent need for interventions to restore balance
within the environment and its eco-systems. The MDG 7 calls for ensuring environmental
stability by increasing forest cover and protecting water catchment areas, among other
actions.

Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the environment, on individual,


organizational or governmental level, for the benefit of the natural environment and (or)
humans. Due to the pressures of population and our technology the biophysical environment
is being degraded, sometimes permanently. This has been recognized and governments have
begun placing restraints on activities that caused environmental degradation. Since the 1960s
activism by the environmental movement has created awareness of the various environmental
issues. There is not a full agreement on the extent of the environmental impact of human
activity and protection measures are occasionally criticized. Academic institutions now offer
courses such as environmental studies, environmental management and environmental
engineering that study the history and methods of environmental protection.

Protection of the environment is needed from various human activities. Waste, pollution, loss
of biodiversity, introduction of invasive species, release of genetically modified organisms
and toxics are some of the issues relating to environmental protection. Many Constitutions
acknowledge the fundamental right to environmental protection and many international
treaties acknowledge the right to live in a healthy environment. Also, many countries have
organizations and agencies devoted to environmental protection. There are International
environmental protection organizations, such as the United Nations Environment Program.

With more and more individuals and community tackling about climate change as well as
future environmental alarms, it has turned out to be essential for companies to include
environmental protection and conservation in their policies. Nobody could refute the
implication of balanced social and environmental aspects. By means of embracing global
environmental conservation and sustainability, the companies could uphold qualities
extremely valued in physical environment. It could be a big help in making equilibrium
between the environmental conservation systems and trade and industry development.

Advantages of environmental protection and conservation differ from a single group to


another. This concept could help in lessening negative impacts of environment in the society.
It would not just improve public health but as well make individuals more responsive of the
environment conservation. Simultaneously, organizations could also gather remarkable
benefits throughout environmental sustainability. As you can see, this notion could not just
help them accomplish constitutional obligations but it could also recognize efficiently on
what are the potential health risks.

Approximately every company organization requires adopting environmental protection and


conservation policies in turn to look after the environment. It must include lessening in the
handling of physical resources as well as selection of the renewable resources. Let's say that
if an organization runs to carry out good work by implementing the contemporary loom of
recycling the whole thing and then redesigning products to decrease manufacture of toxic
materials, then it could take pleasure in a firm standing in the business. This concept takes
along numerous business benefits which could be implemented to improve the group's
representation.

In the recent years, the environment has turned out to be a key question for the countries
worldwide. Because of firm pollution targets, the companies dealing in the environmental
resolutions have observed the appearance of numerous new opportunities. In the larger
viewpoint, environmental protection and conservation could be considered an efficient base
for a sustainable development.

6.4 Benefits of Environmental Conservation

A healthy environment is as important an element to life as food, water and shelter. As


anthropogenic environmental degradation is being seen even in areas where no humans live,
our world is facing some of the greatest challenges in its history. From climate change to acid
rain to pollution to deforestation, there are many problems that must be addressed to correct
the harms being done to the environment. It is said that in the middle income nations is where
there tends to be the least environmental degradation. This is where the basic needs of the
population are being met but there is not so much wealth that unnecessary products are being
consumed that is harmful to the environment. For the poorest of nations and people, when
you are unable to meet even the most basic of needs you will do anything you can to try to
meet them- including using the environment in unhealthy ways such as slash and burn
practices often seen in the rainforest to raise food for agriculture, or deforestation to use wood
for cooking.

Green spaces are a great benefit to our environment. They filter pollutants and dust from the
air, they provide shade and lower temperatures in urban areas, and they even reduce erosion
of soil into our waterways. Below are a few of the environmental benefits that green spaces
provide.

Water quality protection. Proper landscaping reduces nitrate leaching from the soil into the
water supply and reduces surface water runoff, keeping phosphorus and other pollutants out
of our waterways and preventing septic system overload.

Reduced heat build-up. Trees in a parking lot can reduce on-site heat buildup, decrease
runoff and enhance night time cool downs. Tests in a mall parking lot in Huntsville, Ala.
showed a 31 degree difference between shaded and un-shaded areas.

Reduced soil erosion. A dense cover of plants and mulch holds soil in place, keeping
sediment out of lakes, streams, storm drains and roads; and reducing flooding, mudslides and
dust storms.

Improved air quality. Trees, shrubs and turf remove smoke, dust and other pollutants from
the air. One tree can remove 26 pounds of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere annually,
equaling 11,000 miles of car emissions. One study showed that one acre of trees has the
ability to remove 13 tons of particles and gases annually. 2,500 square feet of turf absorbs
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and releases enough oxygen for a family of four to
breathe.
Lower attic temperatures. Trees shading homes can reduce attic temperatures as much as
40 degrees. According to the EPA, urban forests reduce urban air temperatures significantly
by shading heat sinks such as buildings and concrete and returning humidity to the air
through evaporative cooling.

Natural resource conservation. By using trees to modify temperatures, the amount of fossil
fuels used for cooling and heating is reduced. Properly placed deciduous trees reduce house
temperatures in the summer, allowing air conditioning units to run 2 to 4 percent more
efficiently. The trees also allow the sun to warm the house in the winter.

Green roofs cool urban hot spots. Led by cities such as Chicago and Toronto, as well as a
number of universities, evidence is mounting that green roofs (that is, roofs totally or partially
covered with vegetation) can play an important role in saving energy, reducing the urban heat
island effect and adding more green space to a built environment.

Cooler summer days. Lawns will be 30 degrees cooler than asphalt and 14 degrees cooler
than bare soil in the heat of summer.

Natural resource conservation. Homeowners can "grasscycle" by leaving grass clippings on


the lawn when mowing. The clippings quickly decompose and release valuable nutrients back
into the soil to feed the grass, reducing the need for nitrogen by 25 to 50 percent. Modern
mulching lawn mowers make "grasscycling" even easier, and homeowners can reduce their
mowing time by 30 to 40 percent by not having to bag clippings.

Reduced pollution. Trees naturally remove pollutants from the air, so every tree that's
subtracted from a city's ecosystem means some particulate pollution remains that should have
been filtered out. In Washington, that amounts to 540 extra tons each year.

Rainfall retention. A healthy, sodded lawn absorbs rainfall 6 times more effectively than a
wheat field and 4 times better than a hay field.

Natural storm water management. A big tree removes 60 to 70 times the pollution than a
small tree.

Reduced temperatures. In Atlanta, temperatures have climbed 5 to 8 degrees higher than


surrounding countryside where developers bulldozed 380,000 acres between 1973 and 1999,
according to NASA. Scientists fear the heavily developed corridor between Boston and
Washington could be the next big hot zone.

6.5 Global Dimensions of Environmental Conservation

Distinct trends exist regarding conservation development. While many countries' efforts to
preserve species and their habitats have been government-led, those in the North Western
Europe tended to arise out of the middle-class and aristocratic interest in natural history,
expressed at the level of the individual and the national, regional or local learned society.
Thus countries like Britain, the Netherlands, Germany, et el. had what we would today term
Non-Governmental Organizations - in the shape of the RSPB, National Trust and County
Naturalists' Trusts (dating back to 1889, 1895 and 1912 respectively) Natuurmonumenten,
Provincial conservation Trusts for each Dutch province, Vogelbescherming, et el. - a long
time before there were National Parks and National Nature Reserves. This in part reflects the
absence of wilderness areas in heavily cultivated Europe, as well as a long-standing interest
in laissez-faire government in some countries, like the UK, leaving it as no coincidence that
John Muir, the British-born founder of the National Park movement (and hence of
government-sponsored conservation) did his sterling work in the USA, where he was the
motor force behind the establishment of such NPs as Yosemite and Yellowstone. Nowadays,
officially more than 10 percent of the world is legally protected in some way or the other, and
in practice private fundraising is insufficient to pay for the effective management of so much
land with protective status.

Protected areas in developing countries, where probably as many as 70-80 percent of the
species of the world live, still enjoy very little effective management and protection.
Although some countries such as Mexico have non-profit civil organizations and land owners
dedicated to protect vast private property, such is the case of Hacienda Chichen's Maya
Jungle Reserve and Bird Refuge in Chichen Itza, Yucatán. The Adopt a Ranger Foundation
has calculated that worldwide about 140,000 rangers are needed for the protected areas in
developing and transition countries. There are no data on how many rangers are employed at
the moment, but probably less than half the protected areas in developing and transition
countries have any rangers at all and those that have them are at least 50% short This means
that there would be a worldwide ranger deficit of 105,000 rangers in the developing and
transition countries.

One of the world's foremost conservationists, Dr. Kenton Miller, stated about the importance
of rangers: "The future of our ecosystem services and our heritage depends upon park
rangers. With the rapidity at which the challenges to protected areas are both changing and
increasing, there has never been more of a need for well prepared human capacity to manage.
Park rangers are the backbone of park management. They are on the ground. They work on
the front line with scientists, visitors, and members of local communities."

Adopt a Ranger fears that the ranger deficit is the greatest single limiting factor in effectively
conserving nature in 75% of the world. Currently, no conservation organization or western
country or international organization addresses this problem. Adopt A Ranger has been
incorporated to draw worldwide public attention to the most urgent problem that conservation
is facing in developing and transition countries: protected areas without field staff. Very
specifically, it will contribute to solving the problem by fund raising to finance rangers in the
field. It will also help governments in developing and transition countries to assess realistic
staffing needs and staffing strategies

As we gaze into conservation process, we see still more posturing than real progress in the
years ahead. We would like to believe that increasing numbers of politicians understand how
important environmental issues are. What we hear instead are candidates making brave
speeches about the environment, but doing little or nothing once they are elected. Like the
advertising consultants who help put them in office, politicians act as though describing a
problem is the same thing as solving it. Since most voters apparently don't feel it's fair to hold
a politician accountable for his campaign pledges, the environment continues to deteriorate.

Our keen observation shows still more massive oil spills occurring before we begin to
question our dependence on fossil fuels, the price of which cannot be reckoned solely on the
basis of extraction, transportation, and refinement costs. Our assessment of the future
situation also reveals more extreme weather before meteorologists acknowledge that these
"atypical patterns" are linked to man's helter-skelter impacts on the environment. Saddest of
all because it is most easily remedied, our experience shows millions more acres of tropical
forest destroyed with countless numbers of unknown species lost before major international
positions are taken to end this ecological mayhem.

Conservationists today feel the sort of frustration that others before them felt. We know that
catastrophes of global dimensions are looming, we know that effective leaders are
desperately needed to counter widespread inertia and ignorance- but with complacency the
prevailing mood, we drift closer, week by week, to worst-case scenarios.

No one can say for certain today whether deforestation, desertification, atmospheric
degradation, oceanic pollution, global warming, or some combination of these will be the
triggering mechanism to overrule the earth's equilibrium. Conservationists know that we still
have a chance to reverse global deterioration if only our political leaders will cooperate to
create humane solutions for mankind's runaway population growth. No one with the least
knowledge of nature doubts that so long as humanity continues propagating at a net increase
exceeding 10,000 people per hour, civilization itself is at risk.

One shouldn't confuse this risk with the question of whether our species will survive. Barring
nuclear war, it almost certainly will. But that's not the issue. From the beginning of the 19th
century and the start of the Industrial Revolution, the fundamental question for Homo sapiens
has been, how many people can the earth support and at what standard of living?

Scientific inquiry and political debate everywhere should be directed towards answering that
question before nature herself-never one to abide by deficit spending-answers it for us.
Indeed, in increasing areas of the world, nature is already calling in her IOUs in the form of
perennial civil strife and famine.

Yet just as Churchill never lost his faith that the good and necessary fight could be won,
conservationists today must not allow the immensity of our many challenges to demoralize
us. We must, However, learn to distinguish fair-weather friends from those far fewer but
more dependable souls willing and able to roll up their sleeves to get the job done.

Many former allies are now part of the problem. The growing preoccupation with credentials
and conservation dogma among natural scientists and technicians has led to the cancerous
growth of too many environmental hierarchies -nongovernmental as well as governmental-
more concerned with protecting the well-being of those within the system than with
protecting the resources the bureaucracies were founded to perpetuate.

These agencies' and organizations' "educational materials" and "press releases" are intended
only to pacify or to enhance donations, not to stir the troops to political action. The public's
initiative is sapped by patronizing suggestions that conservation is too complex for ordinary
people to comprehend. "Leave it to us experts" is the increasingly heard and subtly
debilitating refrain.

Too many nongovernmental conservation organizations have become mere money pumps
whose executives sink into the same sort of comfortable lethargy they were supposed to
prevent among their peers in the public sector. (The cat has become as fat and lazy as the
mice, and the dog (the press), which should harry the cat, has grown equally fat and lazy).
The second half of H. L. Mencken's advice to his colleagues to comfort the afflicted and to
afflict the comfortable" has been lost beneath mergers, monopolies, and advertising revenues.
6.6 Global Peace and Environmental Conservation

Using conservation measures as a direct means of resolving an armed conflict is the most
consequential use of environmental peace-building; yet this approach is still in early stages of
global acceptance. The first international peace park idea involving an armed conflict
between neighboring countries was in the Cordillera del Condor region between Ecuador and
Peru. This case deserves special recognition as it was the first formal effort in which
conservation groups were actively involved in international conflict resolution, and the
resultant peace treaty included explicit mention of conservation measures as part of the
overall resolution of the conflict.

The territorial conflict between Ecuador and Peru goes back several decades. In 1995,
following several failed attempts at conflict resolution; an armed conflict broke out that lasted
for about three weeks. A peace agreement signed in February of 1995 committed both
countries to the withdrawal of forces ‘‘far'' from the disputed zone. This plan was overseen
by four guarantor countries: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and the United States. In compliance
with the plan, both nations organized the withdrawal of 5,000 troops from the Cenepa Valley
and supervised the demobilization of 140,000 troops on both sides. With this much
accomplished, conservation groups became very active in trying to lobby for a peace park. It
should be noted that Conservation International was actively involved in biodiversity
fieldwork even before the resolution of the conflict; it had worked closely with the military
when fieldwork on documenting the biodiversity of the region was conducted in 1993.
Therefore they were gradually able to influence more ‘‘hawkish'' army officers about the
collective importance of conservation and its instrumental use for conflict resolution.

As we endeavor to use collective environmental protection as a means of conflict resolution,


let us not forget that conservation efforts are often causes of tremendous conflict.
Environmental organizations and their relationship to communities have recently come under
attack from both sides of the political spectrum. Since many peace park projects are often
being promoted by such organizations, the legitimacy of these groups is essential for meeting
the goals of conflict resolution. Such conservation groups are thus often faced with the
dilemma of whether or not to give primacy to their ecologically determined conservation
objectives.

On the one hand, pragmatic eco-revisionists have ‘attributed so many of environmentalists'


failures to the incuriosity about the human (read: social) sciences, like social psychology and
their scientific fetishization of the ‘natural' sciences.''27 At the same time some
anthropologists have taken this criticism a step further by challenging conservationists about
their detachment from indigenous people in their pursuit of conservation. In a much
publicized article for World watch magazine, anthropologist Mac Chapin recently critiqued
the work of the Nature Conservancy, the World Wildlife Fund, and Conservation
International by asserting that ‘as corporate and government money flow into the three big
international organizations that dominate the world's conservation agenda, their programs
have been marked by growing conflict of interest and by a disturbing neglect of the
indigenous people whose land they are in business to protect.'

Anthropologists and conservation scientists have encountered this debate before in various
guises. An article in Conservation Biology by Schwartzman et al. (2000) that gave primacy to
indigenous conservation practices had sparked a similar heated debate with responses from
conservationists such as Redford and Sanderson (2000). Interestingly enough the
disagreement here was between staff scientists at major environmental groups-some of whom
were more unequivocally sympathetic to indigenous concerns over conservation priorities.
Such a divergence highlights the ‘varieties of environmentalism' that Guha and Martinez
Allier (1997) have alluded to in their work on social movements. Yet environmentalists are
collectively also accused all too often by those on the Right of the political spectrum for
being too positional and uncompromising in their approach to problem-solving and not
interacting adequately with free-market interests. Even Conservation International, which is
often accused by more traditional environmentalists of accepting large contracts and grants
from oil companies and development donors, is just as much criticized by industrialists for
not willing to compromise enough on extractive projects in ecologically sensitive places such
as Madagascar.

Environmental and human rights groups are thus often lumped together by critics of non-
governmental organizations (NGOs), such as Sebastian Mallaby (2004) or Clifford Bob
(2005) who decries their unwillingness to compromise on urgent development projects. The
formation of peace groups must be considered part of this process of internal reconciliation as
well as the extant motive of instrumental conflict resolution if it is to be sustainable.

When dealing with matters as emotive as environmental protection and conflict mitigation,
one can't help but feel a sense of urgency and advocacy for a phenomenon that holds promise
in harmonizing these two worthy goals. This book has been written at a time of transition
when peace parks are being recognized as a phenomenon by some while being dismissed as a
side story by others. However, there is little disagreement that if managed and implemented
effectively, conservation with community consent and conflict resolution are goals worth
pursuing. My aim in this volume is not to be a green or blue activist but rather to present a
story of measured hope with analytical persuasion.

Global Peace Initiatives were founded out of the belief that there is good everywhere. We
believe we can nurture good by focusing on our strengths. We believe we can generate more
conditions for peace through education and heightened awareness. Critical issues such as the
environment the complexity of human relationships and the sustainability of life seemed very
challenging to reconcile. As a result, powerlessness and fear can shroud optimism and hope.
Now is the time to bring to light more peace and greater understanding. This aims to promote
messages of peace and hope around the world that awaken a sense of possibility.

People should promote the concepts of peace, unity consciousness, positive intention,
compassion, and sustainable development through local and worldwide action. Through the
arts, media, education programs, technology and local actions, the world should convey its
message that when creativity is nurtured and possibility thinking is encouraged, hope is
nurtured. We foster positive intention and promote peace. We believe we can inspire people
to be possibility thinkers and creative forces for peace. We know the first steps toward peace
come from within the human heart filled with hope. UNOs will serve as an organization to
promote a critical mass for peace consciousness by defining peace more broadly than an
absence of conflict. It should manage initiatives that promote conscious awareness for
elements within our social environment that contribute to the human condition of being at
peace.

Activity 6.1
1. Explain some of the environmental benefits that green spaces provide.
2. How is the use of conservational measures a direct means of resolving armed conflicts the
most consequential use of environmental peace-building process?

6.7 Challenges in Environmental Conservation

Quantifying the environmental benefits of conservation practices is essential for assessing the
effectiveness of such practices, informing conservation policy, and targeting conservation
programs to maximize environmental benefits. Developing performance-based programs that
reward private landowners for implementing innovative conservation practices cannot
succeed without being able to quantify the performance of those practices, but quantifying
environmental performance in the real world presents numerous challenges.

Intext Question

List the most critical challenges of conserving our environment

These challenges include: the high cost of establishing monitoring systems capable of
producing scientifically rigorous results, the difficulty in establishing an adequate baseline
from which to assess improvements in environmental performance, dealing with spatial and
temporal variability in environmental conditions, the mismatch between standard criteria
accepted by the scientific community and the motivations, pressures and demands of agencies
charged with implementing conservation programs.
LECTURE SEVEN ENERGY CONSERVATION AND ENVIRONMENT

7.1 Introduction

In this lecture, we are going to examine how energy can be conserved and put into proper
use. We shall also look at the meaning of energy and its various forms. The various
classifications of energy sources will also be examined in this lecture. We will then conclude
the lecture by looking at the environmental impacts of energy.

7.1 Objectives

At the end of this lecture you should be able to:

1. Explain the meaning of energy

2. Describe the various classifications of energy sources.

3. Name renewable and non renewable sources of energy

4. Distinguish between renewable and non renewable sources of energy

5. Give the merits and demerits of various renewable and non renewable sources of energy

6. Explain the meaning and importance of energy conservation

7. Explain how various energy sources impacts on the environment.

8. State strategies to improve energy efficiencies and conservation.

7.3 Definition and Meaning of Energy

Energy in simple terms means the ability to do work. Work is said be done when a force is
applied through a distance. For work to be done there must be a force which causes some
objects to move. The amount of work done is measured in horse power or watts, where 746
watts is equal to one horse power. Energy on the other hand is measured in joules (j) or
calories (cal).
There are five important forms of energy that we normally use in our day to day activities.
These are: chemical energy; heat energy; mechanical energy; electrical energy and radiant
energy.

Mechanical energy is experienced in moving objects such as a bicycle moving down hill or a
turning shaft in a posho mill. Chemical energy is the energy stored in chemical bonds
between atoms. Examples of objects containing chemical energy are wood, maize, petrol, and
dry cell batteries. Heat energy is generated in fast moving molecules for example, during fire
heat energy is generated.

Electrical energy is found in currents of moving electrons and is the most adaptable forms of
energy. Radiant and solar energy is energy contained in light waves. Solar energy is energy
contained in light waves. Solar energy is an example of radiant energy.

Take Note

1. When work is done energy is converted from one form to another. For example a light
bulb converts electrical energy to radiant and heat energy.
2. Everytime energy changes its state it translates into more than one state for example,
when a generator is switched on, its mechanical energy is translated into both
electrical and heat energy.
3. During transmission some of the energy is lost .For example, if mechanical energy is
transferred by means of belts and gears, some of it is lost as frictional heat in
gears.

7.4 Classification of Energy Sources

Sources of energy can be broadly classified into two major groups namely renewable and
non-renewable or conventional sources. Renewable sources of energy refer to sources of
energy which are being constantly replaced as the energy produced is used. Examples of
renewable sources include solar energy, wind power, biomass energy and hydropower.

Non -renewable or conventional sources on the other hand refers to those energy sources
which become less plentiful or diminish as they are used up. Examples include fossil fuels
like oil, coal and gas. You should note that non- renewable sources of energy have finite time
of availability while renewable sources of energy have infinite time of depletion. The various
sources of energy can be summarized as shown in the diagram below:
Source: Adapted from Muthoka(2005)

7.4.1 Conventional or Non-renewable Sources of Energy

As we have already discussed, the main sources of non-renewable energy are coal, oil and
gas. These sources are sometimes referred to as fossil fuel. Non-renewable energy sources
come out of the ground in the form of liquids, gases and solids. Crude oil is the only
commercial nonrenewable fuel that is naturally in liquid form. Natural gas and propane are
normally gases while coal is normally in solid form.

Oil which is a liquid form of fossil fuel is the world's major fuel supplying about forty
percent of the world's energy. The consumption of other products made out of crude oil like
paraffin, petrol, diesel, motor oils and jet fuels has been increasing overtime.

Coal which is the most common solid form of fossil fuel is used for the manufacturing of
cement and for heating. Coal is the second largest fuel source and supplies thirty percent of
global energy (Muthoka et'al 2005). Natural gas accounts for twenty percent of global energy
and its use increased by 4.7 percent in 1988(W.R.I,1990).Natural gas is mostly made up of
butane and propane gases which are liquefied under pressure and stored in metal cylinders. It
is estimated that that in future gas is expected to be the world's fastest growing energy source
and many countries are planning to used it to reduce dependence on oil and to minimize the
environmental problems associated with other fossil fuels.

Activity 7.1
1. Define the term energy.
2. List three major conventional
3. sources of energy and explain their merits and demerits

These are sources of energy that undergo no appreciable diminution of energy supply during
the period of projected use. Many of these sources are already in use in various parts of the
world .The most common sources of renewable energy include the following:

1. Solar energy
2. Wind power
3. Hydro-energy
4. Geothermal heat
5. Biomass
6. Biogas

Lets us now discuss each of the above sources briefly.

7.4.2 Solar Energy

Solar energy is probably the most common and the main source of renewable energy in use
exceeding the sum of other sources by a factor of 5000 (Purdon and Anderson, 1980).
However, like fossil fuels, solar energy has a mix of advantages and disadvantages as well
.Some of the advantages of using direct and indirect solar energy systems are as follows.

a) Solar energy technologies generally reduces air pollution .Studies have shown that the use
of solar energy reduces air pollution by 99 percent compared to coal (Miller, 2005)

b) Solar energy reduces emission of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the air thereby contributing to
a free pollution environment.

c) The continued use of solar energy makes many countries to reduce there dependence on
imported oil thereby saving their foreign exchange earnings.

d) Solar energy is also inexhaustible .It can last for many years provided the system is
maintained.

e) Another advantage of solar energy system is that it doesn't use a lot of land. Solar energy
systems normally require less land to set up compared to other sources of energy like coal
which requires large land area.
In text Question

Highlight advantages of using solar energy?

As we maintained, solar energy also has demerits which are as follows:

a) The solar radiation derived from a large receiving area must be concentrated into a very
small distribution. This is because solar radiation is harnessed over wide area in a relatively
low energy form.

b) Solar energy is not available at night or during cloudy and overcast weather. Therefore
the use of solar energy requires proper backup system to be used at night or during cloudy or
rainy season.

c) To harness solar radiation one requires solar cells which produces toxic chemicals when
they are manufactured. This contributes to environmental pollution.

d) Solar cells and solar thermal systems are expensive to acquire which makes solar energy
to be an expensive source of energy.

e) Another disadvantage of solar energy is that the systems required to produce solar
energy do not last long. The durability of these systems is in the range of thirty to forty years
(Miller, 2004).

Activity 7.2
1.List at least four disadvantages of solar energy which have not been discussed
above.
2. For each of the above listed disadvantages suggest measures to overcome the
disadvantages.

In Kenya direct solar radiation has long been used to dry food crops, clothes and animal
skins. Direct energy has the potential of saving Kenya's heating and electricity needs because
of the country's proximity to equator.

7.4.2.2 Wind Power

Wind is generated by the uneven heating and cooling of the earth's surface. As a result of the
heating and cooling the atmosphere experiences some movements which generate wind. You
should note that at any given time half of the earth's surface is heated by the sun. As a result
the atmosphere on the sunny side of the earth warms and expands. Meanwhile, the
atmosphere on the dark side of the earth cools and contracts .The interactions between these
two cooling and heating air masses over the oceans and continents produce moving currents
of air which contain large amounts of energy.

Wind energy has found various uses. It is captured and used by sails on boats or by windmills
and wind generations. In 2001 alone wind turbines worldwide produced almost 25,000
megawatts of electricity which is enough to meet the needs of about seven million homes.
About seventy percent of the world's wind power is sourced from Europe, with countries like
Germany, Spain and Denmark producing the bulk of it.

In Kenya there are over two hundred windmills operating in windy parts of the country. Most
of these windmills are used to pump water for irrigation purposes and for cattle ranches in
addition to being used for domestic purposes.

The difference between windmills and wind generators is worth noting. Wind generators
have rotors with fast spinning blades. They usually have two or three blades which are thin
like those of an aero planes propeller. Overleaf is a diagram of a wind generator.
Figure 7.2 Wind Turbine Generator

The rotor of a wind generator is attached either directly or by gears or belts to a generator and
a current is produced when the wind blows. Wind generators are usually smaller than
windmills. Like windmills wind generators are also mounted on towers or poles for them to
function.

The advantages of using wind power over other sources of energy is that it has a moderate to
high net energy , it's efficient and it requires moderate capital cost to install. Wind energy is
also relatively cheap and has the least environmental impact. Wind energy systems don't emit
carbon dioxide in the air and they are quick and easy to construct and expand.

However wind energy also has some disadvantages. Wind energy requires steady winds for it
to function well otherwise one will require backup systems when winds are low. Wind energy
will also use a lot of land especially if wind is harvested on a large scale. These will require
wind farms which will consume a lot of land. It can also be said that wind energy systems can
make noise when they are located near populated areas. Some critics have also alleged that
wind turbines suck large numbers of birds into their wind stream

Despite these disadvantages, increasingly many governments and corporations are


recognizing that wind is a vast climate benign, renewable energy resource that can supply
both electricity and hydrogen fuel at an affordable cost. If its current growth rate continues,
wind power could produce ten percent of the world's electricity by 2020.

7.4.2.3 Water Power

Hydroelectric energy is an important source of energy for the world today. Electricity can be
produced from flowing water in many forms as explained below.

a) Large scale hydropower can be generated by building a high dam across a large river to
create a reservoir. Some of the water stored in the reservoir can then be allowed to flow
through huge pipes at controlled rates, spinning turbines and thereby producing electricity.

b) Small scale hydropower can be generated by building a low dam with no or small
reservoir across a small stream. Then the stream's flow of water is used to spin turbines to
produce electricity.

c) Pumped storage hydropower can be produced by using surplus electricity from


conventional power plant to pump water from a lake or a reservoir to another reservoir at a
higher elevation. When more electricity is needed, water in the upper reservoir is released and
flows through the turbines thereby generating electricity on its return to the lower reservoir.

d) The flow of tides and waves of the ocean can also be used to spine turbine to produce
electricity.

The advantages of water power are many and varied. It is relatively inexpensive when
compared with other sources of energy. The efficiency of water power is high and is
estimated at eighty percent (Miller, 2005) .Water power is clean, it does not require burning
of fuel, does not pollute the atmosphere and does not produce any radioactive or other waste
when in operation.

That said, water power also has disadvantages.

In-text Question

Can you think of the disadvantages of water power over other sources?
7.4 Classification of Energy Sources

It has been argued that water falling over high dams may pick up nitrogen gas which enters
the blood of fish, expands and kills them. In addition, dams constructed to receive water drop
sediments that would otherwise reach the sea and replenish the sand on beaches .It is also
conceivable that when dams are placed along a single river, they interfere with the river flow
and flood over usable land.

Notwithstanding these shortcomings, water power (hydropower) supplies about six percent of
the world's total commercial energy, twenty percent of the world's electricity and fifty percent
of electricity in developing countries.

In Kenya a large portion of its electricity comes from Tana River hydropower stations .There
are also many useful small -scale hydropower installations located along fast -flowing
streams or waterfalls that are used to provide power to meet the mechanical or electrical
needs of a nearby home or community.

7.4.2.4 Geothermal Power

Geothermal power is obtained from underground rocks and fluids after being subjected to
high temperatures. Geothermal energy is stored in three forms namely as dry steam without
water droplets, as wet steam containing mixture of steam and water droplets, and as hot water
which is trapped in fractured or porous rock found in the earth's crust. Geothermal power is
not found everywhere in the world but in a few selected geothermal sites and especially in
locations associated with tectonic events.

These geothermal sites if found to be close to the surface ,can be used to extract the dry
stream ,wet stream or hot water by drilling wells where these sites are located . Once an
appropriate site is identified, holes are drilled into the underground steam source. When the
steam reaches the surface it is used to turn turbines and thereby generate electric power
which is then carried by the grid to places where it is required.

Currently geothermal power is the source of about one percent of the world's electricity, most
of which is being extracted from developing countries .In Kenya there is geothermal power
project located at Olkaria, South East of lake Naivasha which produces around thirty
megawatts of power .There are two steam-producing areas at Olkaria with one rich in steam
and the other rich in water .Plans are under way by the Kenyan government to expand the
Olkaria Geothermal Power Plant to increase its capacity. There are also other potential areas
for geothermal production in Kenya which include Eburru, Menengai crater, Lake Bogoria,
Lake Magadi and Lake Turkana.

Although environtal problems associated with the development and use of geothermal
energy are not many, nevertheless they are worth considering.

Geothermal projects suffer from lack of suitable sites for drilling the wells since geothermal
power sources are scarce. Geothermal power can also be easily depleted if used too rapidly
.Other disadvantages of using geothermal energy for space heating and to produce electricity
include emissions of carbon dioxide, moderate to high local air pollution, noise and odor
especially H2S and the high cost of constructing the geothermal power system.
The advantages of using geothermal power include; very high efficiency, cheaper than coal oil and
nuclear fuel, low land use and moderate environmental impact

Take Note

The three other non depletable sources of geothermal energy are:

1. 1.Molten rock (Magma)


2. 2.Hot dry rock zones and
3. 3.Low to moderate temperature
4. Warm- rock reservoir deposits

Currently research is on going in different countries to establish whether hot dry rock zones
which is found anywhere about 8 -10 kilometers beneath the earth's surface can provide
affordable geothermal energy.

Activity7.3

1. Explain how electricity can be generated using hydro power plants


2. List the advantages of using hydro power over other sources of energy
3. Describe how the earth's combined
4. Heat can be wiped to produce geothermal energy

7.4.2.5 Biomass Energy

Biomass consists of plant materials and animal wastes that are used as sources of energy.
Biomas is available in many forms like wood logs , charcoal , plant debris , cow dung ,water
hyacinths and paper. In order for biomass to produce energy, it can be burned directly as a
solid fuel or converted into gaseous or liquid bio fuels.

The figure below gives the principal types of biomass fuel.

Fig: 7.3: Principal types of biomass fuel

Source: Adapted from Miller G.2005 p 404

According to Miller (2005) burning wood and manure for heating and cooking supplies about
eleven percent of the world's energy and about thirty percent of the energy used in developing
countries. Similarly it is estimated that almost seventy percent of the people living in
developing countries heat their homes and cook their food by burning wood or charcoal.

In Kenya wood fuel and charcoal together constitute more than seventy percent of Kenyan's
direct energy needs. Wood fuel is used mostly in rural areas to cook meals, heat water and
provide space heating especially during the cooler months. Charcoal is normally used in
urban areas to cook. Woodfuel is also used by both large and small industries to provide heat
needed for various manufacturing processes.

The general advantages of burning solid biomass as fuel include moderate costs involved,
easy to locate the plantation, help in restoration of degraded lands and large potential supply
in some areas. By burning solid biomass, all wastes plant or animal will find use and
therefore will not degrade the environment.

The draw backs associated with burning solid biomass fuel include depletion, especially if
harvested unsustainably, soil erosion, pollution and low photosynthetic efficiency.

7.5 Environmental Impacts of Energy

In the previous section we have discussed how energy from various sources is produced and
used. From the time energy is produced, upto the time is utilized, the environment
experiences some impacts. In this section, we are going to examine some of the impacts on
the environment that come as a result of energy production and use.

You should note that these impacts vary widely depending on the source of energy,
technologies applied for its production and the nature of its use.

7.5.1 Environment Impacts of Fossil Fuels

As discussed earlier fossil fuel are non- renewable sources of energy and include oil, coal and
gas. All fossil fuels when burnt release waste products which can damage human health and
the environment. The type, quantity, and the number of emissions released by fossil fuels
depend on the composition or content of the fuel used.

Studies have shown that on average fossil fuel combustion in the different sectors accounts
for the release of ninety percent of global anthropogenic sulphur oxides, eighty five percent
of nitrogen oxides, thirty to fifty percent of carbon monoxide, forty percent of particulate
matter, fifty five percent of volatile organic compounds, fifteen to forty percent of methane
and fifty-five to eighty percent of carbon dioxide (Department of environment ,USA,1989 ).

Among the fossil fuels, coal combustion emits more sulphur oxide nitrogen oxides and
carbon dioxide per unit of energy than oil and natural gas whereas when natural gas burns it
emits more carbon monoxide than coal and oil.

The most common impacts of fossil fuel on the environment are their different emissions on
urban air quality and their role in the formation of acidic deposition and climate change. Over
the years fossil fuel combustion has been associated with serious city-wide air pollution while
car and power emissions have been the main contributors to photochemical smogs and acid
rains.

7.5.2 Environmental Impacts of Renewable Energy

As you may recall our discussions on renewable energy, we explained that these sources of
energy are sustainable since they do not get depleted. However, these sources of energy are
not always clean, environment friendly and cheap. In other word's renewable energy have
diverse impacts on the environment as explained below:-

1) The construction of large -scale hydro electric projects can bring far reaching
environmental and social consequences .For example dams affect the flow of a river and as a
result any biosystem downstream will be altered.
2) Geothermal plants are known to emit radioactive emissions and other dangerous gases
like carbon dioxide and sulphur which affect the nearby ecosystem .These gases also
contribute to air pollution as wells noise pollution.

3) Biomass energy if utilized without care can lead to serious environmental hazards .The
burning of Biomass produces noxious gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia,
sulphur oxides which can be a health threat to people living in the vicinity and to the entire
ecosystem .Further the un controlled use of biomass energy can lead to environmental
problems like desertification, soil erosion, climate change, flooding and drought among
others.

4) Solar energy plant takes a lot of land as installing solar cells and solar thermal require
large amount of land because of the diffuse nature of sunlight. Further making solar cells
produces toxic chemicals which are harmful to the environment. In addition using direct and
indirect solar energy systems to produce heat and electricity can damage the fragile desert
ecosystems used to collect solar energy.

5) Wind energy impacts negatively on the environment through noise pollution when
located near populated areas and may also interfere in with flights of migratory birds and kill
birds of prey.

7.6 Conservation of Energy

In the preceding section we discussed the effects of renewable and non-renewable sources of
energy on the environment. In this section we are going to look at how energy can be
conserved and the benefits arising from that.

7.6.1 Meaning of Energy Conservation

Energy conservation is a term used to refer to better utilization of energy so that it results into
minimum or no waste of energy at all. In other words energy conservation means more
efficient use of energy. The higher the efficiency, the greater the conservation of energy. The
question that arises is what is efficiency and how can it be measured.

The energy efficiency of any device is the measure of how much the potential energy
available is actually used to do a given job. If for example all energy stored in petrol is used
to power a vehicle then the vehicle would be hundred percent efficient and similarly if all the
electrical energy stored in a wire is converted to light a bulb then we say that the bulb is also
hundred percent efficient. The efficiency of a device is measured by dividing the actual
delivered energy by total potential energy available as given in the equation below:

Percentage of efficiency = Actual delivered energy x100

Total potential energy

7.6.2 Strategies and Benefits of Energy Conservation

In order to have sustainable development, available energy should be optimally used in such
a way that it mitigates the various risks associated with the current global energy production
and consumption patterns.
One way of achieving this goal is for countries to develop strategies to improve energy
efficiency and promote the culture of energy conservation. It should however be noted that
the strategies used to improve energy efficiency and promote energy conservation should
consider the specific fuel mix and the technologies employed in each sector of development
together with the efforts made to improve energy management.

According to World Resources Institute (WRI, 1990), conservation measures reduced per
capita energy use by five percent and growth domestic product grew by thirty two percent
among industrialized nations during the period 1973 to1985. Similarly in California, U.S.A,
both public and private initiatives towards energy conservation resulted in substantial
economic and social savings and proved to be three to five times cheaper than new power
plants (WRI, 1988).

Take Note

in the U.S.A alone eighty four percent of all commercial energy used is wasted .About forty
one percent of this energy is wasted automatically through conversion and the rest (forty
three percent) is wasted unnecessarily mostly by:

1. Using fuel wasting motor- vehicles, furnaces and other devices.


2. Living and working in leaky ,poorly insulated and poorly designed buildings.

Reducing energy wastage has a number of economic as well as environmental benefits which
include: prolonging the supply of fossil fuel reducing pollution and environmental
degeneration improving local economy by reducing flow of money out to pay for energy and
creation of local jobs.

7.6.3 Strategies to Save Energy in Industrial Related Projects

In the industry sector energy savings can be realized by:

a) Cogeneration or combined heat and power (C.H.P.)

In this strategy two useful forms of energy (such as steam and electricity) are produced from
the same fuel source. This method has an efficiency of up to eighty percent and it emits two
thirds less carbon dioxide per unit of energy produced than conventional coal fired boilers.
Cogeneration has been widely used in countries located in Western Europe.

b) Replacing Energy Wasting Electric Motors


In industries where electric motors are used, energy can be saved by replacing these motors
with new adjustable-speed drive motors. This is because old electric motors are inefficient
since they run on only at full speed with their output throttled to match the task. Studies in the
United States of America have shown that heavily used electric motor consumes electricity
worth ten times more its purchase cost in one year. Therefore by replacing such motors with
new adjustable- speed drive motors would not only save energy to be used to run the industry
but also the cost of replacing the electric motors will be paid back in about one year.

c) Recycling of Processed Materials

One way of saving energy in industrial related projects is by recycling of processed


materials. Through recycling, the industry will save energy by limiting the number of
industrial processes. In the United States of America, the use of recycled aluminum grew
from twenty five to fifty percent between 1970 and 1983.

d) Other measures of saving energy in industrial related projects include switching to high
efficiency lightining, turning off power machinery and gas burners when not in use;
improving boiler efficiency and putting stack heat to productive use whenever possible.

LECTURE EIGHT CLIMATE CHANGE AND OZONE LOSS

In the previous lecture we discussed energy and the environmental benefits arising from
energy conservation. In this lecture we are now going to discuss the current threats to the
environment. These threats are climate change and ozone loss. The term climate change
traditionally refers to changes in the statistical distribution of weather over periods of time
that range from decades to millions of years. However in this lecture we will use climate
change to refer to changes in modern climate.

Ozone is a gas composed of three oxygen atoms and keeps about ninety five percent of the
sun's harmful ultraviolet radiations from reaching the earth's surface. The presence of ozone
in the atmosphere is therefore very important in that any small changes in ozone
concentrations could have drastic effects on life on earth. Therefore in this lecture we are
going to discuss the threats arising from climate change and ozone loss.We will also attempt
to discuss the initiatives that are being made to mitigate the negative effects caused by
climate change and ozone loss.

8.1 Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

1.Explain the concepts of global warming, green house effect and ozone

depletion.

2. List some of the common green house gases

3. Discuss major causes of global warming and ozone loss.

4. Outline major characteristics of global warming and ozone depletions.

5. Discuss the effects of global warming and ozone depletions.

6. Discuss major global initiatives to conserve the ozone layer and reduce

global warming

8.1 Introduction

8.3 Meaning of Global Warming

Global warming is the observed and projected increases in the average temperature of Earth's
atmosphere and oceans that arises as a result of the increasing use of fossil fuels (which
release large amounts of the carbon dioxide and methane), deforestation and burning of
grasslands to raise crops, and the use of inorganic fertilizers which release nitrous oxide into
the troposphere. There is evidence that the atmosphere is being warmed up and hence people
need to consider the repercussions of their activities on both the present and the future
generations.

However, it should be noted that the concern of global warming is not purely a new
phenomenon. About a century ago, the threat of global warming was raised by scientists as a
result of the increase in use of fossil fuels burnt to supply energy during the industrial
revolution. More recently, scientific evidence has pointed out that global warming is now
inevitable. According to these studies, the earth's average temperature continues to rise and in
the 20th century, the earth's average temperature rose by about 0.6 degrees Celsius (1.1
degrees Fahrenheit).

The concern of global warming also got the attention of United Nation Environmental
Programme (UNEP) who together with World Health Organization (WHO) established the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988 with a mandate to study the
science and the impacts of climate change and to recommend possible policy responses. The
concept of global warming can be best understood after discussing the greenhouse effect as
given below.
8.3.1 The Greenhouse Effect

When sunlight reaches earth's surface some is absorbed and warms the earth and most of the
rest is radiated back to the atmosphere at a longer wavelength than the sun light. Some of
these longer wavelengths are absorbed by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere before they are
lost to space. The absorption of this longwave radiant energy warms the atmosphere. These
greenhouse gases act like a mirror and reflect back to the earth some of the heat energy which
would otherwise be lost to space. The reflecting back of heat energy by the atmosphere is
called the "greenhouse effect".

The green house effect was first conceived by a Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius in 1986
who theorised that the burning of fossil fuels would increase the amounts of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere and would lead to a warming of the planet. This theory was later confirmed
by numerous laboratory experiments and measurements of atmospheric temperatures at
different altitudes and is one of the most widely accepted theories in the atmospheric
sciences.

The major natural greenhouse gases are water vapor, which causes about 36-70% of the
greenhouse effect on Earth (not including clouds); carbon dioxide CO2, which causes 9-26%;
methane, which causes 4-9%, ozone, which causes 3-7%, nitrous oxide and
chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs). It is not possible to state that a certain gas causes a certain
percentage of the greenhouse effect, because the influences of the various gases are not
additive. In fact until recently, carbon dioxide released from the fuel combustion and
deforestation was considered the chief contributor to the greenhouse effect. However during
the past decade it was discovered that other trace gases collectively contribute to greenhouse
warming on a small scale. These gases contributed to nearly 50 percent of the enhanced
greenhouse effect in the 1990s (WHO, 1986).

According to IPCC scientists, if emission rates of carbon dioxide, CFCs, methane and nitrous
oxide continue, a global average temperature rise is predicted to rise by one percent by the
year 2030 and by three percent in the year 2100. This would mean that the planet would be
warmer on average than it has been for the last 100,000 years and that the global average
temperature could rise anywhere from one degree to seven degrees by the year 2030.

The most common greenhouse gases are as follows:

8.3.1.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Carbon dioxide is the main green house gas and is the main contributor to global warming. It
occurs naturally in the atmosphere and it supports almost all the living organisms. Studies
done by UNEP have shown that carbon dioxide concentrations began to rise early in the last
century and have continued to do so. Similarly, accurate measurements of carbon dioxide
concentration in the air have shown that its concentration has increased by nearly 25 percent
since industrialization.

8.3.1.2 Methane

Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas produced both naturally and through human activities.
It was first discovered by Alessandro Volta in 1776 who noticed bubbles rising from a pond
and found that these bubbles could be ignited with a naked flame. Methane has a relatively
short lifetime in the atmosphere, most molecules having been destroyed within ten years of
their release. However, the concentration of methane actually affects its own atmospheric
lifetime. The primary mechanism for its destruction is by reaction with hydroxyl radicals
(OH-), the greater the concentration of methane the more the reductive power of the
atmosphere (the supply of hydroxyl radicals) is reduced. If this feedback is included, then the
true atmospheric lifetime of methane extends to about twelve years.

Methane has a global warming potential (GWP) of 23. This means that every kilogram of
methane emitted to the atmosphere has the equivalent forcing effect on the earth's climate of
23kg of carbon dioxide over a 100 year period.

Concentrations of methane in the atmosphere have more than doubled since the pre-industrial
period, rising from around 750 parts per billion (ppb) in 1800 to the current level of around
1750 ppb. In the last decade the rate of increase has slowed, but recent analyses indicate that
this has been due to transient reductions in emissions from natural sources brought about by
unusually low rainfall. If rainfall in these major source areas returns to normal, methane
concentrations can be expected to increase further.

Natural sources of methane are dominated by wetlands. Where soils are waterlogged and
oxygen concentrations are low or zero, a group of microorganisms called methanogens may
produce large amounts of methane as they respire carbon dioxide to derive energy. Wetland
methane emissions are thought to comprise around eighty percent of the total natural methane
source, with methane release from termites, methane hydrates (frozen deposits of methane),
and the emission from the oceans also being important. Total annual methane emissions from
natural sources are estimated to be around 250 million tonnes. A paper by Frank Keppler in
2006 suggested that vegetation may also be an important natural source of methane. His
study indicated that up to a third of natural methane emissions may actually arise from this
source. If true, then the current estimate for wetland methane emissions is likely to be an
overestimate, but the true magnitude of the newly-discovered vegetation source is still
uncertain.

Another source of methane is human made. Methane emissions resulting from human
activities are now thought to exceed those from natural sources, annual emissions being
around 320 million tonnes. The main human-made sources arise from losses occurring during
oil, coal and gas extraction, from ruminant livestock and waste treatment, from landfill sites,
rice cultivation and biomass burning.

8.3.1.3 Nitrous Oxide

Nitrous oxide is a greenhouse gas, accounting for around six percent of the heating effect of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. According to 2006 data from the United States
Environmental Protection Agency, industrial sources make up only about twenty percent of
all anthropogenic sources, and include the production of nylon, and the burning of fossil fuel
in internal combustion engines. Human activity is thought to account for thirty percent;
tropical soils and oceanic release account for seventy percent.

However, a 2008 study by Nobel Laureate Paul Crutzen suggests that the amount of nitrous
oxide release attributable to agricultural nitrate fertilizers has been seriously underestimated,
most of which would presumably come under soil and oceanic release in the Environmental
Protection Agency data. Atmospheric levels have risen by more than fifteen percent since
1750. Nitrous oxide also causes ozone depletion. A new study suggests that nitrous oxide
emission currently is the single most important ozone-depleting substance (ODS) emission
and is expected to remain the largest throughout the 21st century.

Each year we add 7-13 million tons into the atmosphere by using nitrogen based fertilizers,
disposing of human and animal waste in sewage treatment plants, automobile exhaust, and
other sources not yet identified. It is important to reduce emissions because the nitrous oxide
we release today will still be trapped in the atmosphere 100 years from now. (World Book
Volume 13)

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are sometimes referred to as Freon are a family of


chemical compounds developed back in the 1930's as safe, non-toxic, non-flammable
alternative to dangerous substances like ammonia for purposes of refrigeration and spray can
propellants. Their usage grew enormously over the years.

One of the elements that make up CFCs is chlorine. Very little chlorine exists naturally in the
atmosphere. But it turns out that CFCs are an excellent way of introducing chlorine into the
ozone layer. The ultraviolet radiation at this altitude breaks down CFCs, freeing the chlorine.
Under the proper conditions, this chlorine has the potential to destroy large amounts of ozone.
This has indeed been observed, especially over Antarctica. As a consequence, levels of
genetically harmful ultraviolet radiation have increased.

CFCs have been found to pose a serious environmental threat. Studies undertaken by various
scientists during the 1970s revealed that CFCs released into the atmosphere accumulate in the
stratosphere, where they had a deleterious effect on the ozone layer. Stratospheric ozone
shields living organisms on Earth from the harmful effects of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation;
even a relatively small decrease in the stratospheric ozone concentration can result in an
increased incidence of skin cancer in humans and in genetic damage in many organisms.

CFCs have a lifetime in the atmosphere of about 20 to 100 years, and consequently one free
chlorine atom from a CFC molecule can do a lot of damage, destroying ozone molecules for a
long time. As we will discuss in the subsequent sections of these lecture, emissions of CFCs
around the developed world have largely ceased due to international control agreements.
However, the damage to the stratospheric ozone layer will continue well into the 21st century
or even beyond.

In text Question
Show evidence that global warming is occurring presently?

After understanding the concept of greenhouse effect, the next question that comes to mind is
whether there is evidence of global warming occurring presently. Considerable evidence
suggests that some global warming is occurring. The following are advanced as evidence for
the continued occurrence of global warming (Miller, 2005)

a) The concentration of carbon dioxide in the troposphere is higher than it has been in the
past 420,000 years, and probably during the last 20 million years.

b) About 75 percent of the human caused emissions of carbon dioxide since 1980 are due
to fossil fuels burning and the remainder is the result of deforestation, agriculture, and other
human changes in the land use.

c) The twentieth century was the hottest century in the past 1,000 years.

d) Since 1861 nine of the ten warmest years have occurred since 1990, with the two hottest
years in 1998 and 2001.

e) It is thought that global warming is causing the melting of polar ice caps and glaciers.
For example, Andean glaciers are melting so rapidly that water and food supplies in countries
like Colombia, Argentina, Bolivia, Peru, Chile, Venezuela, and Ecuador are expected to be at
risk within 15 to 25 years

f) Species extinction, extreme weather events, and increases in the range of disease
vectors are also thought to be potential consequences for global warming.

g) An average global sea level rise of 10-20 centimeters (4-8 inches) over the past 100
years from a combination of expansion of ocean waters from their increased average
temperature and an increased input of water from the melting of land-based glaciers.

h) Earlier spring arrival and later autumn frosts in many parts of the world which affects
patterns of crop growth and animal migrations.

8.3.3 Impact of Global Warming

The impact of global warming or the change in the average annual temperature could be
harmful or beneficial to humans, other species, and ecosystems depending mostly on location
and how rapidly the climate changes. Using models, scientists have been able to account for
the past climate changes and also use the various model scenarios to project future changes in
the average surface temperature. In this section however we are going to focus our discussion
on the possible harmful or beneficial effects of these changes.
It should be pointed out here that the possible harmful effects of global warming far outweigh
the possible beneficial effects. Some of the beneficial effects of global warming may include
less severe winters in areas where winter is normally severe, more precipitation in some dry
areas, less precipitation in some wet areas, increased food production in some areas and
expanded population and range for some plant and animal species adapted to higher
temperature.

Take Note

Some possible effects of a warmer atmosphere could be


beneficial or harmful depending on where one lives

The specific impacts of global warming can be discussed under the following headings
classified according to the sector in which the impacts are felt.

8.3.3.1 Impacts on Agriculture and Vegetation

Agriculture is the backborne of many developing countries and even the industrialized
nations. Changes in global temperatures may bring significant changes to regions
traditionally rich in agriculture and alter the global distribution of the natural vegetation. For
example some important world food producing countries like the U.S.A, France and even
Canada seem likely to suffer from drier soil conditions with potential adverse impacts on
their ability to produce food for the world markets (Muthoka et al 2005).

Further, global warming will seriously disrupt the marine ecosystem. The flooding of many
coastal wetlands as a result of the rising temperatures would mean the loss of an essential
nursery for many fish and shrimp species. This could in turn reduce the quantities of seafood
available for human consumption

According to the Stockholm Environment Institute, the natural ecosystem can only adapt to a
temperature rise of, at most 0.1 degrees centigrade per decade. This means that any
temperature changes that go beyond the 0.1 degrees centigrade in a decade will have harmful
or beneficial impact on the surrounding environment. Studies have shown that Boreal forests
are the most sensitive to climate warming (Bolin's et al., 1986). While other studies on
individual trees under controlled conditions have shown that increased carbon dioxide levels
promote growth, at least in the short term. Climate change may also affect the frequency of
outbreak of plant disease. For example, diseases like potato blight and wheat rust are mostly
triggered by specific weather conditions (WRI, 1988).
8.3.3.2 Impacts on Climate and Precipitation

Global warming also affects the climate and the frequency of rainfall in any part of the world.
The most widely recognized consequence of global warming is the rise in the sea level. When
temperatures rise, the oceans will warm and expand, and the polar ice caps in Greenland and
Antarctica may partially melt, causing sea levels to rise (Titus and Siedel, 1986). It is
estimated that if the average temperatures rise from 1.5 degrees to 4.5 degrees centigrade, the
rise in the sea levels will be between 20 to 140 centimeters. This rise in the sea levels is
enough to flood vast unprotected tracts of coastal land in countries like Indonesia, India,
Bangladesh and Egypt. Another threat will be the flooding of several Island nations which lie
in the Pacific and Indian oceans and the Caribbean sea. Among the countries or nations that
will be affected include island states like the Maldives, Tuvalu and Kiribati. It is out of this
threat that the Island nations have formed an association called the Association of Small
Island States (AOSIS) with the aim protecting their interests and also applying pressure to
industrialized nations to cut down on the emissions of greenhouse gases.

Another significant impact of global warming will be on the rainfall patterns. Some regions
of the world would experience dry spells while others could receive too much rainfall that the
soil could no longer be able to absorb. As a result of this, rain water could will runoff the land
without soaking thereby leading to river flooding and increase in the soil erosion.

8.3.3.3 Impacts on Society and Population

The question that arises is what would be the effects of global warming on the communities
living on earth? There is no precise answer for this question but it is expected that the
changes in average temperature will affect communities both positively as well as negatively
depending on where communities live. Climate changes will require new adaptations and
new technologies and even force changes in lifestyles. The beneficial effects of climate
change on the society or population may be increase in plant production. However, the
society may then face other problems like overproduction, increased surpluses, lower farm
incomes, and unemployment. Other negative effects associated with global warming on
society would include intensification of draughts, desertification, flooding, forest fires and the
out break of diseases and pests. The prolonged heat waves might also lead to the loss of lives.

Other effects of global warming which can affect the society and human population in
particular will include increased deaths as a result of calamities associated with climate
change, increased migration in search of better climatic conditions and the experience of
more environmental refugees in areas perceived to be environmentally hospitable.

8.3.3.4 Impacts on Human Health

Global warming and changes in climate can contribute directly to the health conditions of
human being and his welfare. High temperatures brought about by global warming can
overload the body's thermo-regulatory system thereby contributing to increased deaths from
heat, stroke and other cardiovascular diseases. Warmer temperatures brought about by global
warming will enable disease carrying insects, parasites and viruses to carry and spread the
tropical diseases to temperate areas or mid-latitude regions. By so doing, some communicable
diseases like malaria, dengue fever, plague, dysentery and worm infestations can be
distributed from one region to another depending on the changes in the temperature. These
diseases are acute in some countries especially in the developing nations and they correlate
with the temperatures existing in those countries. Disruption of food and water supplies could
lead to the spread of diarrhea and other diseases associated with lack of water and food.

Activity 8.1

1. Explain the following concepts:

a) Global Warming

b) The Greenhouse effect

2. List some of the greenhouse gases and explain how they


3. contribute to the global warming
4. List and describe three human activities that increase the input of

greenhouse gases into the troposphere and could enhance the earth'

5. Name any three impacts of global warming

8.4 The Stratospheric Ozone Layer

Stratospheric ozone depletion is a concern because the ozone layer in the stratosphere keeps
95-99% of the suns ultraviolet radiation from striking the earth. A number of consequences
can result from increased levels of ultraviolet radiation (UV) striking the earth, including:
genetic damage, eye damage and damage to marine life. Increased UV radiation in the lower
atmosphere, called the troposphere, can result in increased amounts of photochemical smog.
Photochemical smog is already a health hazard in many of the world's largest cities.

The decrease of stratospheric ozone was first reported in 1974 and the decrease was quickly
linked to the increasing presence of a class of manmade compounds called CFC's or
chlorofluorocarbons. Many countries of the world have moved to reduce the use of CFC's but
because of the slow rate of air mixing between the lower and upper atmosphere it is theorized
that stratospheric CFC's will stay at a significant level well into the next century.

Stratospheric ozone depletion has become very much a controversial environmental, political
and economic issue as well as a complex scientific issue. Major and minor sources of
chlorine, and factors which affect ozone levels are still being sorted out among a great deal of
media-generated excitement and misinformation; but the link between CFC's and Ozone
depletion, and the major factors creating the Antarctic ozone hole, are considered by most
researchers to be well established facts. Scientific models of the atmosphere are being
constructed in order to assist scientists in looking for other factors in Ozone depletion,
evaluate their importance and predict what may happen to our atmosphere in the future.
About 90% of the ozone in the Earth's atmosphere is found in the region called the
stratosphere. This is the atmospheric layer between 16 and 48 kilometers (10 and 30 miles)
above the Earth's surface. Ozone forms a kind of layer in the stratosphere, where it is more
concentrated than anywhere else.

Ozone and oxygen molecules in the stratosphere absorb ultraviolet light from the Sun,
providing a shield that prevents this radiation from passing to the Earth's surface. While both
oxygen and ozone together absorb 95 to 99.9% of the sun's ultraviolet radiation, only ozone
effectively absorbs the most energetic ultraviolet light, known as UV-C and UV-B. This
ultraviolet light can cause biological damage like skin cancer, tissue damage to eyes and plant
tissue damage. The protective role of the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere is so vital that
scientists believe life on land probably would not have evolved and could not exist today-
without it.

The ozone layer would be quite good at its job of protecting Earth from too much ultraviolet
radiation- that is, it would if humans did not contribute to the process. It is now known that
ozone is destroyed in the stratosphere and that some human-released chemicals such as CFC's
are speeding up the breakdown of ozone, so that there are "holes" now in our protective
shield.

While the stratospheric ozone issue is a serious one, in many ways it can be thought of as an
environmental success story. Scientists detected the developing problem, and collected the
evidence that convinced governments around the world to take action. Although the
elimination ozone-depleting chemicals from the atmosphere will take decades yet, efforts
have been made both at national and at global level to tackle this global environmental issue.

Take Note

Ozone is found in two different layers of the atmosphere, that is the troposph
ozone found in the troposphere is "a bad" ozone and it contributes to the buil
gases. On the other hand the "good" ozone is found in the stratosphere. In thi
the stratospheric ozone which should be prevented from depletion.

8.4.1 The Threat to the Ozone Layer

There is no doubt that the ozone layer is depleting day by day. Measuring instruments on balloons,
aircraft, and satellites clearly show seasonal depletion or thinning of ozone concentrations in the
stratosphere above Antarctica and the Arctic. Other measurements carried out by scientists on the
ozone layer in different areas reveal that there is an overall thinning of stratospheric ozone
everywhere except over the tropics.

In-text Question
Explain the causes of ozone depletion?

Based on various measurements done by researchers on ozone depletion and the


overwhelming consensus of researchers in this field, the threat to ozone depletion has been
found to be real and with serious long term threats to humans, many other animals and other
sunlight driven primary producers like plants that support the earth's food chains and webs.

8.4.2 Causes of Ozone Depletion

Ozone depletion occurs when the natural balance between the production and destruction of
stratospheric ozone is tipped in favour of destruction. Although natural phenomena can cause
temporary ozone loss, chlorine and bromine released from man-made compounds such as
CFCs are now accepted as the main cause of this depletion.

It was first suggested by Drs. M. Molina and S. Rowland in 1974 that a man-made group of
compounds known as the Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were likely to be the main source of
ozone depletion. However, this idea was not taken seriously until the discovery of the ozone
hole over Antarctica in 1985 by the British Antarctic Survey.

Chlorofluorocarbons are not "washed" back to Earth by rain or destroyed in reactions with
other chemicals. They simply do not break down in the lower atmosphere and they can
remain in the atmosphere from 20 to 120 years or more. As a consequence of their relative
stability, CFCs are instead transported into the stratosphere where they are eventually broken
down by ultraviolet (UV) rays from the Sun, releasing free chlorine. The chlorine becomes
actively involved in the process of destruction of ozone. The net result is that two molecules
of ozone are replaced by three of molecular oxygen, leaving the chlorine free to repeat the
process:

Cl + O3 → ClO + O2

ClO + O → Cl + O2

Ozone is converted to oxygen, leaving the chlorine atom free to repeat the process up to
100,000 times, resulting in a reduced level of ozone. Bromine compounds, or halons, can also
destroy stratospheric ozone. Compounds containing chlorine and bromine from man-made
compounds are known as industrial halocarbons.

Emissions of CFCs have accounted for roughly 80% of total stratospheric ozone depletion.
Thankfully, the developed world has phased out the use of CFCs in response to international
agreements to protect the ozone layer. However, because CFCs remain in the atmosphere so
long, the ozone layer will not fully repair itself until at least the middle of the 21st century.
Naturally occurring chlorine has the same effect on the ozone layer, but has a shorter life
span in the atmosphere.
Other ozone depleting compounds include the following:

 Methyl bromide widely used as fumigant


 Carbon tetrachloride that is highly toxic and cheap
 Methyl chloroform used as a cleaning solvent for clothes and metals and as a propellant in
more than 160 consumer products such as correction fluid, dry cleaning sprays and other
aerosols
 N-propyl bromide, increasingly used as solvent for degreasing and cleaning metal parts
 Hexachlorobutadiene, also increasingly used as a cleaning solvent and
 Hydrogen chloride emitted into the stratosphere by space shuttles

8.4.3 Effects of Ozone Depletion

Must we care about the ozone loss given that it is happening so many miles from the earth's
atmosphere? This question can best be answered after our discussion on the effects of ozone
loss. Ozone loss has devastating consequences not only on human health but also on other
living and nonliving creatures like wildlife, climate change, food and forests, and even air
quality. It can affect important food crops like rice by adversely affecting cyanobacteria,
which helps them absorb and utilize nitrogen properly. Phytoplankton, an important
component of the marine food chain, can also be affected by ozone depletion. Studies in this
regard have shown that ultraviolet rays can influence the survival rates of these microscopic
organisms by affecting their orientation and mobility.

Let us now briefly discuss the effects of ozone on each of these items:

8.4.3.1 Ozone Depletion and Human Health

A major effect of ozone depletion on human health is the occurrence of eye disorders. Strong
ultra violet radiation from the sun can cause inflammation of the cornea, the outer coating of
the eyeball, leading to photokeratosis or "snow blindness". Symptoms of this kind of
infection include the reddening of the eyes, a sensitivity to light, enhanced excretion of tears,
the feeling of having some dirt in one's eye, and pain. The trauma appears 3-12 hours after
exposure. Thanks to the quick regeneration of the eye cells, symptoms will normally
disappear within a few days. A long-term exposure to UV radiation however, may cause
permanent damage to the cornea.

Ultra violet radiation enhances the dimming of the eye's lens, which means that potential
cataracts begin to evolve at earlier UV radiation also enhances the dimming of the eye's lens,
which means that potential cataracts begin to evolve at earlier ages. A cataract is a partial or
complete opacity of the lens of the eye and the largest cause of blindness in the world. Part of
the UV radiation reaches the back of the eye, causing cells in the retina to slowly begin to
deteriorate. Damage will in time particularly occur to near vision. If not operated upon
blindness can occur. Radiation is partly absorbed in the lens of an adult eye, but will go right
through the lens of a child, reaching the back of the eye. For this reason, children's eyes in
particular should be protected against strong sunlight.

Other common eye diseases associated with increased ultra violet radiation are eye cancer,
conjunctivitis and pterygium. Conjunctivitis is an inflammation of the membrane covering
the anterior portion of the eyeball. Pterygium is a thickening of the membrane that covers the
eyeball.
A loss of ozone in the stratosphere will increase the amount of ultra violet radiation reaching
the Earth's surface. If stratospheric ozone decreases by 10% during the spring and summer,
the UV radiation dose increases by about 12%. Unlike the skin, which can adapt to UV
radiation by becoming browner and thicker, the eye does not have any such defense
mechanisms. On the contrary, research shows that eyes become more sensitive with increased
exposure to UV radiation. Increased exposure to UV radiation from ozone depletion is
expected to increase the number of people experiencing cataracts and other eye disorders. A
1% decrease in stratospheric ozone may result in 100,000 to 150,000 additional cases of
blindness due to eye cataracts worldwide.

8.4.3.2 Ozone Depletion and Climate Change

Changes in ozone and UV radiation can potentially influence climate through impacts on
tropospheric photochemistry. Observational data and a new modeling study have both
suggested that decreases in stratospheric ozone in Antarctica have led to climatic changes
both in the stratosphere and at the Earth's surface. These changes in ozone have led to
increased westerly winds at latitudes 50 to 60ºS. This, in turn, has resulted in a surface
cooling in Antarctica and a warming at high latitudes outside the Antarctic continent.

Changes in atmospheric temperatures lead to important changes in modes of atmospheric


circulation, in particular the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) and the Arctic Oscillation
(AO). These are responsible for large scale redistributions of atmospheric mass, which
produce large scale variability in Northern Hemisphere(NH) dynamics, and have a profound
effect on winter climate variability around the Atlantic basin. Temperature increases in the
troposphere as well as temperature decreases in the stratosphere both contribute to these
changes.

A potentially important impact of changing ozone on climate has been proposed recently to
explain the strengthening of the NAO in recent decades. This strengthening has altered the
surface climate in these regions at a rate far in excess of global mean warming. Although
weak NAO trends are reproduced in climate simulations of the 20th century, the unexplained
strengthening of the NAO was fully simulated in a climate model by imposing observed
ozone trends in the lower stratosphere. This implies that stratospheric variability needs to be
reproduced in models to fully simulate surface climate variations in the North Atlantic sector.

Increases in solar ultra violet radiation as a result of ozone depletion could also affect
terrestrial and aquatic biogeochemical cycles, thereby altering both sources and removal sinks
of greenhouse gases, for example carbon dioxide, and possibly other trace gases including
man-made pollutants. Likely effects of this may include an increase in air pollution in urban
centres, and acid rain in rural areas.

Whilst increases of ultraviolet may affect the production and removal of carbon dioxide, the
main greenhouse gas, ozone depletion itself can influence the global climate. Ozone is also a
greenhouse gas, and as well as filtering out the incoming UV radiation from the sun, can trap
much of the infrared (IR) heat trying to escape the Earth to space. If stratospheric ozone is
destroyed, ozone's contribution to the greenhouse effect is reduced. This could offset some of
the global warming due to man-made emissions of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous
oxide. Ironically, as the ozone layer gradually repairs itself during the 21st century, this
cooling potential will be lost. More significantly, the replacement chemicals to CFCs, the
HCFCs, which themselves do little harm to the ozone layer, are very strong greenhouse
gases, and are further contributing to the potential problem of global warming.

8.4.3.3 Ozone Depletion and Wildlife

As we have already discussed before, the effects of global warming is not only limited to
human health and climate change. Wildlife is also affected by the ozone loss. The effects on
wildlife vary depending on the type of the wildlife species. However, the most likely effect
would be increased eye cataracts or other eye disorders in some species of wildlife. This is
because of the ultraviolet radiation from the sun as we have explained in the case of human
health in our earlier discussion.

Further as a result of this ultraviolet radiation, many species of wildlife would die resulting into
decreased population of aquatic species. This effect would be even more severe to those species
which cannot withstand the ultraviolet radiation.Other effects of ozone loss on wildlife would
include reduced population of surface phytoplankton and the disrupted aquatic food webs from
reduced phytoplankton

Activity 8.2

1. Discuss causes of stratospheric ozone depletion?

2. Explain the impact of this.

3. Using the following titles, state the harmful effects of ozone

a. Human health

b. Crop yields

c. Forest productivity

d. Plankton productivity

e. Climate change

8.5 Global Initiatives to Conserve the Ozone Layer and Reduce Global Warming

Ozone depletion and global warming are serious environmental issues threatening the world
today. In the last few years countries all over the world have come together to discuss the
threats posed by global warming and ozone depletion. In this section we are going to look at
some of the international initiatives that are being put in place to address these issues.
8.5.1 The Earth Summit

The earth summit is one of the initiatives aimed at reducing the emission of greenhouse
gases. In 1992 a total 106 nations converged in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil and approved a United
Nation Convention Framework Convention on Climate Change. The convention required that
scientific uncertainty must not be the scapegoat for not taking action to prevent global
warming and that industrialized nations, with the greatest historical contribution to climate
change must take the lead in reducing the projected rate and degree of global warming.

In addition under this convention, developed countries committed themselves to reducing the
carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases to 1990 levels by the year 2000. However, this
convention lacked a clear provision that required these countries to attain this goal. Therefore
many countries did not achieve this goal as a result, many countries did not achieve this goal.

8.5.2 The Kyoto Treaty

The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC or FCCC), aimed at fighting global warming. The UNFCCC is an
international environmental treaty with the goal of achieving stabilization of greenhouse gas
concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system.

The Protocol was initially adopted on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan and entered into
force on 16 February 2005. As of November 2009, 187 states had signed and ratified the
protocol.

Under the Protocol, 37 industrialized countries (called "Annex 1 countries") committed


themselves to a reduction of four greenhouse gases (GHG) (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
oxide, sulphur hexafluoride) and two groups of gases (hydrofluorocarbons and
perfluorocarbons) produced by them, and all member countries gave general commitments.
Annex I countries agreed to reduce their collective greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% from
the 1990 levels. Annex 1 countries include countries like Australia, Canada, Japan, U.S.A,
Norway, Russia and others. It should be noted that United States of America has not ratified
the Kyoto treaty because of political reasons.

According to the treaty, in 2012, Annex I countries must have fulfilled their obligations of
reduction of greenhouse gases emissions established for the first commitment period (2008-
2012)

The five principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol were:

 Commitments to reduce greenhouse gases that are legally binding for annex I
countries, as well as general commitments for all member countries;
 Implementation to meet the Protocol objectives, to prepare policies and measures
which reduce greenhouse gases; increasing absorption of these gases (for example
through geosequestration and biosequestration) and use all mechanisms available,
such as joint implementation, clean development mechanism and emissions trading;
being rewarded with credits which allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home;
 Minimizing impacts on developing countries by establishing an adaptation fund for
climate change;
 Accounting, reporting and review to ensure the integrity of the Protocol;
 Compliance by establishing a compliance committee to enforce commitment to the
Protocol.

Despite the fact that the United States of America refused to ratify the Kyoto treaty, 178 other
countries are going a head with it and have adopted goals and strategies to reduce their
greenhouse gas emissions. The other good news is that in 2001 the Kyoto treaty was amended
to allow developed countries to help meet their greenhouse gas emission targets by buying
and selling credits.

In-text Question

What do you think are the factors making the United States of America not ratify

8.5.3 Climate Information Centre

As a way of increasing global awareness of the dangers of climate change, the United Nations
Environmental Programme (UNEP) together with the Government of Switzerland established
a climate information centre in Geneva. The function of the centre is to carry out research and
provide information on the consequences of climate change so that necessary actions can be
taken.

8.5.4 The Vienna Convention

The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer is a Multilateral
Environmental Agreement. It was agreed upon at the Vienna Conference of 1985 and entered
into force in 1988.

The Vienna Convention created a general obligation for nations to take appropriate measures
to protect the ozone layer and a process by which regulations could be created by the
governments of countries to establish control measures.

The Convention also established a mechanism for international cooperation in research,


monitoring, and exchange of data on the state of the stratospheric ozone layer and on
emissions and concentrations of CFCs and other relevant chemicals. Most importantly, the
Vienna Convention established the framework for a future protocol - the Montreal Protocol
on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
Although the Vienna conference acted as a framework for the international efforts to protect
the ozone layer, it did not include legally binding reduction goals for the use of CFCs, the
main chemical agents causing ozone depletion.. These were laid out in the Montreal Protocol.

8.5.5 Montreal Protocol

The Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to the Vienna
Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an international treaty designed to
protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of a number of substances believed to
be responsible for ozone depletion. The treaty was opened for signature on September 16,
1987, and entered into force on January 1, 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May
1989. Since then, it has undergone seven revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992
(Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), and 1999 (Beijing). It is
believed that if the international agreement is adhered to, the ozone layer is expected to
recover by 2050. Due to its widespread adoption and implementation it has been hailed as an
example of exceptional international co-operation with Kofi Annan quoted as saying that
"perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal
Protocol". It has been ratified by 196 states.

The treaty is structured around several groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that have been
shown to play a role in ozone depletion. All of these ozone depleting substances contain
either chlorine or bromine (substances containing only fluorine do not harm the ozone layer).
For each group, the treaty provides a timetable on which the production of those substances
must be phased out and eventually eliminated.

8.5.5.1 Impact of Montreal Protocol

Since the Montreal Protocol came into effect, the atmospheric concentrations of the most
important chlorofluorocarbons and related chlorinated hydrocarbons have either leveled off
or decreased. Halon concentrations have continued to increase, as the halons presently stored
in fire extinguishers are released, but their rate of increase has slowed and their abundances
are expected to begin to decline by about 2020. Also, the concentration of the HCFCs
increased drastically at least partly because for many uses CFCs (e.g. used as solvents or
refrigerating agents) were substituted with HCFCs. While there have been reports of attempts
by individuals to circumvent the ban, e.g. by smuggling CFCs from undeveloped to
developed nations, the overall level of compliance has been high. In consequence, the
Montreal Protocol has often been called the most successful international environmental
agreement to date.

In a 2001 report, NASA found the ozone thinning over Antarctica had remained the same
thickness for the previous three years. However, in 2003 the ozone hole grew to its second
largest size. The most recent (2006) scientific evaluation of the effects of the Montreal
Protocol states, "The Montreal Protocol is working: There is clear evidence of a decrease in
the atmospheric burden of ozone-depleting substances and some early signs of stratospheric
ozone recovery."

Unfortunately, the hydrochlorofluorocarbons, or HCFCs, and hydrofluorocarbons, or HFCs,


are now thought to contribute to anthropogenic global warming. On a molecule-for-molecule
basis, these compounds are up to 10,000 times more potent greenhouse gases than carbon
dioxide. The Montreal Protocol currently calls for a complete phase-out of HCFCs by 2030,
but does not place any restriction on HFCs. Since the CFCs themselves are equally powerful
as greenhouse gases, the mere substitution of HFCs for CFCs does not significantly increase
the rate of anthropogenic global warming, but over time a steady increase in their use could
increase the danger that human activity will change the climate.

LECTURE NINE MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION OF NATURAL


RESOURCES

9.1 Introduction

In lecture eight we discussed in details the environmental impact associated with climate
change and ozone loss. We also discussed the imitative that are being undertaken to prevent
or minimize the harmful effects of climate change and ozone loss.

Conservation is the process of rational use and management and preservation of the natural
environment with all its resources. On the other hand management of natural resources refers
to the controlled and accountable use of natural resources.

We will examine the ways of managing and conserving the natural resources. But first we
will start this lecture by finding out the meaning of natural resources before we discuss how it
can be managed and conserved.

9.2 Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

1. Explain the meaning of natural resources.


2. Classify various natural resources.
3. State the principles of conserving natural resources.
4. Discuss the management principles for environmental resource utilization and
sustainability.
5. Outline policies for resource management and conservation.
6. Discuss the strategies of sustainable resource utilization.
9.3 Definition and Meaning of Natural Resources

The natural environment is a complex system consisting of unrelated systems and working
together in regular relation. As a result of the interaction between these systems, materials
have been created that sustains life on earth. These materials created as a result of the
interaction are called natural resources. Natural resources refer to any form of material
weather organic of inorganic that is obtained from the earth's physical environment to satisfy
human life.

Dastranu (1984) defined resources as things or sources of energy. They are present in the
environment, and people make use of them. According to Isaac W. (1972), a resource is
defined as "those natural conditions and raw materials which humans use to meet their needs
and improve there net welfare." Therefore we can say that natural resources are any form of
matter, materials or energy that are valuable, useful or essential to human beings. Examples
of natural resources are air, water, soil, energy, animals, minerals, rocks, fossils, soils, forests,
wildlife and plants. Plants and animal resources are formed as a result of biological activities
of reproduction and growth, while coal and petroleum are formed as a result of interaction of
biological and physical processes over a long period of time.

Although natural resources exist through natural processes, they could also be acquired by
applying scientific and technical know-how.

Take Note

It is important to consider possible environmental effects before obtaining and using any
material as a natural resource.

Natural resources are not evenly distributed throughout the earth quantities, rates and modes
of utilization also vary. Some areas are much more endowed with resources than others. For
example, minerals such as gold, silver, uranium, copper and petroleum are only found in a
few nations of the world like USA., South Africa and Canada. Similarly, living resources
such as wildlife, valuable plants and animals are mostly found in tropical countries such as
Kenya. However, there are some countries particularly in the third world who have potential
resources but have not been exploited due to resources ranging from lack of the required
scientific and technological know how to lack of finances.
It should be noted that if the natural resource is not exploited wisely, it will soon be depleted
even though in the initial stages it appeared to be abundant. In addition some of the resources
are very rare, and once they are lost, they also disappear with secrets that might hold the key
to future human needs for food, medicinal and research potentials.

Let us now look at some of these natural resources:

9.3.1 Water

About 70-73% of earth is covered by water. Water is available in the form of oceans, seas,
rivers, lakes, ponds, pools, polar ice caps and water vapour and this forms the hydrosphere.
The main component of hydrosphere is water. Water exists in all the three forms that is, solid
(snow), liquid (water) and gas (water vapour).

We all know that life on earth began in the sea. Water in some form or the other is absolutely
essential for the maintenance of all kinds of life. Water consists of two atoms of hydrogen
and one atom of oxygen and it is the universal solvent since it dissolves most of the
compounds. The most important character of water is that its density is similar to that of
protoplasm.

Water is a valuable natural asset as it is the fundamental natural resource. Human beings
depend on water for many purposes such as drinking, cooking, agriculture and transportation,
hydropower. Water available in nature is of two types:

Salt water which is present more in nature because it constitutes the oceans and the seas and fresh
water, which is unlimited natural resources. Nowadays the quality of fresh water is often degraded but
not quantity. The sources of fresh water are rainwater, surface water (surface flow) and ground water.

9.3.2 Air

It is an inexhaustible natural resource. It is very essential for the survival of all the living
organisms on earth. In the atmosphere, about 95% of the total air is present upto a height of
20 km above the earth's surface. The remaining 5% of air is present up to a height of about
280 km. Air is a mixture of different gases; nitrogen and oxygen are the major components.
Thus, total volume of air present in atmosphere consists of 78% nitrogen 21% oxygen and
remaining 1% is made up of other gases such as argon, neon, helium, krypton, xenon and
radon.

Atmosphere

A thick gaseous envelope surrounding the earth is called atmosphere. The density of air in the
atmosphere varies with altitude.

The atmosphere is divided into five different layers or zones:

 Troposphere
 Stratosphere

 Mesosphere

 Ionosphere

 Exosphere

9.3.3 Composition of atmospheric air

Gas Relative %age Volume


Nitrogen (N2) 78.09
Oxygen (O2) 20.93
Argon (A) 00.93
Carbon di oxide (CO2) 0.032
Miscellaneous 0.02
Total 100.000

Oxygen is present in the first zone, 10 to 12 km from the surface of the earth. This zone is
called troposphere. Therefore, at higher altitudes, some of us find it difficult to breathe.
Above the troposphere is the stratosphere. This zone is rich in ozone. Hence, it is also called
ozonosphere.

In ozonosphere, the sunlight converts oxygen to ozone by photochemical dissolution. The


ozonosphere completely absorbs short wave solar radiations, such as ultraviolet (uv)
radiations, x-rays, gamma rays etc. from the sun. Oxygen and ozone of stratosphere provide
protection from harmful solar radiation. It protects us from the bad effects of ultraviolet rays
of sunlight. The effects of ultraviolet radiations are:

 Cataract - eye lens becomes opaque causing blindness

 Inflammatory diseases

 Skin cancer

Scientific studies have indicated that a normal human being requires about 250-265 kg of air
per day for doing various activities. Air is also necessary to grow crops, support animal life
and it is also a medium of communication. Atmosphere filters sunlight reaching the earth,
affects climate and serves as a reservoir of elements essential for life, (for example, oxygen,
nitrogen, CO2)

Take Note
Cloud formation, lightning and, thunder all take place in the troposphere. Air temperature in the
troposphere decreases with height at the rate of about 6150C per km . Stratosphere is free from
clouds and Aeroplanes fly in this zone.

9.3.4 Soil

The word soil is derived from a Latin word solum meaning ground. It is a stratified mixture
of inorganic and organic materials, both of which are products of decomposition. Inorganic
components of soil, that is, mineral constituents are derived from the soil forming rocks, by
fragmentation or weathering. Weathering of rocks takes place by two methods:


1. Physical weathering which is due to the action of rain, wind and temperature.
2. Biological weathering of rocks, is due to growth of lichens and mosses on the rocks.
The organic component of the soil is formed either by microbial decomposition of
dead remains of plants (litter) or animals, or through metabolic activities of living
organisms present in the soil. Thus the formation of soil takes place by interaction
between the physical and biological components.

Soil can be defined as the uppermost crust of earth, which is mixed with organic material and
in which animals, and microorganisms live and plants grow.

9.3.5 Components of Soil

 Inorganic material derived from parent (material) rocks

 Organic material derived from dead and decayed materials

 Biological system - such as bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa and other soil animals such as
nematodes, earthworms etc.

 The air and water occupying the pores between the soil particles, which are loosly packed

9.3.6 Types of Soil

Soil is classified based on its nature and composition, below are the types of soil:-

 Alluvial soil - rich in loam and clay


 Black soil - mostly made of clay

 Red soil - sandy to loam

 Mountain soil - stony, sandy soil

 Desert soil - sandy and poor in organic carbon

 Laterite soil - porous clay, rich in iron and aluminium hydroxides

Fertility of the soil is nothing but ability to nourish the plant life with required nutrients. The
fertility of soil decreases when crop is grown in the same land repeatedly. Another cause of
reduction of fertility of soil is soil erosion. Soil erosion refers to physical removal of soil
particles from their original place and transportation to some other places. Soil fertility can be
prolonged both by the human efforts - application of manures, bio-fertilizers and chemical
fertilizers to soil of crop fields - and natural processes.

9.3.6 Minerals

The earth's crust is rich in inorganic materials which include ores that are used on a large-
scale to yield metals such as iron, aluminium, copper, tin, nickel, silver, gold and platinum.
These minerals are very useful in industrial and technological growth. Some of the metals are
used as catalysts, for example, vanadium, tungsten and molybdenum. Some of the non-
metallic materials (minerals) are vital to industrial growth such as sand, fluxes, clay, salt,
sulphur, phosphorus, diamonds, gems, coal and by-products of petroleum which are petrol,
kerosene and lubricants.

The mineral resources are not renewable. Mineral deposits are formed slowly over millions of
years and once used, cannot be regenerated. Coal, petroleum, iron, gold, aluminium, copper
are the important natural resources, which have been a great help to mankind. Petroleum
products also called fossil fuels, are widely used in agriculture, transportation and industry.

In the modern technological world, the minerals are utilised in numerous ways. They are used
in the field of medicine and surgery, space technology, agriculture and its allied fields,
buildings, transportation and in national defence. In modern multi-storeyed buildings a lot
minerals like iron, steel, aluminium, glass, cement, sand, gravel and bricks are used.

9.4 Classification of Natural Resources

There are various ways of classifying natural resources. However, it should be noted that
some natural resources can fall into one or more classes depending upon the way they are
classified.

Natural resources have various characteristics ranging from durability, sources of origin,
modes of exhaustion, rate of utilization and duration of regeneration: Based on this
characteristics, natural resources can be classified as:

1. Organic and inorganic

2. Inexhaustible and exhaustible


3. Renewable and non renewable

4. Biotic and Abiotic

5. Potential and Actual

6. Recyclable and non recyclable

7. Common resources and shared resources

Let us have a brief look at each of them:

9.4.1 Organic and Inorganic Resources

Organic resources are those resources derived from living substances, that is, plants and
animals that are found on the earth and in the sea. Examples include wood, natural pasture,
wild game and fish. Inorganic resources are usually non-living substances directly or as raw
materials for the production of other necessary goods. They include minerals, fuel, chemical
raw materials found on the earth's crust and the atmosphere. Based on this classification, soil
belongs to both the inorganic and organic class because it is composed of materials which are
both organic and inorganic.

In-text Question

Suggest any other resource that qualifies to be both organic and inorganic

9.4.2 Inexhaustible and Exhaustible Resources

This classification is based on the level of abundance. Inexhaustible resources never get
finished however much they are used. They continue to be available whenever they are
needed. Examples of inexhaustible resources include air, sand, wind power solar energy and
atomic energy. Exhaustible resources on the other hand include all the materials which are
directly dependent on the activities of human for their continued availability. In other words
exhaustible resources can be made available or depleted depending on the specific human
activities they are subjected to. You should also note that although quantities and qualities of
inexhaustible resources are independent of human actions, some activities could interfere
with them. Examples of human activities which could interfere with inexhaustible resources
include things like atmospheric pollution, ozone layer depletion, given house effect "and
cloud searching".

9.4.3 Renewable and Non-renewable Resources

Renewable resources are those resources which are restored and maintained through nature.
They include all living things that have the ability to reproduce and grow. Renewable
resources can be maintained if there is a proper balance between their utilization and
regeneration. However, if there is improper management of renewable resources such as
over use, wastage or misuse, then it could lead to the extinction of such resources. Examples
of renewable resources include forests and wildlife. Non-renewable resources on the other
hand are irreplaceable. They have a limited supply and cannot be restored after use.
Examples include oil, coal, peat and natural gas.

9.4.4 Biotic and Abiotic Resources

This classification of resources is based on the origin or the sources where the resources are
found. Biotic resources are those resources which are found in the biosphere. Examples
include all the living organisms (plants and animals) and fossil fuels such as coal, peat and
petroleum (formed from dead and decaying matter). On the hand, abiotic resources consist of
non-living matter. Examples are water, land and mineral ores of copper, aluminum, gold and
silver.

9.4.5 Potential and Actual Resources

Potential and actual resources are classified according to the stage of development in which
they are discovered. Potential natural resources are those that exist in a region and may be
used in the future. For example, petroleum may exist in many parts of a country but until the
time it is actually drilled out and put into use, it remains a potential resource. Actual
resources are those that have been surveyed, their quantity and quality determined and are
being used in present times.

9.4.6 Recyclable and Non- Recyclable Resources

Recyclable resources are those resources which cannot get destroyed or get finished when
used. Once used they can be repossessed and then re-used again and again. These resources
are useful to industries which depend on the re-used or recycled materials for their daily
operation. For example, the non Jua Kali industry in Kenya which depend on the used
materials to process them to manufacture useful products such as hoes, cooking pans and
metals. The processes of recycling and reuse also have several advantages to the
environment. They help preserve and maintain the natural resources in the environment for a
long time. An example of this phenomenon can be the recycling of waste paper which helps
to converse the products. Another advantage of recycling water materials is that it helps in
reducing the amount of waster which would otherwise accumulate and cause environmental
hazards.

The opposite of recyclable resources are non recyclable resources, these are resources which
get finished or destroyed once used. In other words, they cannot be used again and they do
not have any salvage value. Examples of recyclable resources are water, iron, copper and
natural rubber while all other resources which are not recyclable are non-recyclable. \
9.4.7 Common Resources and Shared Resources

Common resources are those resources which are used by all but belong to nobody. They are
available beyond any national and international boundaries. They are sometimes referred to
as global commons. Examples of common resources are oceans outer space air and solar
energy. Environment problems facing common resources include pollution from industrial
effluents, sewage dumping , direct dumping of hazards chemical wastes and radioactive
materials, and pollution from space exploration.

Shared resources on the other hand belong to more than one nation. Good examples of
shared resources are River Nile, the Mediterranean Sea and Lake Victoria which belong to
more than one nation or country. For proper use and conservation of shared resources there
is need for the nations concerned to have good co-operation between themselves and educate
their nationals on the impending danger of resource depletion.

Activity 9.1

1. Identify five natural resources that have not been discussed in this lecture and classify them
2. For each of the above resources identified discuss the practical conservation measures that
are being taken to safeguard them against the possible dangers of depletion and extinctions.

9.4 Principles of Conserving Natural Resources

9.5 The Management Process

Most developing countries are usually faced with various challenges as they try to utilize
their natural resources. It should be mentioned here that these challenges vary from one
country to another depending on the nature of available natural resources, technological
ability, and infrastructure among other things.

Generally the following are some of the problems encountered while using the natural
resources.

a) Lack of updated data on available resources

It is important that for any country to maximize on the national resources, a proper
knowledge of the available resources and changes affecting such resources must be
known. It is only after establishing the available resources that a proper system of their use
can be established and implemented.

Some countries like Kenya have not done comprehensive exploration, mapping and
documentation of their natural resources so that the country can full be aware of the resource
potential.

b) Inadequate Financial and Technical Know-how

It is recognized that efficiency in monitoring of resource use and the methods for exploration
of the natural resources and constrained by lack of or inadequate capacity in terms of
equipment and technical knowledge.

For example in the agricultural section, farmers continue to apply absolute technology in
irrigation schemes in which the utilization of water is inefficient and wasteful.

It should be mentioned here that all xx techniques in resources utilization and management
require specialized technical xx and equipment, which is normally expensive for developing
countries. Thus to ensure sustainable utilization and management of natural resources, there
is need for adequate technical and financial assistance which can contribute towards the
overall goal of protection and conservation of the resources.

(c) Poor and Inadequate Regulatory Framework

Poor or lack of regulations governing the exploration of various natural resources can result
into over-exploitation of some natural resources and poor management of the
same. Therefore there is need to develop effective laws that govern the use of management
of natural resources. Related to this is the problem of inadequate enforcement of some
legislation of governing the use of natural resources. For example in Kenya while there are
laws governing the exploitation of forestry and fishery resources, yet the problem has been
lack of enforcement. This has led to indiscriminate use of destructive fishing methods and
forest destruction.

(d) Lack of Infrastructural Facilities

Another problem affecting proper use of natural resources is inadequate infrastructural


amenities. Poor or lack of infrastructure such as road network, telephone services, medical
facilities and power can greatly hinder effective use of unnatural resources. Infrastructural
facilities improve not only improve accessibility to natural resources but also help in reducing
marketing or distribution costs and also help in diversification of resources use.

(e) Political Stability

It goes without saying that political stability is paramount for any development to take place
in any country. In some Third World countries and even in the developed nations, political
reasons have made it impossible to use or manage the natural resources available in these
nations. For example, in some African countries there has been mismanagement of the
available resources because of wars or lack of political.
(f) Natural Population Growth

Over the years the population of most developing countries has been increasing steadily
while the natural resources available have remained the same. This has exerted pressure on
the prevailing natural resources to sustain the demand of the increasing population.

For example, forestry resources are being threatened by deforestation to create room for
agricultural land. Similarly, fish and wildlife resources are becoming victims to satisfy the
increasing demand for food.

(g) Cultural Beliefs and Values

Some cultural beliefs and values can act as a hindrance to sustainable resourc utilization. For
example, in Kenya traditional uses of sea xx, whales and dolphins by coastal people was
Mombasa for food and medicinal purposes or as charms to scare away evil spirits or evils or
ornamental and jewellery are direct threats to these living resources as demand to satisfy
these beliefs and values

Before we look at principles governing conservation of natural resources

Activity 9.2

Can you remind yourself the problems associated with resource utilization?

Some of the problems can be minimized or completely eradicated if these principles are
adopted by individuals, governments, private organizations or other stakeholders charged
with natural resource conservation.

An important question arises as to who is responsible for conservation of natural resources. It


should be noted here that responsibility for conservation of natural resources does not lie in
the hands of the government alone. Everybody be it an individual, an organization or even a
business enterprise must be involved in the process at one level or another. Further
conservation of natural resources requires massive educational programme to create
awareness because not all people in a region have the same perception of environmental
utility and risks associated with it.

Another issue which is normally associated with resource use and conservation is the rise of
conflicts because of the competing interests of the stake holders. Conflicts can occur between
individuals, individuals and private organizations, individual and the government, private
organization and the governor even between nations. While there are no universal principles
of conserving natural resources, the following principles can be taken as ideal for
conservation:

1. Conservation should be for development

Any form of conservation of natural resources to be adopted should be for the beneficial use
to people who live around. In other words conservation means the use of natural resources
now existing for the benefit of the society. Any programme of conservation of natural
resources which does not benefit the society should be discouraged as it will be going against
the best practices of natural resource conservations.

2. Prevention of Waste

The second line of conserving natural resources should be avoidance of any wastage.
Efficient programmes to conserve natural resources should be encouraged to as they will
make the available natural resources to be sustained for larger periods. You should also note
that what is regarded as a waste for example in one process of production can be useful raw
material in another process of production. Similarly left over from hotels and other
institutions can be used as feeds for pigs or even sawdust can be a useful source of energy for
rural homes.

Activity 9.3

Discuss other materials which are regarded as waste and yet they can be put into productive
use.

1. Conservation should be for the benefit of the entire society

Good natural resource conservation programme should develop and preserve the resources
for the benefit of many and not just for a few. It has been realized in many societies that
monopolizing resources can be harmful to the society in the long run. It often leads to xxx,
protests and even war. Therefore a need arises for harmonious cooperation in the capitalism,
ownership and sharing of resources.
2. Sustainable use of natural resources

The methods to be employed in conserving natural resources should be sustainable to enable


the continuous supply of certain resources. For example, the re-forestation programme which
can be used to help in replacing the used wood.

3. Forecasting and planning

A good conservation programme should forecast and plan in advance the levels of resources
that are required and lay down the strategies of achieving the same. This requires throwing
the present use and future use of resources and providing for the deficit.

4. Awareness creation

Any conservation programme can only succeed if there is proper sensitization on the uses and
importance of natural resources to individuals and society in general. Awareness creation also
helps in soliciting individual support for conservation programmes.

Activity 9.2

1. State five other principles of conserving the natural resources.


2. Explain whether the above mentioned principles are applicable in Kenya?
3. Suggest five principles which Kenya Wildlife Services can use to conserve its wildlife
resources.

9.6 Policies of Resource Management and Conservation

In general terms management process involves planning, organizing, leading, controlling,


making decisions, problems solving, communicating and reporting. However, in this section
we are going to discuss management process with special emphasis on environmental
resource utilization.

Planning in environmental management refers to proposing economically efficient and


environmentally friendly means of realizing goods. According to the International Union for
the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (ICUN), planning should start at the
national level by incorporating the national conservation strategy into the national
development plan.
Organizing for resource utilization involves determining what programmes, projects and
activities to be performed. It is upon the environmental managers to ensure that the activities
chosen have the least environmental repercussions. Organizing also involves dividing the
work to be done in such a manner that it can be done easily.

Another aspect of resource utilization management is leadership. Perhaps leadership is the


most important aspect in resource management. With good leadership skills people can be
shown how they can be involved in enhancing their environment. They can be led in
activities like tree planting, shelter making, toilet construction etc.

Environmental managers are also supposed to have skills like control and decision making.
Controlling will involve delegating responsibility, designing patterns of work, guidance and
consulting, on job training and disciplining. Decision making on the other hand will enable
the manager to make or elect a particular course of action to solve an environmental problem.

In essence the objectives of an environmental manager is to promote the concept of


sustainable development so as to meet the present need as well as for the future needs of the
resources without compromising on the quantity and quality. The following are some of the
techniques used in the management and protection of the environment.

9.6.1 Cost Benefit Analysis

Cost benefit is one of the techniques used in the management and protection of the
environment. It is used to help on appraising or assessing the projects proposal and policies
that have direct impact on the environment and its resources. The aim of Cost Benefit
Analysis (CBA) is to evaluate the desirability of a given intervention.

The process of cost benefit analysis starts with defining the objectives of the project on
proposal and ends with making the decisions as shown in table below:
Fig. 12.3: The process of cost Benefit Analysis.

Source: Adopted from Muthoka et'l (2005)

Cost benefit analysis can be used as a tool to analyze both economic and ecological gains
and impacts. However you should also note that there are environmental aspects that cannot
be gratified for example, gravity, attitudes and even values of people.

9.6.2 Multi-objective Analysis

Another method of managing and evaluating environmental projects is the multi-objective


analysis. This method uses several planning objectives and alternative plans are evaluated
against each objective. This method derives its advantages from the fact that it uses a wide
range of alternative plans which can be assessed and monetary values can be compared with
non-monetary values. In this method, planning objectives cover economic efficiency as well
as environmental quality. Economic efficiency in this case means the allocation of resources
to maximize the output of goods and services. On the other hand, environmental quality
ensures that the project enhances the physical, ecological, social and aesthetic characteristics
of the environment.

Take Note
All environmental evaluation techniques have their strength, and weaknesses and none can
provide all answers to all questions

When selecting an evaluation method to be used for environmental projects, some guidelines
are necessary in order to have the desired results. Whichever method is chosen, it should be
systematic, simple, quick, inexpensive legally acceptable and comprehensive.

Activity 9.3

1. Carry out a survey on other techniques used to evaluate environmental projects and
policies

2. State the advantages and disadvantages of each techniques

9.7 Strategies for Sustainable Resource Utilization

The world we are living is undergoing changes day and night that require interaction to
sustain the diminishing natural resources. Human beings in their quest for economic
development and enjoyment of the riches of nature must come to terms with the reality of
resource limitation and the carrying capacities of ecosystems, and must take into account with
needs of future generations.

The need to sustain resource utilization cannot be overemphasized. The escalating needs of
soaring population growth have often driven people to take a short-sighted approach when
exploiting natural resources. For example there has been a long list of hazards and disaster
including soil erosion, desertification, loss of cropland, pollution, deforestation, extinction of
species and varieties just to mention a few. This underlines the need for strategies to
intervene and conserve the natural resources.
In this section, we are going to look at various strategies initiated at the international and
national levels by various organizations and governments to conserve the natural resources.

a) World Conservation Strategy (WCS)

The WCS started its activities 1975 and it is a consorted efforts of many organizations who
have come together to provide intellectual framework and practical guidance for the
conservation actions necessary.

The aim of the world conservation strategy is to help advance the achievement of sustainable
development through the conservation of living resources. The W.C.S. work with the
following groups of people who are regarded as key in conservation of natural resources:
government policy makers and their advisers; conservationists and other directly concerned
with the living resources; and development practitioners including aid agencies, industry and
commerce and trade unions. There are three main objectives of world conservation
strategy. The first one is to maintain essential ecological processes and life-support
systems. These include soil regeneration and protection, the recycling of contents, and the
clearing of water.

The second objective is to preserve genetic diversity which support: life support systems; the
breeding programmes necessary for the protection and improvement of cult rated plants,
domesticated animals; technical innovation; and the security the many industries that use
living resources; finally the world conservation strategy has the third objective of ensuring
sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems notably fish and other world-life, forests and
grazing lands which support millions of rural communities as well as major industries.

b) The Vienna Convention

The Vienna convention was adopted in 1985 with the aim of protecting the atmosphere and
other outer space as common global resources.

The convention was set up with the objective of promoting cooperation by means of
systematic observations, research and information exchange on the effects of adopt
legistrative on administrative measures against activities likely to have advice effects on the
ozone layer.

c) The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

It is an international agreement between governments with the aim of ensuring that


international trade in specimen of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.
CITES was drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of
IUCN (The World Conservation Union), and later came into force in 1975 after the text of
the convention was finally agreed on at a meeting of representatives in United States of
America in 1973. CITES is an international agreement to which states or countries adhere
voluntarily. After joining they are known as parties. Agreement entered under CITES are
binding on the parties. However they do not take the place of national laws. In other words,
it provides a framework to be respected by each party (country) which has to adopt its own
domestic legislation to ensure that CITES is implemented at the national level.

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