Worker-Machine Systems Relative Strengths

Humans Machines

Worker operates a powered equipment

Sense unexpected stimuli
Perform repetitive operations
consistently

Examples:
Solve problems

Store large amounts of information

Machinist operating a milling machine
Cope with abstract problems

Retrieve data from memory

Construction worker operating a backhoe
Adapt to change reliably

Truck driver driving an 18-wheel tractor-
Generalize from observations
Perform multiple tasks at the
same time
trailer

Learn from experience

Apply high forces and power

Worker crew operating a rolling mill

Make decisions on incomplete
Perform computations very quickly

Clerical worker entering data into a PC data

Make routine decisions quickly

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Relative Strengths Types of Powered Equipment

In a worker- machine system the worker and
Powered machinery: A source of power other
the machine both contribute their own than human (or animal) strength is used to
strengths and capabilities operate that tool (or machine).

1. Portable power tools

The result is synergistic /produces synergy.

Types of worker- machine systems:

Types of powered machinery used in the system
2.

Numbers of workers and machines in the system

Level of operator attention required to run the
machinery
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Portable power drills, chain saws, electric hedge
trimmers

Light enough in weight so that they can be easily
carried
Mobile powered equipment

Transportation equipment, back hoes, forklift
trucks, electric power generator at construction site

Heavy pieces of equipment but transportable
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Classification of Powered
Types of Powered Equipment Machinery

Powered machinery: A source of power other
than human (or animal) strength is used to
operate that tool (or machine).
Cars, buses, trucks, airplanes

3. Stationary powered machines Tractor, bulldozers, backhoes, forklifts

Machine tools, office equipment, cash registers,
heat treatment furnaces Electric power generators

Perfom functions in a stationary location

Turning, drilling, milling

not normally moved
PCs, photocopiers, telephones

Ovens, cahs register

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

1
 Numbers of Workers and Machines Level of Operator Attention
One worker and One worker and
Full-time attention

Welders performing arc welding
One machine Multiple machines

Taxicab driver and
A worker
Part-time attention during each work cycle
taxi operating several
Worker loading and unloading a production machine on
machines semi-automatic cycle

Multiple workers and Multiple workers and
Periodic attention with regular servicing
One machine Multiple machines
Worker loading a machine every 20 cycles

A crew on a ship
Emergency repair

crew responding
Periodic attention with random servicing
to machine
Firefighters responding to alarms

Maintenance worker repairing machines
breakdowns in a
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
factory
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Good Work Design for Machine-Worker

Systems

Design the controls of the machine to be logical and easy to
operate for the worker.
Two welders
Design the work sequence so that as much of the worker’s task
performing arc as possible can be accomplished while the machine is
welding on operating.
pipe- requires

Minimize the idle times of both the worker and the machine.
full- time
attention of
Design the task and the machine to be safe for the worker.
workers (photo
courtesy of
If the system is a multiple worker or/and multiple machine
system, optimize the number of workers or machines in the
Lincoln system according to a specified objective.
Electric Co.)
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Case 2.a: Cycle Times with No Overlap

Cycle Time Analysis Between Worker and Machine

Two categories of worker-machine systems in terms of cycle time
Worker elements and machine elements are sequential
analysis

Cases:
There is no overlap in work elements between the

1. Systems in which the machine time depends on operator worker and the machine
control
While worker is busy, machine is idle

A typist typing a list of names on a typewriter
While machine is busy, worker is idle

Carpenter using power saw to cut lumber

A construction worker operating a backhoe
Normal time for cycle

Cycle time analysis is same as for manual work cycle
Tn = Tnw + Tm,
2. Systems in which machine time is constant and independent where
of operator control Tnw = Normal time for the worker-controlled portion of the

Operator loading semi-automatic production machine cycle time, min

Our focus is on this 2nd type Tm = Machine cycle time (assumed to be constant)

Two types:
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
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Case 2.a: Cycle Times with No Overlap Example 2.8: Effect of machine
Between Worker and Machine allowance on standard time

Standard time for cycle
Given: The work cycle consists of several
Tstd = Tnw (1 + Apfd) + Tm (1 + Am) manual work elements (operator controlled)
where and one machine element performed under
Tnw = Normal time for the, min semiautomatic control. The manual work
Tm = Machine cycle time (constant) elements: a normal time of 1 min and the
Am = Machine allowance factor semiautomatic machine cycle time is 2 min.
Apfd=15%.

Am=30%: Workers love that since efficiencies are
overestimated

Am=0%: Workers hate that since efficiencies are
Determine: the standard time using
overestimated (a) Am=0,

Am= Apfd (b) Am=30%.
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Example 2.9: Effect of machine

Example 2.8: Solution allowance on worker efficiency

The normal time for the work cycle: Tn=1.0+2.0=3.0 min
Given: Standard times in the previous example (Example 2.8).

Determine: The worker efficiencies if 150 units are produced

(a) Tstd=1.0(1+0.15)+2.0=3.15 min in an 8-hour shift.
(Tstd = Tnw (1 + Apfd) + Tm (1 + Am))

Solution:
(a) Hstd=150(3.15)=472.5min=7.875hr
Workers ☺ (Hstd = Q Tstd)
Ew=7.875/8.0=0.984=98.4%
(Ew = Hstd / Hsh)
(b) Tstd=1.0(1+0.15)+2.0(1+0.30) =3.75 min
(Tstd = Tnw (1 + Apfd) + Tm (1 + Am)) (b) Hstd=150(3.75)=562.5min=9.375hr
(Hstd = Q Tstd)
Ew=9.375/8.0=1.172=117.2%
Workers  (Ew = Hstd / Hsh)

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Case 2.b: Internal Work Elements Normal Time and Standard Time

Some worker elements are performed while
Normal time
machine is working Tn = Tnw + Max{Tnwi , Tm}

Internal work elements performed simultaneously
with machine cycle
Standard time
Tstd = Tnw (1 + Apfd) +

External work elements performed sequentially with
machine cycle Max{Tnwi(1 + Apfd) , Tm(1 + Am)}

Actual cycle time

Desirable to design the work cycle with internal Tc = Tnw / Pw + Max{Tnwi/Pw , Tm}
rather than external work elements
where
Tnw = normal time for the worker’s external elements, min

If it is possible, include operator work elements
Tnwi = normal time for the worker’s internal elements, min
that are performed while machine is running. Tm = machine cycle time, min

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

3
 Example 2.10: Internal vs external work Example 2.10: Internal vs external work
elements in cycle time analysis elements in cycle time analysis
Worker Machine
Seq. Work Element Description Time Time
Worker Machine
Time Time (min) (min)
Seq. Work Element Description
(min) (min)
1 Worker unloads finished part from machine 0.10 (idle)
1 Worker walks to tote pan containing raw stock 0.13 (idle)

2 Worker picks up raw workpart and transports to machine 0.23 (idle) 2 Worker loads part into machine and engages 0.12 (idle)
semiautomatic machine cycle

3 Worker loads part into machine and engages machine 0.12 (idle)
3 Machine semiautomatic cycle (idle) 0.75
semiautomatic cycle

4 Machine semiautomatic cycle (idle) 0.75

4 Worker transports finished part and deposits it into tote 0.15+ (operating)
5 Worker unloads finished part from machine 0.10 (idle) pan, walks to tote pan containing raw stock, and picks up 0.13+
raw workpart and transports it to machine. (This element 0.23=
is internal to the machine semiautomatic cycle.)
6 Worker transports finished part and deposits into tote pan 0.15 (idle) 0.51

Total 0.73 0.75

Total 0.73 0.75
Tc=0.73+0.75=1.48 min Tc=0.10+0.12+0.75=0.97 min
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Example 2.10: Internal vs external work

elements in cycle time analysis Automated Work Systems

The cycle time is reduced from 1.48 min to 0.97 min.

Automation is the technology by which a

% cycle time reduction=(CTcurrent-CTimproved)/CTcurrent process or procedure is accomplished without
human assistance
=(1.48-0.97)/1.48=%34

Rcurrent=1/1.48 min=0.68 units per min

Implemented using a program of instructions

Rimproved=1/0.97 min=1.03 units per min combined with a control system that executes
the instructions

% increase in R=(Rimproved-Rcurrent)/Rcurrent

=(1.03-0.68)/0.68=%53

Power is required to drive the process and

%decrease in R=(Rcurrent-Rimproved)/Rcurrent operate the control system
=(0.68-1.03)/0.68=-%53
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Levels of Automated Systems Levels of Automated Systems

There is not always a clear distinction between worker-
There is not always a clear distinction between worker-
machine systems and automated systems, because machine systems and automated systems, because
many worker-machine systems operate with some many worker-machine systems operate with some
degree of automation. degree of automation.

1. Semiautomated machine 1. Semiautomated machine

Performs a portion of the work cycle under some form of
program control 2. Fully automated machine

Human worker tends the machine for the rest of the cycle
Operates for extended periods of time with no human
by loading unloading etc. attention (longer than one work cycle, e.g. every hundredth

Operator must be present every cycle cycle)

Same characteristics with worker-machine system
e.g., periodically the molded parts at a molding machine

e.g.,an automated lathe requires a worker to unload parts must be collected.
at every cycle, although changing tools may not be
required at every cycle

2. Fully automated machine

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

4
 Determining worker and machine
Requirements

How many workers/machines are required to
achieve the organization’s work objectives?

Automated
If too few workers are assigned to perform a

robotic spot given amount of work
welding cell
The work cannot be completed on time, customer
(photo service will suffer.
courtesy of
Ford Motor
If too many workers are assigned to perform a
given amount of work
Company)

The payroll costs are higher than needed, and
productivity will suffer.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Determining worker and machine

Requirements Case 3.1: When Setup is not a Factor

• Workload (WL): Total hours required to complete a
Workload

given amount of work or to produce a given number of WL=QTc
work units scheduled during the period where
WL = workload scheduled for a given period, hr,
Q = quantity to be produced during the period. pc/period,

Available time (AT): The number of hours (in the same
Tc = work cycle time required per work unit, hr/pc. (Tc =Tstd)
period) available from one worker or worker-machine
system

If the workload includes multiple part or product styles that are
produced by the same work system:

The basic approach to determine the number of
workers: WL = ∑ Q jTcj
j
1. Determine the total workload that must be accomplished where
in a certain period. Qj=quantity of part or product style j, pc,
2. Divide the total workload by available time. Tcj=cycle time of part or product style j, hr/pc.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Example 2.11: Determining Worker

Case 1: When Setup is not a Factor requirements

Number of workers and number of machines
Given: 800 shafts must be produced in the
required: lathe section of a machine shop in particular
week. Each shaft is identical and Tstd=11.5min.
w= WL/AT, or n=WL/AT All the lathes are identical. There are 40 hours
of available time on each lathe.

where

Determine: Number of lathes and lathe
w = number of workers, operators must be devoted during that week.
n = number of workstations,
AT = available time of one worker in the
period, hr/period/worker
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
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5
 Example 2.11: Solution Factors that affect the workload

Workload:
Learning effect:

WL=800(11.5 min)=9200 min=153.33hr
As learning occurs in repetitive manual work,

worker efficiency increases, cycle time decreases
Machine (and worker) requirements so that the workload is reduced.

w=n=153.3/40=3.83 (round up)

=4 lathe operators and lathes

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Factors that affect the workload Factors that affect the workload

Worker efficiency: Worker may perform either
Defect rate: Fraction of parts produced that are defective.
above or below standard performance.
A defect rate greater than zero increases the quantity of
work units that must be processed to yield the desired
quantity. So workload increases with defect rate.
Ew=Workload actually completed / Workload
completed at standard performance
The relationship between the starting quantity and the final
quantity produced:
Q=Q0(1-q)

Worker efficiency greater than 1.00 reduces the where
workload. Q=quantity of good units made in the process,
Q0=original or starting quantity; q=fraction defect rate.

The combined effect of worker efficiency and defect rate is
given by
WL=(QTstd) / (Ew(1-q))
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Example 2.12: Effect of worker efficiency

Availability defect rate, and availability

A common measure of reliability for equipment
Given: Previous example. Anticipated
availability of the lathes 95%. Expected worker

Defined as the proportion of time the equipment is
available to run relative to the total time it could be used.
efficiency during production=110%. The
fraction defect rate=3%.

Available time increases as availability increases

Determine: Number of lathes required.
AT=HshA

where
AT=available time, hr/worker,
Hsh=shift hours during the period, hr,
A=availability, expressed as a decimal fraction.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

6
 Example 2.12: Solution We omit

Total workload
2.4.2 When setup time is included
- a
Cse 2

WL =( 800 (11.5/60) ) / ( 1.10 (1

- 0.03) ) = 143.7 hr
2.5 Machine Clusters

Available time

AT=40(0.95)=38hr/machine

n=143.7/38=3.78 lathes (and lathe operators)

=4 lathes (and lathe operators)
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.