Smart Mater. Struct. 6 (1997) 341–350.

Printed in the UK PII: S0964-1726(97)82006-X

A nonlinear Galerkin finite-element

theory for modeling magnetostrictive
smart structures
K S Kannan and A Dasgupta
Department of Materials and Nuclear Engineering, University of Maryland,
College Park, MD 20742, USA

Received 8 February 1996, accepted for publication 31 January 1997

Abstract. Materials such as Terfenol-D that are capable of giant magnetostriction

are increasingly being used for sensing and actuation in active and adaptive
structures. Designers of such adaptive structures need robust analytical and
modeling tools for solving coupled electro-magneto–mechanical boundary value
problems. While linear piezoelectric analysis is a standard feature of several
general-purpose commercial finite-element codes, there are fewer tools for
addressing the strong nonlinearities inherent in this class of problems.
Electro-magneto–mechanical interactions manifest themselves not only through
constitutive nonlinearities, but also through nonlinear terms in the governing
equations. There have been recent works to deal with the constitutive
nonlinearities in electrostriction and piezoelectricity, but a general computational
framework for the comprehensive treatment of both these types of nonlinearity in
magnetostrictives has not yet been developed. This paper presents a quasi-static
variational principle and finite-element scheme to model the nonlinear interactions
between mechanical and magnetic fields in magnetostrictive materials,
incorporating both types of nonlinearity mentioned above. The basis of the
finite-element scheme is presented here and applied to simulation of the actuation
response of two actuator configurations. While the nonlinear scheme developed is
of general three-dimensional nature, the application examples utilize material
property data that pertain to the crystalline and geometrical symmetry of
commercially produced Terfenol-D.

1. Introduction element based computational scheme are presented for

The processes of the design and manufacture of structures
for adequate performance and reliability have increasingly
come to rely upon robust numerical tools of analysis. Gen-
eral purpose numerical tools of this nature are now rou-
tinely available for conventional mechanical structures, but
are still unavailable for modeling or analysing the nonlinear
electro-magneto–mechanical transduction and field interac-
tion effects in electrostrictive and magnetostrictive mate-
rials, even though the applications of these materials in
the area of active/adaptive structures have been growing
rapidly. One such material is the highly magnetostrictive,
rare earth-iron alloy Terfenol-D [1] developed about two
decades ago. Terfenol-D is capable of producing large ac-
tuation strains (about 2 × 10−3 ) and high energy densities
(about 2 × 108 J m−3 ) and is therefore particularly attrac-
tive for electro-magneto–mechanical energy transduction.
Applications include micropositioners for a variety of pur-
poses, low-frequency sonar transmitters and precision ma-
chining and control of lightweight active structures.
In this paper, a variational principle and a finite-
modeling quasi-static, nonlinear magneto–mechanical inter-
actions. While the general theory, that forms the basis of
the above scheme, presupposes no specific material behav-
ior, applications examined in this paper relate to actuation
devices that use commercially available Terfenol-D. The
finite-element scheme may also be used to address nonlin-
ear electro-mechanical boundary value problems encoun-
tered in electrostrictive materials, if the governing vari-
ables are appropriately transformed. More importantly,
and in a more general vein, a scheme such as the present
one provides a general computational framework to deal
with electro-magneto–mechanical interactions in common
electro-magnetic devices such as motors and transformers
where such interactions are recognized to be significant. It
is evident that this latter class of potential applications is
far more pervasive in today’s engineering world than are
the relatively recent applications to the development of ac-
tive, adaptive or smart materials and structures. The present
work, initially motivated by the increasing use of magne-
tostrictives in active and adaptive structures, may therefore
be seen to have much wider applications to general electro-

0964-1726/97/030341+10$19.50

c 1997 IOP Publishing Ltd 341
K S Kannan and A Dasgupta
or magneto–mechanical structures than targeted earlier.
Magneto–mechanical interactions in magnetostrictive
materials are inherently nonlinear. This nonlinearity is
evident both in the presence of nonlinear body forces and
body couples in the mechanical equilibrium equations [2]
as well as in the coupled constitutive behavior of these
materials. Field interactions in the form of nonlinear
body forces and body couples of electro-magnetic origin
occur in any magnetized or polarized and deformable body
present in a magnetic or electric field. General analytical
treatment of these field interactions is well established
and analytical models are presented in classical works by
Brown [2], and Tiersten [3, 4]. A lot of work has also
been reported in the literature on understanding, modeling
and experimentally characterizing the nonlinear constitutive
behavior of magnetostrictive materials. For a review of the
experimental characterization of the behavior of Terfenol-
D, see [5, 6], and for a recent example of the development
of nonlinear constitutive relations for Terfenol-D see [7].
In order to apply the above analytical model to prob-
lems of designing, developing and analysing complicated
active/adaptive structures incorporating electro-magneto–
mechanical transduction materials, the governing differen-
tial equations and boundary conditions that the model com-
prises of need to be re-cast in a form amenable to rapid
and approximate solution. A finite-element computational
framework, based upon a weighted-residual weak form of
the differential equations, is an excellent choice for devel-
oping general purpose analysis and design tools for such
materials and structures. Linear, coupled piezoelectric anal-
ysis tools are already available in some popular commercial
finite-element codes, and new capabilities, such as the one
reported in this paper, will enhance the analytical tools at
the hands of designers of adaptive structures.
The finite-element scheme reported upon here is based
on analytical models mentioned above, and deals with
magneto-elastic problems rather than with the more gen-
eral class of magneto–mechanical problems. That is, the
deformation behavior of the materials studied is assumed
to be purely elastic. In this paper, differential equations
governing magneto–mechanical interactions are first stated
(see section 2). These are then re-cast in a weak (or in-
tegral) form using standard weighted-residual techniques
(section 3.2). Linearization of the above integral equations
over small changes in field variables leads to incremen-
tal equations amenable to solution by the Newton–Raphson
method (section 3.3). Three dimensional finite-element sys-
tem equations are established by substituting incremental
constitutive relations and by applying appropriate finite-
element interpolations to increments in the primary me-
chanical and magnetic field variables (section 3.4). Results
from the simulation of two actuator configurations using the
proposed finite-element scheme are presented in section 4.
2. Governing equations
Equations governing mechanical and magnetic field
variables are stated in this section. A particular form
of these equations, ideal for the development of a finite-
element scheme, is also identified.
342
As stated earlier, the focus of this work is to develop
a computational model for magneto-elastic interactions in
bulk magnetostrictive materials, i.e. a model in terms of
macroscopic field quantities. Classical works of Brown [2]
and of Tiersten [3, 4] established analytical models for these
interactions using a fundamental, micromagnetic approach.
These models are re-stated for use at the macroscopic,
or bulk continuum level by various investigators (see for
example, Pao and Yeh [8] and by Bobbio et al [9]).
In the present work, the latter models will serve as the
starting point. Mechanical and magnetic field variables,
and interactions amongst them, in bulk magnetostrictive
materials and structures are governed by the following
set of equations: linear and angular momentum balance
equations (mechanical equilibrium conditions) and the
magnetostatic version of Maxwell’s equations. The
mechanical equilibrium conditions, in indicial notation, are
C
σij,i + bj + µ0 Mi Hj,i = 0 (1)
] = µ0 M[j Hi]
C
σ[ij (2)
at each point in the volume V , and
µ0
σijC ni = Tj + (Mn )2 nj (3)
2
on the surface S. In the above equations, µ0 is the
permeability of free space and is equal to 4π ×10−7 H m−1 ,
σijC are components of the Cauchy stress tensor, bj are
components of body force (per unit volume), and µ0 Mi Hj,i
are components of the body force vector of magnetic origin.
C
The square brackets around indices in σ[ij ] denote the
tensorial components of the anti-symmetric part of Cauchy
stress. These components are equal to the components
of the magnetic body couple tensor, µ0 M[j Hi] , which is
anti-symmetric. Components Hi and Mi are those of
the magnetic field (H) and magnetization (M ) vectors,
respectively. Further, at a given point on the surface S, nj
are components of the unit vector normal to the surface, Tj
are components of the surface traction vector, and Mn is
the component of magnetization normal to the surface.
Maxwell’s magnetostatic equations may be written as
Bi,i = 0 (4)
and
eij k Hk,j = Ji (5)
at each point in the volume V . In the above, Bi and Ji
are components of the magnetic induction vector B and
current density vector J , respectively. Further,
(Bn+ − Bn− ) = 0 (6)
and
(Ht+ − Ht− ) = JtS (7)
on any surface of discontinuity S. The quantities Bn and Ht
denote the normal and tangential components, respectively,
of the induction and magnetic field vectors. And JtS is the
surface current density on S. The + and − superscripts
denote the values of the quantities Bn and Ht on the
positive and negative sides of the surface S. Further, in
a magnetized body, the following relationship holds:
Bi = µ0 (Mi + Hi ). (8)

Magnetization M represents an average magnetic mo-
ment over a macroscopic volume which encompasses a very
large number of magnetic domains. While exchange inter-
actions, which are very strong at the range of interatomic
distances, exert a great influence in determining the details
of domain configurations in competition with anisotropy
energy, they have little influence upon the average M . In
effect, the magneto–mechanical problem formulated at the
bulk (or macroscopic) continuum level ignores the effect of
short-range exchange interactions and retains the influence
only of intermediate range anisotropy forces and of long-
range magnetostatic (or dipolar interaction) forces. Further,
since this treatment deals with all interactions only in terms
of average field quantities and ignores the specific nature of
the underlying medium, the average effect of magnetocrys-
talline anisotropy is quantified only in constitutive relations.
These reasons serve, in a qualitative fashion, to explain the
differences that may be pointed out between the equations
stated above and those established by Brown [2] using a
micromagnetic approach.
It is noted here that, although the most general form
of the mechanical equilibrium equations are best written
in terms of Piola–Kirchoff stress, the present work is
formulated using Cauchy stress in view of the assumptions
made: small deformations and linear strain–displacement
relations. The assumption of small deformations allows
the total deformation gradient, ui,j , to be written as the
sum of strains (ij = u(i,j ) ) and rotations (ωij = u[i,j ] ). It
is postulated in this work that rotations are related only to
the antisymmetric part of Cauchy stress (which arises from
body couples of magnetic origin) and that strains are related
only to the symmetric part of Cauchy stress. Further, the
contributions of the antisymmetric part of Cauchy stress
σ[ij ] and of rotations ωij to the energy of the magneto-
elastic solid are ignored here, as an approximation. These
contributions will be explored in a future paper [10].
Mechanical equilibrium conditions, equations (1), (2)
and (3), may be simplified further as follows. The body
force term in equation (1) is rewritten, using standard
procedure, as the gradient of ‘Maxwell’s magnetostatic
stress tensor’ σijM
µ0 Mi Hj,i = σij,i
M
. (9)
Maxwell’s stress tensor is defined below (see, for example,
Pao and Yeh [8])
µ0
σijM = Bi Hj − (Hk Hk )δij (10)
2 next presented (section 3.4). Substitution of incremental
where δij is the Kronecker delta. It may then be readily
] = µ0 M[i Hj ] . Further, it is seen that the
M
verified that σ[ij
antisymmetric part of Maxwell stress, given above, is equal
in magnitude and opposite in sign to the antisymmetric part
of Cauchy stress. Therefore it is realized that a redefinition
of body forces in terms of latter stresses, equation (9), may
be utilized to give an alternative and equivalent statement
of the condition of balance of linear momentum
) + σ(ij ) ),i = 0 in V
C M
(σ(ij (11)
and
A nonlinear Galerkin finite-element theory
µ0
) + σ(ij ) )ni = Tj + (Mn )2 nj + σijM ni on S. (12)
C M
(σ(ij
2
In view of the above redefinition of magnetic body force,
the angular and linear momentum balance conditions are
both implicit in (11) and (12). The above equations provide
a simplification in two respects: they now allow treatment
of the interaction problem entirely in terms of symmetric
tensorial quantities (see Baumhauer and Tiersten [11]), and
they also eliminate the need to deal with magnetization
discontinuities on internal surfaces (see equation (3)).
A standard simplification applied to the magnetostatic
equations results in the well known reduced scalar potential
formulation of these equations. Magnetic field Hi may be
split into two parts, namely, HiO that is externally imposed
and HiI induced by magnetization in the material. If the
former is assumed to be unaffected by the presence of
magnetization and to be related only to source currents
present locally, then equation (5) allows the following
definition of a reduced magneto-static scalar potential φ
HiI = −φ,i . (13)
Therefore, provided an external field satisfying the condi-
O
tions ij k Hk,j = Ji in V and (HtO+ − HtO− ) = JtS on S is
applied, and provided the definition (13) is taken into ac-
count, it will be seen that equations (4), (6), (11) and (12)
make up—except for constitutive relations—the complete
set of equations governing magneto-elastic interactions in
bulk solids. The next section will outline the development
of a finite-element scheme for the solution of the above
equations in structures of arbitrary geometry and under ar-
bitrary (mechanical and magnetic) loading and boundary
conditions.
3. Finite-element formulation
This section begins with a brief survey of existing finite-
element based numerical schemes for modeling electro-
magneto–mechanical interactions. This will serve to
place in perspective the present work and its utility.
This is followed by a brief presentation of a weighted-
residual formulation of the magneto-elastic governing
equations established earlier (section 3.2). To facilitate
implementation of a Newton–Raphson solution procedure, a
linearized incremental form of the above weighted-residual
equations is derived (section 3.3). Incremental constitutive
relations in a form required by the linearized equations are
constitutive relations in the linearized equations, along
with appropriate choices of interpolation functions for the
primary mechanical and magnetic variables, results in the
finite-element equations presented in section 3.5.
3.1. Brief survey
Examples of the application of numerical methods to mod-
eling magnetostriction that are cited below do not com-
prise a complete set of all such work. The citations are
intended only to provide an idea of the typical approaches
that have been taken to the present problem. Engdahl and
343
K S Kannan and A Dasgupta

Svensson [12] reported the development and use of a one- In similar fashion, premultiplying equation (4) by a
dimensional, nonlinear finite-difference scheme to model vector of weight functions {WH }, applying integration by
the dynamic behavior of magnetostrictive rods. Delince parts and using equation (6), we have
et al [13] developed an energy based finite-element formu- Z Z
lation and a two-dimensional finite-element code. How- [∇WH ]T B dv = {WH }(B · n̂) ds (15)
ever, in this work magnetostrictive strain is modeled as a V S
linear function of magnetization which is evidently not valid
over the entire range of strain versus magnetization. Ben- where [∇WH ]T is a matrix of gradients of the assumed
bouzid et al [14–16] have reported on the development and weight functions. For compactness of representation,
use of a one-dimensional finite-element scheme for mod- standard vector notation is used in equations (14) and (15),
eling the nonlinear dynamic behavior of magnetostrictive as well as in the remainder of this paper, to replace the
rods. This scheme is based upon variational principles and indicial notation used earlier. For example, T has been
used to denote the vector whose components are Ti . The
incorporates empirical, coupled nonlinear constitutive rela-
‘hat’ symbol over n in n̂ signifies that the quantity is
tions. Carman and Mitrovic [7] have also demonstrated the
a unit vector. Ignoring the term on the right-hand side
use of a one-dimensional finite-element scheme in conjunc-
of equation (15) would imply prescription of a natural
tion with the constitutive relations they derived using a phe-
boundary condition on S: B · n̂ = 0.
nomenological approach. These relations are demonstrated
to be capable of predicting nonlinear strain response over
restricted ranges of stress and magnetic field. Claeyssen 3.3. Incremental weighted-residual formulation
et al [17] developed and used a three-dimensional, linear
Given the nonlinear nature of the equation (14) and, if one
finite-element scheme to model static and dynamic behav-
considers nonlinear material behavior, of equation (15), it
ior. Ghandi and Hagood [18] developed a finite-element
is evident that an iterative procedure needs to be employed
scheme, to model nonlinear electro-mechanical interactions
in their solution. In order to use the Newton–Raphson
in piezoelectrics, that implements coupled, incremental con-
procedure the above equations need to be rewritten in
stitutive relations in a self-consistent manner. However,
linearized incremental form. A linearized incremental form
body couples and forces of electrical origin in the polar-
of equation (14) may be written as
ized dielectrics studied have been ignored in the formula- Z Z
tion. To the authors’ knowledge, no numerical schemes [WU0 ]T {σ C + σ M } dv + [WU0 ]T {1σ C + 1σ M } dv
have yet been developed to solve the coupled differential V
Z Z V
equations listed in section 2 that govern magneto-elastic
= [WU ] T ds + [WU ]T 1T ds
T
interactions in bulk materials. S S
+additional surface magnetic force terms. (16)
3.2. Weighted residual formulation In the above 1T denotes the most recent increment of
externally applied tractions. In the linearization of Maxwell
As mentioned earlier, equations (4), (6), (11) and (12),
stress, products of incremental magnetic field quantities
together with constitutive relations to be presented later,
have been neglected
make up the complete set of governing equations; a
weighted-residual weak formulation of these equations is µ0 µ0
presented in this section. {1σ M } = [γ ]1H + [β]1M . (17)
2 2
Before proceeding further, the following strain
quantities are defined: ij represent total strain components Matrices [β] and [γ ] are given below
which may be split into elastic strains, ijE , and  
mag
2H1 0 0
magnetostrictive strains, ij . In the remainder of this  0 2H2 0 
paper, Voigt notation is used to replace symmetric second  
 0 0 2H3 
rank tensorial quantities—stresses σ(ij M C [β] =  
) , σ(ij ) , and strains  0 H3 H2 
mag
ij , ij , ij —by (6 × 1) vectors enclosed in curly braces.
E  
H3 0 H1
) will be denoted by {σ }.
C C H2 H1 0
For example, σ(ij
Premultiplying equation (11) by an appropriately sized  
matrix [WU ]T of weight functions and applying integration 2(M1 + H1 ) −2H2 −2H3
 −2H1 2(M2 + H2 ) −2H3 
by parts, we have  
Z Z  −2H1 −2H2 2(M3 + H3 ) 
[γ ] =  .
[WU0 ]T {σ C + σ M } dv = [WU ]T T ds  0 2H3 + M3 2H2 + M2 
 
V S 2H3 + M3 0 2H1 + M1
Z  
T µ0 2H2 + M2 2H1 + M1 0
+ [WU ] (Mn ) ñ + σ̃ M ñ ds
2
(14)
2 The incremental form of equation (15) may be written as
Z Z
where [WU0 ]T
is a matrix of derivatives of the assumed
weight functions. In the above, use has been made of [∇WH ]T B dv + [∇WH ]T 1B dv
V Z V Z
equation (12), and σ̃ M denotes asymmetric Maxwell’s
= {WH }(B · n̂) ds + {WH }(1B · n̂) ds. (18)
tensor. S S

344

In all of the above equations, terms containing a ‘1’ denote
increments of the relevant vectorial or tensorial quantity.
In the present work, displacements and magnetic scalar
potential are chosen as the primary variables in the finite-
element scheme. Therefore, it would be convenient
to express the increments in field variables occuring in
equations (16) and (18), namely {1σ C }, {1σ M }, 1M and
1B in terms of increments in strains, {1} (which, in the
present work, are related to displacements through their
linear, first-order derivatives), and increments in magnetic
field, 1H (which are related, by definition (13) and the
assumed partitioning of the magnetic field, to gradients
of potential increments). Such incremental constitutive
relations are established in the next section.
3.4. Incremental constitutive relations
The development of incremental constitutive relations,
to be outlined here, is based upon the postulate stated
earlier, that the symmetric and antisymmetric parts of
Cauchy stress are, respectively, related only to strains
and rotations, and the assumption that magnetization, and
therefore magnetostrictive strain, are dependent only upon
the symmetric part of Cauchy stress. The latter is an
assumption of convenience and is valid only when the
rotational ‘stiffness’ of the material is very large, since
under these conditions magnetic body couples are incapable
of producing deformations and a consequent alteration of
the direction of magnetization. This assumption is made as
a first-order approximation to achieve some simplification
in establishing constitutive relations and in deriving the
finite-element formulation.
Based on the above discussion, increments in
magnetostrictive strain and in magnetization may be written
as
   
∂{ mag } ∂{ mag }
{1 mag } = {1σ C
}+ 1H (19)
∂{σ C } H ∂H σC
   
∂M ∂M
1M = {1σ C
} + 1H (20)
∂{σ C } H ∂H σ C
where the quantities enclosed in parentheses represent field-
dependent coefficient matrices. Denoting these quantities
by the symbols [a], [d]T , [b] and [χ σ ], the above equations
may be rewritten as follows
{1 mag } = [a]{1σ C } + [d]T 1H (21)
1M = [b]{1σ C } + [χ σ ]1H (22)
T
where [d] may be recognized as the standard piezomag-
netic coefficient matrix and [χ σ ] as the matrix of suscepti-
bilities at constant stress.
Cauchy stress increments {1σ C } are essentially elastic
and, in the present work, may be written in terms of elastic
and magnetostrictive strain increments in the following
manner
{1σ C } = [C int ]({1} − {1 mag }). (23)
Substituting for {1 mag } from equation (21), the above
equation may be rewritten as
{1σ C } = [C H ]{1} − [C H ][d]T 1H (24)
A nonlinear Galerkin finite-element theory
where [C int ] is the intrinsic, field and stress independent
elastic property matrix, and [C H ] contain field and stress
dependent elastic property coefficients given by
[C H ] = [C int ]([I ] + [C int ][a])−1 (25)
where [I ] is the identity matrix.
Starting from the incremental form of equation (8), and
using equation (22), the following equation may be derived
for 1B:
1B = [D]{1} + [µ ]1H (26)
where [D] and [µ ], the matrix of permeabilities at constant
strain, are given by
[D] = [d][C H ] (27)
and
[µ ] = [µσ ] − [d][C H ][d]T (28)
σ
where [µ ], the matrix of permeabilities at constant stress,
is given as
[µσ ] = µ0 ([I ] + [χ σ ]). (29)
Further manipulation of the equations stated above results in
another relationship between [C H ] and [C int ] that is more
convenient to determine field and stress dependent [C H ]
from available experimental data
[C H ] = [C int ]([I ] + [d][µσ ]−1 [d]T )−1 . (30)
Equations (22), (24) and (26) are the incremental
constitutive relations which, in conjunction with (17),
provide expressions for all the incremental quantities
occuring in equations (16) and (18). For convenience in
subsequent use, the following relations, readily developed
from expressions established so far, may also be stated
{1σ M + 1σ C } = [C]{1} − [A]1H (31)
where [C] = [C H ] + 12 [β][d][C H ] and [A] = [C H ][d]T −
µ0
([γ ] + [β][χ  ]).
2
3.5. Galerkin-finite element equations
Derivation of finite-element equations requires the substi-
tution of equations (26) and (31) in equations (16) and
(18), and the discretization of the resultant equations using
standard Galerkin procedure. This discretization involves
choice of suitable interpolation schemes for displacement
components and potential, and as also of appropriate weight
functions [WU ] and {WH } in the most general weighted-
residual procedure.
Displacement and potential interpolations may be
written as
u = [NU ]{U } (32)
φ = [NH ]{8} (33)
where u = bu1 u2 u3 c , the displacement vector at a point,
T
and {U } is the vector of nodal values of displacement
components. Likewise, {8} is the vector of nodal values
of the potential φ. Matrices [NU ] and [NH ] are the chosen
interpolation functions. Strain {} and induced field H I
may therefore be written as
{} = [BU ]{U } (34)
345
K S Kannan and A Dasgupta

H I = −[BH ]{8} (35) produce a stiffness matrix with a large condition number
in problems of this type. This can lead to significant
where [BU ] and [BH ] are derivatives of interpolation
numerical errors. The scaling scheme suggested by Ghandi
functions corresponding to the assumed linear strain–
and Hagood [18] is intended to mitigate this problem, but
displacement relationship and potential gradient definitions
is observed, in the present study, to lead to convergence
stated earlier. Increments of strain and induced field may
difficulties. A careful and thorough investigation in
also be written in similar form
this study reveals that the solution of the finite-element
{1} = [BU ]{1U } (36) system of equations is sensitive to small changes in
stiffness coefficients as well as in the force components
1H I = −[BH ]{18}. (37) in a commensurate fashion, i.e. the small changes above
produce equally small changes in the solution. This
Applying the standard Galerkin procedure, i.e. letting observation, together with the fact that computed solutions
the chosen interpolation functions serve also as the were always physically meaningful in every detail, suggests
weight functions, and substituting equations (36), (37) that the finite-element system of equations is capable
and incremental constitutive relations stated earlier, the of providing robust and stable computations even when
following finite-element equations for the ith step (either unscaled. Results reported here are therefore only from
incremental or iterative) of a Newton–Raphson solution unscaled computations.
procedure may be arrived at Section 4.1 discusses the material property data
Z  Z 
necessary for implementing the incremental constitutive
[BU ]T [Ci−1 ][BU ] {1U } + [BU ]T [Ai−1 ][BH ] {18 }
V V relations presented earlier, the data available in the
Z Z literature, and the schemes used in the present work to
= [NU ]T {Ti } ds + [BU ]T [Ai−1 ]1HiO dv interpolate these data. Results presented in sections 4.2
ZS V
and 4.3 are computed using the unabridged scheme.
− [BU ] {σi−1 + σi−1 } dv
T C M
V
 4.1. Material property data
+magnetic surface force integrals (38)
If reversible (non-hysteretic) constitutive coupling is
Z  Z  assumed between mechanical and magnetic field variables,
[BH ]T [Di−1 ][BU ] {1U } − [BH ]T [µi−1 ][BH ] {18 } as is suggested in section 3, measurements of [C int ]
V V
 Z Z  (or approximations thereto), [d(σijC , Hi )] and [µσ (σijC , Hi )]
= − [BH ] [µi−1 ]1Hi dv − [BH ] Bi−1 dv .
T  O T are sufficient to completely establish all constitutive
V V properties needed in the present formulation. Terfenol-
(39) D, a commercially available magnetostrictive alloy of rare
In the above equations, 1HiO represents the ith increment earths and iron, is normally manufactured in rod form,
of applied magnetic field, and Ti represents the accumulated possessing an axial [112] texture. Extensive quasi-static
total applied external traction vector. In equation (39) it is characterizations have been carried out and reported in
assumed that the surface S is located far enough away that the literature on axial properties of Terfenol-D rods. The
the component of induction normal to S vanishes. At the present work attempts to approximate all necessary three-
end of the current solution step, the nodal displacement and dimensional constitutive properties from those published on
potential vectors are updated in the following fashion Terfenol-D. The axial texture in these rods leads to the
following forms of elastic, magnetic and coupling property
{Ui } = {Ui−1 } + {1U } (40) matrices, assuming that the x3 direction coincides with the
rod axis [20]
{8i } = {8i−1 } + {18}. (41)  
C11 C12 C13 0 0 0
 C12 C11 C13 0 0 0 
4. Modeling of magnetostrictive actuators  
 C C C 0 0 0 
[C int ] =  13 13 33

 0 0 0 C44 0 0 
In this section, the proposed finite-element scheme is  
applied to simulate actuation response, i.e. the deformation 0 0 0 0 C44 0
produced by application of external magnetic fields, 0 0 0 0 0 C66
in different actuator configurations. Two illustrative " #
µ11 0 0
examples are presented. Configurations chosen are a [µ ] =
σ
0 µ22 0
simple magnetostrictive rod with axially applied field, 0 0 µ33
and a magnetostrictive mini-actuator (MMA) developed " #
by Anjanappa et al [19]. Experimental measurements 0 0 0 0 d15 0
of magnetostrictive strain in the rod and of MMA [d] = 0 0 0 d15 0 0 .
response to applied magnetic fields are used to validate d31 d31 d33 0 0 0
the computational scheme. The property coefficients listed above form a compre-
Large differences in the orders of magnitude of the hensive set of all the measurements that are necessary in the
mechanical, magnetic and coupling properties typically present implementation. A survey of the literature reveals

346
 A nonlinear Galerkin finite-element theory

that a partial set of measurements has been reported [17]

for the elastic stiffness at constant induction [C B ], which
may be approximated to represent [C int ]. Further, magnetic
and coupling property measurements are available primar-
ily for the axial, i.e. x3 , direction, namely µσ33 [21] and
d33 [22]. However, at temperatures and magnetic fields
of engineering relevance and interest, the observed con-
Figure 1. Schematic of a long Terfenol-D rod with a coaxial
stitutive coupling is dominated by constant volume Joule coil.
magnetostriction. Thus, for a cubic crystalline structure,
the following relations may be postulated to hold at least
isoparametric magneto-elastic elements (based on the
in approximate form [23]
formulation presented in this paper) are used to discretize
mag mag
31 = 32 = −0.5 × 33 .
mag
(42) the rod. Three-dimensional magnetic and infinite elements
are used to discretize the surrounding space and the far
Therefore, at any field, the following relationship may field region of rapidly decaying fields, respectively. Pre-
be deduced amongst the coupling coefficients [d] processing (discretization) and Biot–Savart computation of
externally applied field are performed using the commercial
d31 = d32 = −0.5 × d33 . (43) finite-element code ANSYS [25]. The external field present
is assumed to result solely from the current in the excitation
Claeyssen et al [17] have reported actual strain measure- coil, which is taken to be of a length sufficient to generate
ments on Terfenol-D that confirm the above relations. In uniform axial field along the length of the rod.
the present work, for want of additional data, the coefficient Results from a parametric study of the actuation
d15 is set to zero. Given the small magnitudes of the off- response of rods with different L/D (length to diameter)
axis fields in the applications to be discussed below, this ratios are presented in figure 2. The permeability of
assumption appears reasonable. Terfenol-D is larger than that of the surrounding space by an
Characteristic magnetostrictive strain response data, for order of magnitude, and leads to demagnetization fields of
computation of d33 , are obtained from [22]. Intrinsic elastic significant magnitude which are large towards the rod ends
property data are approximated from those measured by and diminish towards the center. This field non-uniformity,
Claeyssen et al [17] in conjunction with the value of the which for a given permeability behavior is determined
B
longitudinal constant C33 given in [22]. It is ensured primarily by the ratio L/D, reduces the overall strain
that the approximation used is meaningful, i.e. the inter- response of the rod. Figures 2(a) and 2(b) show contour
relationship amongst components satisfied the requirements plots of the potential φ on a vertical plane through rods with
of the assumed symmetry. The set of constants used is L/D ratios of 4.5 and 9.0, respectively, where the large
given below: potential gradients observed close to the rod ends signify the
 presence of large demagnetization fields. Demagnetization
0.107e12 0.748e11 0.821e11
 0.748e11 0.107e12 0.821e11 fields are seen to decrease with increasing L/D ratios,
 as can be deduced from the potential gradients shown in
 0.821e11 0.821e11 0.981e11
[C int ] ≈  figures 2(a) and (b). With this reduction in demagnetization
 0 0 0
 fields, and a consequent increase in field uniformity along
0 0 0
0 0 0 the length of the rods, an improvement in strain response
 may be expected. The computed strain responses of rods
0 0 0
with L/D ratios of 4.5, 6.75 and 9.0 are presented as
0 0 0 
 plots (a), (b) and (c), respectively, in figure 3. Further,
0 0 0 
. and significant, improvement in field uniformity may be
0.610e10 0 0 
 achieved by the use of high permeability magnetic end caps
0 0.610e10 0 at the rod ends. This situation is simulated by incorporating
0 0 0.161e11 Ni–Fe end caps in the finite-element model. The resultant
Quasi-static induction response behavior at constant improvement in field uniformity along the length of the rod
stress is taken from measurements published by Clark et is evident in figure 2(c). The corresponding strain response
al [21]. Magnetostrictive strain response and magnetic is depicted in plot (d) of figure 3 and is seen to agree very
response data are both interpolated to the desired accuracy closely with experimental measurements [22], superposed
using bicubic splines [24]. as plot (e) in the same figure. This agreement is clearly a
validation of the finite-element scheme and code developed
4.2. Free rod in the present work.

The first illustrative example explores the quasi-static strain

response of, and field distributions in, a free Terfenol-D rod
subjected to axial fields applied through a coaxially located
current carrying coil. The x3 direction is assumed to be
oriented axially. A schematic of the configuration modeled
is given in figure 1. Eight-noded, three-dimensional
4.3. Magnetostrictive mini-actuator (MMA)
Figure 4 shows the schematic of a magnetostrictive mini-
actuator (MMA) (of overall dimensions 13 mm × 10 mm ×
4 mm), developed by Anjanappa et al [19], comprising
two Terfenol-D rods enclosed in energizing coils and held

347
K S Kannan and A Dasgupta

(a)

Figure 3. Experimental and computed strain responses of

Terfenol-D rod compressively pre-stressed to 9.6 MPa.
(Experimental measurements in plot (e) obtained from [22].)

(b)

Figure 4. Schematic of the magnetostrictive mini-actuator

(MMA).

(c)
Figure 2. Plot of potential contours on a vertical plane
through rod at an external field of 20 kA m−1 . (a) Rod with
L/D = 4.5 and no end cap. (b) Rod with L/D = 9.0 and no
end cap. (c) Rod with L/D = 9.0 and Ni–Fe (high
permeability end cap).

between end plates that are used to apply a compressive
pre-stress and also to provide a magnetic return path. The
axial coils apply external fields in opposite senses in the
two rods, in order to close the magnetic flux path. This
section details the finite-element simulation of the response
of this actuator.
In case of the MMA, unlike in the free rod, the
demagnetization fields in the rods are nearly eliminated
by the configuration of the return path. Hence,
actuation response, while still dependent upon intrinsic
magnetic characteristics, allows meaningful comparison of
predictions with experimental measurements by reducing
the sensitivity of simulated results to assumed magnetic
Figure 5. Plot of potential contours on a vertical plane
through MMA at a coil current of 600 mA.
properties. Figure 5 provides a plot of potential contours
that are predicted at a total applied coil current of 600 mA,
on a vertical plane through the MMA. The absence of strong
gradients in the vicinity of the ends of the rods confirms the
absence of demagnetization. Circulation of the induction
vector on this vertical plane through the MMA is shown in
figure 6(a), once again at a total current of 600 mA. The
permeability of the Ni–Fe material (nearly 0.24 H m−1 ) is at
least three orders of magnitude greater than that of Terfenol-

348

Figure 6. Induction vector plot at a coil current of 600 mA:
(a) on vertical plane through rods; (b) closer view around
Terfenol-D rods.
D, and thus the circulation is confined predominantly to the
return path. A closer look (figure 6(b)) at the Terfenol-D
rods reveals very uniform circulations in them, although of
much smaller magnitude than in the return path.
The predicted strain response is compared to measure-
ments by Anjanappa and Bi [19] in figure 7. While there is
good qualitative agreement between predicted results and
experimental measurements, there are some quantitative
discrepancies that require discussion. When measured data
are extrapolated to the ordinate axis, there is evidence of
an experimental zero error that contributes to the differ-
ences between the experimental and predicted strains over
the entire range plotted. The lack of a set of comprehen-
sive data, namely three-dimensional, nonlinear magnetic,
elastic and coupling properties, truly representative of the
material used in the MMA, contribute to the discrepan-
cies. Another important factor is the contribution of ther-
mal strains (produced by coil heating of the rods) to the
measurements. While an effort is made to reduce this error
during measurements by allowing the rods to cool down to
room temperature between measurements [19], it is not cer-
tain that this factor is completely eliminated. Differences
between the actual field produced by the irregular-shaped,
hand-wound coils in the MMA and the idealized nominal
simulation, is an important factor. The interfacial condi-
tions existing between the end surfaces of the rods and the
inner surfaces of the end plates also contribute to observed
discrepancies. Overall, however, the finite-element scheme
is seen to be capable of meaningfully simulating all aspects
of the response of the MMA to externally applied magnetic
fields.
5. Discussions and summary
A new quasi-static Galerkin finite-element theory has been
developed for modeling magneto–mechanical interactions
at the macroscopic level. Three sources of nonlinearity—
body forces and body couples of magnetic origin and cou-
pled magnetostrictive constitutive behavior—may be identi-
fied to govern this class of interactions. The present finite-
element scheme incorporates two of the above, namely,
body forces and constitutive nonlinearities. To the best
of the author’s knowledge, this is the first computational
effort to address these nonlinearities in magnetostrictives.
A nonlinear Galerkin finite-element theory
Figure 7. Strain response of MMA, experimental
measurements against predictions.
The potentially difficult task of dealing with asymmetric
stresses is avoided by employing an alternative definition
of body forces in terms of gradients of Maxwell’s magne-
tostatic stress tensor. Work is underway to include also the
nonlinear body couples of magnetic origin.
Constitutive relations are implemented in incremental
form. Constitutive property coefficients, for the magne-
tostrictive material Terfenol-D, occuring in these incremen-
tal relations, are obtained from a bicubic spline fit to mag-
netic and coupling property measurements available from
different sources in the literature. Two actuator configu-
rations are analysed using the above scheme. The finite-
element scheme predicts actuation responses that agree rea-
sonably with experimental measurements in both cases; this
agreement is seen as a validation of the approach used in
developing the finite-element scheme as well as of the com-
putational building blocks that form the backbone of the
present code. Additional effort is underway to carry out
further extensive validation studies.
In the two illustrative simulations described in this
paper, nonlinearities represented by body forces are
observed to have little effect upon the results of simulation
of actuation response in the two actuator configurations
examined, and in the distribution of axial fields. This is
attributed to the relatively small magnitudes of the magnetic
fields present, the low permeability of Terfenol-D and
to good field uniformity promoted by the configurations
studied. Differences are evident in the off-axis components;
however, all off-axis components are a few orders of
magnitude smaller than the axial components in the two
configurations studied. Further study, particularly of
sensing applications and of more complex actuator/sensor
and structural configurations that promote large magnetic
field gradients, is needed to identify and to understand the
circumstances where differences could be significant. A
study of simple sensing applications is now underway and
will be reported upon in a later paper [10].
As detailed earlier, constitutive property data used
in the present exercise came from different sources (and
hence from different specimens that are also produced
by different methods). Comprehensive three-dimensional,
nonlinear data, could not be obtained in the open literature.
The success and utility of the present scheme, or of
any other computational scheme, in modeling complex
magnetostrictive devices depends to a large extent on
349
K S Kannan and A Dasgupta
the availability of relevant constitutive property data as
functions of appropriate field variables. In this context, it is
important to understand the essential inter-relationships that
exist amongst constitutive properties, to identify a minimal
set of easily measurable properties and to standardize
procedures for their establishment. These issues are dealt
with by the authors elsewhere [26].
While the present work includes body forces of
magnetic origin, the explicit treatment of the effect of body
couples, equation (2), has been left out in the interest of
simplicity. Body couples are included only in an implicit
sense (discussion in section 2). A modification of the
present theory that also takes these body couples into
account is currently underway and will be reported on
elsewhere [10]. The inclusion of magnetic body forces and
body couples adds a new complexity to the formulation and
necessitates additional computation to establish Maxwell
stresses and the magnetic contributions to Cauchy stresses.
It is therefore important, particularly when analysing large
and complex structures, to determine the contribution of
these additional terms to solution accuracy. Ignoring these
forces and couples will yield a formulation that resembles
the one presented by Ghandi and Hagood [18] for nonlinear
piezoelectric materials.
While the motivation for the present work is the
need for computational tools to analyse magnetostrictive
active and adaptive structures, the finite-element scheme
developed possesses more general, and more widely
applicable, capabilities to address the electro-magneto–
mechanical interactions in polarized or magnetized
deformable bodies.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support
for this work from the Army Research Office through the
University Research Initiative, Contract Number DAAL 03-
92-G-0121, under the supervision of Program Monitor
Dr Gary Anderson. The authors would also like to
acknowledge the great value to them of their discussions
with Professors M Wuttig and A Roytburd at the University
of Maryland, College Park, Professor M Anjanappa at
the University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Professor
R D James of the University of Minnesota and Professor
A DeSimone of the University of Rome. Also, help from
Professor G W Stewart, Department of Computer Science,
University of Maryland, College Park, in evaluating the
numerical conditioning of the finite-element system is
gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] Clark A E 1980 Ferromagnetic Materials vol 1 ed
E P Wohlfarth (Amsterdam: North-Holland) ch 7
pp 531–89
[2] Brown W F Jr 1966 Magnetoelastic Interactions (Berlin:
Springer) ch II pp 53–62
[3] Tiersten H F 1964 Coupled magnetomechanical equations
for magnetically saturated media J. Math. Phys. 5
1298–318
350
[4] Tiersten H F 1965 Variational principle for saturated
magnetoelastic insulators J. Math. Phys. 6 779–87
[5] Jiles D C 1994 The development and characterization of
rare-earth iron alloys J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 27 1–11
[6] Thoelke J B and Jiles D C 1995 Magnetization and
magnetostriction in terbium–dysprosium–iron alloys
Phys. Status Solidi a 147 535–51
[7] Carman G P and Mitrovic M 1995 Nonlinear constitutive
relations for magnetostrictive materials with applications
to 1-d problems J. Intell. Mater. Sys. Struct. 6 673–83
[8] Pao Y H and Yeh C S 1973 A linear theory for soft
ferromagnetics elastic solids Int. J. Engin. Sci. 11 415–36
[9] Bobbio S, DeSimone A and Marrucci G 1995 Forces,
stresses, and energies in polarized solids Nuovo Cimento
17 D 627–42
[10] Kannan K S and Dasgupta 1997 A new weighted-residual
quasi-static finite element scheme for modeling bulk
magnetostriction Program on Smart Structures and
Integrated Systems, 4th Ann. Symp. on Smart Structures
and Materials (Chicago, Il: SPIE)
[11] Baumhauer J C and Tiersten H F 1973 Nonlinear
electroelastic equations for small fields superposed on a
bias J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 54 1017–34
[12] Engdahl G and Svensson L 1988 Simulation of the
magnetostrictive performance of terfenol-d in
mechanical devices J. Appl. Phys. 63 3924–6
[13] Delince F, Genon A, Gillard J M, Hedia H, Legros W and
Nicolet A 1991 Numerical computation of the
magnetostriction effect in ferromagnetic materials
J. Appl. Phys. 69 5794–6
[14] Benbouzid M E H, Reyne G, Meunier G and Bendaas M C
1993 Variational formulation for nonlinear fnite element
modeling of terfenol-d rods using surface splines for
material indata. Magnetoelastic Effects and Applications
ed L Lanotte (Amsterdam: Elsevier) pp 185–91
[15] Benbouzid M E H, Reyne G and Meunier G 1993
Nonlinear finite element modeling of giant
magnetostriction IEEE Trans. Magn. MAG-29 2467–9
[16] Benbouzid M E H, Reyne G, Meunier G, Kvarnsjo L and
Engdahl G 1995 Dynamic modeling of giant
magnetostriction in terfenol-d rods by the finite element
method IEEE Trans. Magn. MAG-31 1821–4
[17] Claeyssen F, Bossut R and Boucher D 1991 Modeling and
characterization of magnetostrictive coupling Power
Transducers for Sonics and Ultrasonics ed B F Hamonic
et al (Amsterdam: Springer) pp 132–51
[18] Ghandi K and Hagood N W 1996 Nonlinear finite element
modeling of phase transitions in electro-mechanically
coupled materials SPIE 2715 121–40
[19] Anjanappa M and Bi J 1994 A theoretical and experimental
study of magnetostrictive mini-actuators Smart Mater.
Struct. 3 83–91
[20] Tremolet de Lacheisserie Etienne 1993 Magnetostriction,
Theory and Applications of Magnetoelasticity (Boca
Raton, FL: CRC)
[21] Savage H T, Clark A E and Spano M L 1984 Effect of
stress on the magnetostriction of single crystal
Tb0.27 Dy0.73 Fe2 IEEE Trans. Magn. MAG-20 1443–5
[22] Butler J L 1988 Application Manual for Design of Etrema
Terfenol-D Magnetostrictive Transducers (Ames, IA:
Edge Technologies)
[23] Chikazumi S 1964 Physics of Magnetism (Chichester: Wiley)
[24] Press W H, Teukolsky S A, Vetterling W T and Flannery
B P 1995 Numerical Recipes in C 2nd edn (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press) 2nd edn
[25] 1994 Ansys Program, Revision 5.0, Swanson Analysis
Systems, Inc., PO Box 65, Johnson Road, Houston,
PA 15342-0065
[26] Kannan K S and Dasgupta A 1997 A nonlinear quasi-static
finite element scheme for magnetized and deformable
bodies including magnetostrictives Proc. SPIE 4th Ann.
Symp. on Smart Materials and Structures (San Diego)