IMPORTANCE OF WATER

With two thirds of the earth's surface covered by water and the human body consisting of 75
percent of it, it is evidently clear that water is one of the prime elements responsible for life
on earth.

Fig. 1. Availability of Water

Water provides the Earth with the capacity of supporting life. Water is less dense in its solid
state than in its liquid state, so that ice floats instead of sinking. This property permits life to
develop in polar and subpolar regions where ice floats and allows life to continue living
below the surface.

The movement of the oceans also has a direct effect on the atmosphere. The atmosphere is
that envelope of gas that keeps organisms living on this planet. Oceans and atmosphere
interact to give us weather.

CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA

1. Tropical Rain Forest

 This type of climate is found on the west coastal plain and Sahyadris and in parts of
Assam
 The temperatures are high, not falling below 18.2 degree c even during winter and
rising to 29 degree C in April and May, the hottest months.
 Dense, forests and plantation agriculture with crops like tea, coffee and spices are the
characteristics vegetation in the area.
2. Tropical savanna:
 Most of the peninsula, except the semiarid zone in the leeside of the Sahyadris
experiences this type of climate.
 A long dry weather lasting through winter and early summer and high temperature
remaining above 18.2 degree C even during the winter seasons and rising as high as 32
degree C in summer are the chief characteristics of this climate.
  Nagpur has a mean temperature of 35.4 degree C for May which is the hottest month
and 20.7 degree C for December the coldest month in the year.
 The natural vegetation all over the area is savanna.
3. Tropical Semi-Arid Steppe Climate:
 The rain-shadow belt, running southward from central Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu, in
the leeside of the Sahyadris and Cardamom Hills come under this type of climate of
low and uncertain rainfall.
 Temperature varying from 20 degree C to 23.8 degree C for December and 32.8 degree
C for May. Agriculturally, the climate is suitable only for dry farming and livestock
rearing.

4. Tropical and Sub-Tropical Steppe:

  This type of climate occurs over a broad crescent from Punjab to Kachchh between the
Thar Desert to its west and the more humid climates of the Ganga Plain and the
Peninsula to its east and south respectively.
 The climate, therefore, is transitional between these two areas. The annual rainfall is
not only low but it is also highly erratic.
5. Tropical Desert :
 The western part of Barmer, Jaisalmer and Bikaner districts of Rajasthan and most of
the part of Kachchh form the sandy wastes of the Thar which experiences a typical
desert climate.
 Ganganagar has recorded a maximum temperature of 50 degree C, the highest record.
6. Humid Sub-Tropical With Winter:
 A large area to the south of the Himalayas, east of the tropical and sub-tropical steppe
and north of the tropical savanna running in a long belt from Punjab to Assam with a
south-westward extension into Rajasthan east of the Aravalli Range, has this type of
climate.
 Winters are dry except for a little rain received from the westerly depressions.
7. Mountain Climate:
 The Himalayan and Karakoram ranges experience this type of climate with sharp
contrasts between the temperatures of the sunny and shady slopes, high diurnal range of
temperatures and high variability of rainfall.
 The trans-Himalayan region, Ladakh, where the south-west monsoon fails to reach, has
a dry and cold climate and a spare and stunned vegetation.
8. Drought in India:
 The dry areas of Rajasthan and the adjoining part of Haryana and Gujarat are liable to
frequent drought conditions.
 Another area liable to frequent drought lies on the leeward side of the western Ghats.
CLIMATIC SEASONS OF INDIA

Season based on Monsoon

The climate of India may be described as tropical monsoon. Even northern India, lying
beyond the tropical zone, acquires a tropical touch marked by the relatively high
temperatures. The large size of the country and its varied relief play a crucial role in
determining the climatic variations in different part of India. But the seasonal rhythm of the
monsoon is apparent throughout India. It may conveniently from the basis for dividing the
year into different seasons. The most characteristic feature of the monsoon is the complete
reversal of winds. It eventually leads to the alternation of seasons. India is known as the "land
of the endless growing season".

The year is divided into four seasons:

1. The Cold Weather Season: (N.E. Monsoons) The Cold weather seasons starts in January.
The north-east monsoon is fully established over India this seasons. the mean January day
temperature in Chennai and Calicut is about 24-25 degree C while in the northern plains it
is about 10-15 degree C. In December, the sunshines directly over the Trophic of
Capricorn. The landmass of Asia, including the sub-continent, cools down very rapidly.
There is a high pressure over the continent. The Indian Ocean, being warmer, has a
relatively low pressure.

N. E. Trade Winds (prevailing winds in the tropical Latitudes), blow, land to sea. These
winds, being off shore do not give rain. In this season western disturbances bring light
rainfall, most beneficial to the rabi crop in N.W. India. This rainfall decreases towards the
east and the south. The Peninsular region of India, however does not have any well-
defined cold weather season. There is hardly any seasonal change in the distribution
pattern of the temperature in coastal areas because of moderating influence of sea and the
proximity to equator.

2. The Hot Weather Season: From mid March to May the sun moves over the Equator
towards tropic of Cancer. By June 21, it is directly overhead the Trophic of Cancer. In
March, the highest day temperatures of about 38 degree C occur in the Deccan Plateau.
Therefore,
 Peninsular India, places south of Satpuras experience temperature between 26-32
degree C.
 Central India, comprising of Delhi and Madhya Pradesh experience temperature
between 40-45 degree C.
 North-West India, comprising mainly of Rajasthan has very high temperature (45
degree C), due also to features like sandy soil, direct insulation and lack of cloud cover.
3. The South-West Monsoon Season: This season begins in June and lasts until September.
The low pressure which existed over Norther Plain is further intensified. It is strong
enough to attract the moisture bearing winds from the Indian Ocean.
 The bulk of rainfall is received during this season in almost every part of India except
Tamil Nadu.
 The amount of rainfall received depends on the relief of the region.
 The rain is unreliable and there are dry intervals.
 Table 1 Traditional Seasons of India

Seasons Indian Calender Gregorian Calender

Vasanta Chaitra-Vaisakha March-April
Grishma jyaistha-Asadha May-June
Varsha Sravana-Bhadra July-August
Sharada Asvina-Kartika September-October
Hemanta Margashirsa-Pausa November-December
Shishira Magha-Phalguma January-February

RAINFALL

Rainfall is the important element of Indian economy. Although the monsoons effect most part
of India, the amount of rainfall varies from heavy to scanty on different parts. There is great
regional and temporal variation in the distribution of rainfall. Over 80% of the annual rainfall
is received in the four rainy months of June to September. The average annual rainfall is
about 125 cm, but it has great spatial variations.
a. Areas of Heavy Rainfall (Over 200cm) : The highest rainfall occurs in west costs, on
the western Ghats as well as the Sub-Himalayan areas in North East and Meghalaya
Hills. Assam, West Bengal, West Coast and Southern slopes of eastern Himalayas.
b. Areas of Moderately Heavy Rainfall (100-200 cm) : This rainfall occurs in Southern
Parts of Gujarat, East Tamil Nadu, North-eastern Peninsular, Western Ghats, eastern
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orrisa, the middle Ganga valley.
c. Areas of Less Rainfall (50-100 cm) : Upper Ganga valley, eastern Rajasthan, Punjab,
Southern Plateau of Karnataka, Andhra Pradessh and Tamil Nadu.
d. Areas of Scanty Rainfall (Less than 50 cm) : Northern part of Kashmir, Western
Rajasthan, Punjab and Deccan Plateau. The two significant features of India's rainfall
is that
i. in the north India, rainfall decreases westwards and
ii. in Peninsular India, except Tamil Nadu, it decreases eastward.
Facts About Indian Monsoon

 Rainfall occurs in summer

 Rainfall is erratic and unpredictable
 Rainfall is unevenly distributed
 Rainfall affects Indian economy

Interannual Variations of Indian Summer Monsoon

The All-India area-weighted mean summer monsoon rainfall, based on a homogeneous
rainfall data set of 306 raingauges in India, developed by the Indian Institute of Tropical
Meteorology, is widely considered as a reliable index of summer monsoon activity over the
Indian region. Long time series of this index since 1871 have revealed several interesting
aspects of the interannual and decadal-scale variations in the monsoon as well as its regional
and global teleconnections.
Fig. Increase/Decrease in rainfall in mm in 100 year in each of 36 subdivisions for the winter,
pre-monsoon, post-monsoon seasons and annual. Different levels of significance are shaded
with colors
THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE (also known as the water cycle)

The journey of water which circulates from the land to the sky and back again is
Hydrological cycle. The sun's heat provides energy to evaporate water from the earth's
surface (oceans, lakes, etc.). Plants also lose water to the air - this is called transpiration. The
water vapour eventually condenses, forming tiny droplets in clouds.

When the clouds meet cool air over land, precipitation (rain, sleet, or snow) is triggered, and
water returns to the land (or sea). Some of the precipitation soaks into the ground. Some of
the underground water is trapped between rock or clay layers - this is called groundwater. But
most of the water flows downhill as runoff (above ground or underground), eventually
returning to the seas as slightly salty water.

This Information page provides an understanding of the hydrological cycle. It describes the
principal stages of the cycle, with a brief description of each stage. A diagram gives a clear
visual explanation. The links between the hydrological cycle and the duties of a water utility
to supply clean water and dispose of dirty water are also explained.

The stages of the cycle are:

 Evaporation
 Transport
 Condensation
 Precipitation
 Groundwater
 Run-off

Evaporation
Water is transferred from the surface to the atmosphere through evaporation, the process by
which water changes from a liquid to a gas. The sun’s heat provides energy to evaporate
water from the earth’s surface. Land, lakes, rivers and oceans send up a steady stream of
water vapour and plants also lose water to the air (transpiration).
Approximately 80% of all evaporation is from the oceans, with the remaining 20% coming
from inland water and vegetation.

Transport
The movement of water through the atmosphere, specifically from over the oceans to over
land, is called transport. Some of the earth’s moisture transport is visible as clouds, which
themselves consist of ice crystals and/or tiny water droplets.
Clouds are propelled from one place to another by either the jet stream, surface-based
circulations like land and sea breezes or other mechanisms. However, a typical cloud 1 km
thick contains only enough water for a millimetre of rainfall, whereas the amount of moisture
in the atmosphere is usually 10-50 times greater than this.
Most water is transported in the form of water vapour, which is actually the third most
abundant gas in the atmosphere. Water vapour may be invisible to us, but not to satellites
which are capable of collecting data about moisture patterns in the atmosphere.

Condensation
The transported water vapour eventually condenses, forming tiny droplets in clouds.
Precipitation
The primary mechanism for transporting water from the atmosphere to the surface of the
earth is precipitation.
When the clouds meet cool air over land, precipitation, in the form of rain, sleet or snow, is
triggered and water returns to the land (or sea). A proportion of atmospheric precipitation
evaporates.

Groundwater
Some of the precipitation soaks into the ground and this is the main source of the formation
of the waters found on land - rivers, lakes, groundwater and glaciers.
Some of the underground water is trapped between rock or clay layers - this is
called groundwater. Water that infiltrates the soil flows downward until it encounters
impermeable rock and then travels laterally. The locations where water moves laterally are
called ‘aquifers’. Groundwater returns to the surface through these aquifers, which empty
into lakes, rivers and the oceans.
Under special circumstances, groundwater can even flow upward in artesian wells. The flow
of groundwater is much slower than run-off with speeds usually measured in centimetres per
day, metres per year or even centimetres per year.

Run-off
Most of the water which returns to land flows downhill as run-off. Some of it penetrates and
charges groundwater while the rest, as river flow, returns to the oceans where it evaporates.
As the amount of groundwater increases or decreases, the water table rises or falls
accordingly. When the entire area below the ground is saturated, flooding occurs because all
subsequent precipitation is forced to remain on the surface.
Different surfaces hold different amounts of water and absorb water at different rates. As a
surface becomes less permeable, an increasing amount of water remains on the surface,
creating a greater potential for flooding. Flooding is very common during winter and early
spring because frozen ground has no permeability, causing most rainwater and meltwater to
become run-off.

This entire process repeats as illustrated in Figure 1.

Water Balance

A considerable portion of river flow does not reach the ocean, having evaporated those areas
with no natural surface run-off channels. On the other hand, some groundwater bypasses river
systems altogether and goes directly to the ocean or evaporates.

Every year, the turnover of water on Earth involves 577,000 km3 of water. This is water that
evaporates from the ocean surface (502,800 km3) and from land (74,200 km3). The same
amount of water falls as atmospheric precipitation, 458,000 km3 on the ocean and 119,000
km3on land. The difference between precipitation and evaporation from the land surface
(119,000 ?– ?74,200 = 44,800 km3/year) represents the total run-off of the Earth’s rivers
(42,700 km3/year) and direct groundwater run-off.
SUBSURFLACE FLOW
 Subsurface water – all water beneath the Earth’s surface
 Recharged by infiltration either directly on the land surface or in the beds of streams,
lakes & oceans
 Discharged through - evaporation, transpiration, from springs, seeps on land surface or
beds of surface water bodies, pumping wells, gravity drains etc.
 Subsurface environment –some arrangement of porous materials – water moves within
the pores of these materials.
 Most terrestrial hydrologic activities takes

Free Water Surface Flow (FWS)

• Flooded and planted channels
• Imitate the naturally occurring processes of a natural wetland, marsh or swamp
• Water slowly flows through the wetland (on the surface), particles settle, pathogens
are destroyed, and organisms and plants utilise the nutrients

Horizontal Flow (HF)

• Large gravel and sand-filled channel, planted with aquatic vegetation
• Wastewater flows horizontally through the channel
• Mainly anaerobic conditions
• The filter material filters out particles and microorganisms degrade organic matter
Vertical Flow (VF)
• Gravel and sand filter, aquatic vegetation
• Intermittent appliance (pump or syphon) of wastewater over the whole filter surface
 higher O2 injection
• Wastewater drains vertically through the filter layers towards a drainage system at the
bottom

Source: HOFFMANN et al. (2010)

Source: MOREL and DIENER (2006)

Groundwater is the water located beneath the earth's surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures
of rock formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield
a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock
become completely saturated with water is called the water table. Groundwater is recharged from,
and eventually flows to, the surface naturally; natural discharge often occurs at springs and seeps,
and can form oases or wetlands. Groundwater is also often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal,
and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells. The study of the distribution and
movement of groundwater is hydrogeology.

An aquifer is a layer of porous substrate that contains and transmits groundwater. When water can
flow directly between the surface and the saturated zone of an aquifer, the aquifer is unconfined.
The deeper parts of unconfined aquifers are usually more saturated since gravity causes water to
flow downward.
The upper level of this saturated layer of an unconfined aquifer is called the water table or phreatic
surface. Below the water table, where in general all pore spaces are saturated with water, is the
phreatic zone.
Substrate with low porosity that permits limited transmission of groundwater is known as
an aquitard. Anaquiclude is a substrate with porosity that is so low it is virtually impermeable to
groundwater.
A confined aquifer is an aquifer that is overlain by a relatively impermeable layer of rock or substrate
such as an aquiclude or aquitard. If a confined aquifer follows a downward grade from its recharge
zone, groundwater can become pressurized as it flows. This can create artesian wells that flow freely
without the need of a pump and rise to a higher elevation than the static water table at the above,
unconfined, aquifer.
The characteristics of aquifers vary with the geology and structure of the substrate and topography
in which they occur. In general, the more productive aquifers occur in sedimentary geologic
formations. By comparison, weathered and fractured crystalline rocks yield smaller quantities of
groundwater in many environments. Unconsolidated to poorly cemented alluvial materials that have
accumulated as valley-filling sediments in major river valleys and geologically subsiding structural
basins are included among the most productive sources of groundwater.
Groundwater makes up about twenty percent of the world's fresh water supply, which is about
0.61% of the entire world's water, including oceans and permanent ice. Global groundwater storage
is roughly equal to the total amount of freshwater stored in the snow and ice pack, including the
north and south poles. This makes it an important resource that can act as a natural storage that can
buffer against shortages of surface water, as in during times of drought.
Groundwater is naturally replenished by surface water from precipitation streams, and rivers when
this recharge reaches the water table. Based on the stage of groundwater development, the
groundwater basins have been categorized as Over Exploited (Stage of groundwater development is
> 100%), Critical (Stage of groundwater development is 90% to 100%), Semi-Crtical (Stage of
groundwater development is 70% to 90%) and Safe (Stage of groundwater development is < 70%).
The Statics for Andhra Pradesh is given below.
Number of Mandals in Different Categories in all Districts of A.P - 2009
No.of Mandals in Different Categories
SL.No District
Safe SC Critical OE TOTAL
1 Srikakulam 38 0 0 0 38
2 Vijayanagaram 34 0 0 0 34
3 Visakhapatnam 42 1 0 0 43
4 East Godavari 54 2 0 1 57
5 West Godavari 34 8 2 2 46
6 Krishna 46 1 1 2 50
7 Guntur 57 0 0 0 57
8 Prakasam 42 7 2 5 56
9 Nellore 40 6 0 0 46
Andhra Total 387 25 5 10 427
10 Chittoor 26 18 7 15 66
11 Kadapa 17 13 8 13 51
12 Anantapur 14 12 8 29 63
13 Kurnool 51 2 1 0 54
Rayalaseema Total 108 45 24 57 234

Safe: Safe SC: Semi Critical Critical : Critical OE: Over Exploited

FORMS OF GROUND WATER

Srings : A spring is a water resource formed when the side of a hill, a valley bottom or other
excavation intersects a flowing body of groundwater at or below the local water table, below which
the subsurface material is saturated with water. A spring is the result of an aquifer being filled to the
point that the water overflows onto the land surface. They range in size from intermittent seeps,
which flow only after much rain, to huge pools flowing hundreds of millions of gallons daily.

Spring
Natural Valleys

Wells: A water well is an excavation or structure created in the ground by digging, driving, boring, or
drilling to access groundwater in underground aquifers. The well water is drawn by a pump, or using
containers, such as buckets, that are raised mechanically or by hand.
Wells can vary greatly in depth, water volume, and water quality. Well water typically contains more
minerals in solution than surface water and may require treatment to soften the water.
Bore Wells

TYPES OF AQUIFERS

FLOWCHART OF WATER CYCLE

WATER HARVESTING STRUCTURE

Water Harvesting Structure means capturing rain where it falls or capturing the run off in
your own village or town. And taking measures to keep that water clean by not allowing
polluting activities to take place in the catchment.

Therefore, water harvesting can be undertaken through a variety of ways

 Capturing runoff from rooftops

 Capturing runoff from local catchments
 Capturing seasonal floodwaters from local streams
 Conserving water through watershed management

These techniques can serve the following the following purposes:

 Provide drinking water

 Provide irrigation water
 Increase groundwater recharge
 Reduce stormwater discharges, urban floods and overloading of sewage treatment
plants
 Reduce seawater ingress in coastal areas.

In general, water harvesting is the activity of direct collection of rainwater. The rainwater
collected can be stored for direct use or can be recharged into the groundwater. Rain is the
first form of water that we know in the hydrological cycle, hence is a primary source of water
for us. Rivers, lakes and groundwater are all secondary sources of water. In present times, we
depend entirely on such secondary sources of water. In the process, it is forgotten that rain is
the ultimate source that feeds all these secondary sources and remain ignorant of its value.
Water harvesting means to understand the value of rain, and to make optimum use of the
rainwater at the place where it falls.

What is Rainwater harvesting ?

Ground water resource gets naturally recharged through percolation. But due to
indiscriminate development and rapid urbainzation, exposed surface for soil has been reduced
drastically with resultant reduction in percolation of rainwater, thereby depleting ground
water resource. Rainwater harvesting is the process of augmenting the natural filtration of
rainwater in to the underground formation by some artificial methods. "Conscious collection
and storage of rainwater to cater to demands of water, for drinking, domestic purpose &
irrigation is termed as Rainwater Harvesting."
The term rainwater harvesting is being frequently used these days, however, the concept of
water harvesting is not new for India. Water harvesting techniques had been evolved and
developed centuries ago.

Why Rainwater harvesting ?

This is perhaps one of the most frequently asked question, as to why one should harvest
rainwater. There are many reasons but following are some of the important ones.

 To arrest ground water decline and augment ground water table

 To beneficiate water quality in aquifers
 To conserve surface water runoff during monsoon
 To reduce soil erosion
 To inculcate a culture of water conservation

Methods of Rainwater Harvesting

Broadly there are two ways of harvesting rainwater.

(i) Surface runoff harvesting

(ii) Roof top rainwater harvesting

Various methods of rainwater harvesting are described in this section.

1. Surface runoff harvesting

In urban area rainwater flows away as surface runoff. This runoff could be caught and used
for recharging aquifers by adopting appropriate methods.

2. Roof Top rainwater harvesting

It is a system of catching rainwater where it falls. In rooftop harvesting, the roof becomes the
catchments, and the rainwater is collected from the roof of the house/building. It can either be
stored in a tank or diverted to artificial recharge system. This method is less expensive and
very effective and if implemented properly helps in augmenting the ground water level of the
area.

2.1 Components of the roof top rainwater harvesting

The illustrative design of the basic components of roof top rainwater harvesting system is
given in the typical schematic diagram shown in Fig 1.
The system mainly constitutes of following sub components:
1. Catchments
2. Transportation
3. First flush
4. Filter
1. Catchments
The surface that receives rainfall directly is the catchment of rainwater harvesting
system. It may be terrace, courtyard, or paved or unpaved open ground. The terrace may
be flat RCC/stone roof or sloping roof. Therefore the catchment is the area, which
actually contributes rainwater to the harvesting system.
2. Transportation
Rainwater from rooftop should be carried through down take water pipes or drains
to storage/harvesting system. Water pipes should be UV resistant (ISI HDPE/PVC pipes)
of required capacity. Water from sloping roofs could be caught through gutters and down
take pipe. At terraces, mouth of the each drain should have wire mesh to restrict floating
material.
3. First Flush
First flush is a device used to flush off the water received in first shower. The first
shower of rains needs to be flushed-off to avoid contaminating storable/rechargeable
water by the probable contaminants of the atmosphere and the catchment roof. It will also
help in cleaning of silt and other material deposited on roof during dry seasons Provisions
of first rain separator should be made at outlet of each drainpipe.
4. Filter
There is always some skepticism regarding Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting since
doubts are raised that rainwater may contaminate groundwater. There is remote
possibility of this fear coming true if proper filter mechanism is not adopted. Secondly all
care must be taken to see that underground sewer drains are not punctured and no leakage
is taking place in close vicinity. Filters are used fro treatment of water to effectively
remove turbidity, colour and microorganisms. After first flushing of rainfall, water should
pass through filters. A gravel, sand and ‘netlon’ mesh filter is designed and placed on top
of thestorage tank. This filter is very important in keeping the rainwater in the storage
tank clean. It removes silt, dust, leaves and other organic matter from entering the storage
tank. The filter media should be cleaned daily after every rainfall event. Clogged filters
prevent rainwater from easily entering the storage tank and the filter may overflow. The
sand or gravel media should be taken out and washed before it is replaced in the filter.
 Fig 2: Photograph of typical filter

There are different types of filters in practice, but basic function is to purify water. Different
types of filters are described in this section.

a) Sand Gravel Filter

These are commonly used filters, constructed by brick masonry and filleted by pebbles,
gravel, and sand as shown in the figure. Each layer should be separated by wire mesh. A
typical figure of Sand Gravel Filter is shown in Fig 3.

Fig 3: Sand Gravel Filter

Charcoal Filter

Charcoal filter can be made in-situ or in a drum. Pebbles, gravel, sand and charcoal as shown
in the figure should fill the drum or chamber. Each layer should be separated by wire mesh.
Thin layer of charcoal is used to absorb odor if any. A schematic diagram of Charcoal filter is
indicated in Fig 4.
 Fig 4: Charcoal Filter

PVC –Pipe filter

This filter can be made by PVC pipe of 1 to 1.20 m length; Diameter of pipe depends on the
area of roof. Six inches dia. pipe is enough for a 1500 Sq. Ft. roof and 8 inches dia. pipe
should be used for roofs more then 1500 Sq. Ft. Pipe is divided into three compartments by
wire mesh. Each component should be filled with gravel and sand alternatively as shown in
the figure. A layer of charcoal could also be inserted between two layers. Both ends of filter
should have reduce of required size to connect inlet and outlet. This filter could be placed
horizontally or vertically in the system. A schematic pipe filter is shown in Fig 5.

Fig 5: PVC-Pipe filter

Sponge Filter

It is a simple filter made from PVC drum having a layer of sponge in the middle of drum. It is
the easiest and cheapest form filter, suitable for residential units. A typical figure of sponge
filter is shown in Fig 6.

Fig 6: Sponge Filter

2.2 Methods of roof top rainwater harvesting

Various methods of using roof top rainwater harvesting are illustrated in this section.
a) Storage of Direct Use

In this method rain water collected from the roof of the building is diverted to a
storage tank. The storage tank has to be designed according to the water requirements,
rainfall and catchment availability. Each drainpipe should have mesh filter at mouth and first
flush device followed by filtration system before connecting to the storage tank. It is
advisable that each tank should have excess water over flow system.

Excess water could be diverted to recharge system. Water from storage tank can be
used for secondary purposes such as washing and gardening etc. This is the most cost
effective way of rainwater harvesting. The main advantage of collecting and using the
rainwater during rainy season is not only to save water from conventional sources, but also to
save energy incurred on transportation and distribution of water at the doorstep. This also
conserves groundwater, if it is being extracted to meet the demand when rains are on. A
typical fig of storage tank is shown in Fig 7.

Fig 7: A storage tank on a platform painted white

b) Recharging ground water aquifers

Ground water aquifers can be recharged by various kinds of structures to ensure

percolation of rainwater in the ground instead of draining away from the surface. Commonly
used recharging methods are:-

a) Recharging of bore wells

b) Recharging of dug wells.
c) Recharge pits
d) Recharge Trenches
e) Soak ways or Recharge Shafts
f) Percolation Tanks

c) Recharging of bore wells

 Rainwater collected from rooftop of the building is diverted through drainpipes to
settlement or filtration tank. After settlement filtered water is diverted to bore wells to
recharge deep aquifers. Abandoned bore wells can also be used for recharge.

Optimum capacity of settlement tank/filtration tank can be designed on the basis of

area of catchment, intensity of rainfall and recharge rate. While recharging, entry of floating
matter and silt should be restricted because it may clog the recharge structure. First one or
two shower should be flushed out through rain separator to avoid contamination. A schematic
diagram of filtration tank recharging to bore well is indicated in Fig 8.

Fig 8 :Filtration tank recharging to bore well

d) Recharge pits

Recharge pits are small pits of any shape rectangular, square or circular, contracted with brick
or stone masonry wall with weep hole at regular intervals. Top of pit can be covered with
perforated covers. Bottom of pit should be filled with filter media.

The capacity of the pit can be designed on the basis of catchment area, rainfall intensity and
recharge rate of soil. Usually the dimensions of the pit may be of 1 to 2 m width and 2 to 3 m
deep depending on the depth of pervious strata. These pits are suitable for recharging of
shallow aquifers, and small houses. A schematic diagram of recharge pit is shown in Fig 9.
 Fig 9: Recharge pit

e) Soak way or Recharge shafts

Soak away or recharge shafts are provided where upper layer of soil is alluvial or less
pervious. These are bored hole of 30 cm dia. up to 10 to 15 m deep, depending on depth of
pervious layer. Bore should be lined with slotted/perforated PVC/MS pipe to prevent collapse
of the vertical sides. At the top of soak away required size sump is constructed to retain
runoff before the filters through soak away. Sump should be filled with filter media. A
schematic diagram of recharge shaft is shown in Fig 10.

Fig 10 : Schematic Diagram of Recharge shaft

f) Recharging of dug wells

Dug well can be used as recharge structure. Rainwater from the rooftop is diverted to dug
wells after passing it through filtration bed. Cleaning and desalting of dug well should be
done regularly to enhance the recharge rate. The filtration method suggested for bore well
recharging could be used. A schematic diagram of recharging into dug well is indicated in Fig
11shown below.

Fig 11: Schematic diagram of recharging to dug well

g) Recharge trenches

Recharge trench in provided where upper impervious layer of soil is shallow. It is a trench
excavated on the ground and refilled with porous media like pebbles, boulder or brickbats. it
is usually made for harvesting the surface runoff. Bore wells can also be provided inside the
trench as recharge shafts to enhance percolation. The length of the trench is decided as per
the amount of runoff expected. This method is suitable for small houses, playgrounds, parks
and roadside drains. The recharge trench can be of size 0.50 to 1.0 m wide and 1.0 to 1.5 m
deep. A schematic diagram of recharging to trenches is shown in Fig below 12.

Fig 12: Recharging to trenches.

h) Percolation tank
 Percolation tanks are artificially created surface water bodies, submerging a land area
with adequate permeability to facilitate sufficient percolation to recharge the ground water.
These can be built in big campuses where land is available and topography is suitable.

Surface run-off and roof top water can be diverted to this tank. Water accumulating in
the tank percolates in the solid to augment the ground water. The stored water can be used
directly for gardening and raw use. Percolation tanks should be built in gardens, open spaces
and roadside green belts of urban area.

Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting

Easy to Maintain: Utilizing the rainwater harvesting system provides certain advantages to
the community. First of all, harvesting rainwater allows us to better utilize an energy
resource. It is important to do so since drinking water is not easily renewable and it helps in
reducing wastage. Systems for the collection of rainwater are based on simple technology.

The overall cost of their installation and operation is much lesser than that of water purifying
or pumping systems. Maintenance requires little time and energy. The result is the collection
of water that can be used in substantial ways even without purification.

2. Reducing Water Bills: Water collected in the rainwater harvesting system can be put to
use for several non-drinking functions as well. For many families and small businesses, this
leads to a large reduction in their utilities bill. On an industrial scale, harvesting rainwater can
provide the needed amounts of water for many operations to take place smoothly without
having to deplete the nearby water sources.

It also lessens the burden of soil erosion in a number of areas, allowing the land to thrive
once again. In fact, it can also be stored in cisterns for use during times when water supplies
are at an all time low.

3. Suitable for Irrigation: As such, there is little requirement for building new infrastructure
for the rainwater harvesting system. Most rooftops act as a workable catchment area, which
can be linked to the harvesting system. This also lessens the impact on the environment by
reducing use of fuel based machines.

Rainwater is free from many chemicals found in ground water, making it suitable for
irrigation and watering gardens. In fact, storing large reservoirs of harvested water is a great
idea for areas where forest fires and bush fires are common during summer months.

4. Reduces Demand on Ground Water: With increase in population, the demand for water
is also continuously increasing. The end result is that many residential colonies and industries
are extracting ground water to fulfill their daily demands. This has led to depletion of ground
water which has gone to significant low level in some areas where there is huge water
scarcity.

5. Reduces Floods and Soil Erosion: During rainy season, rainwater is collected in large
storage tanks which also helps in reducing floods in some low lying areas. Apart from this, it
also helps in reducing soil erosion and contamination of surface water with pesticides and
fertilizers from rainwater run-off which results in cleaner lakes and ponds.
6. Can be Used for Several Non-drinking Purposes: Rainwater when collected can be used
for several non-drinking functions including flushing toilets, washing clothes, watering the
garden, washing cars etc. It is unnecessary to use pure drinking water if all we need to use it
for some other purpose rather than drinking.

Disadvantages of Rainwater Harvesting

1. Unpredictable Rainfall: Rainfall is hard to predict and sometimes little or no rainfall can
limit the supply of rainwater. It is not advisable to depend on rainwater alone for all your
water needs in areas where there is limited rainfall. Rainwater harvesting is suitable in those
areas that receive plenty of rainfall.

2. Initial High Cost: Depending on the system’s size and technology level, a rainwater
harvesting system may cost anywhere between $200 to $2000 and benefit from it cannot be
derived until it is ready for use. Like solar panels, the cost can be recovered in 10-15 years
which again depends on the amount of rainfall and sophistication of the system.

3. Regular Maintenance: Rainwater harvesting systems require regular maintenance as they

may get prone to rodents, mosquitoes, algae growth, insects and lizards. They can become as
breeding grounds for many animals if they are not properly maintained.

4. Certain Roof Types may Seep Chemicals or Animal Droppings: Certain types of roofs
may seep chemicals, insects, dirt or animals droppings that can harm plants if it is used for
watering the plants.

5. Storage Limits: The collection and storage facilities may also impose some kind of
restrictions as to how much rainwater you can use. During the heavy downpour, the
collection systems may not be able to hold all rainwater which ends in going to drains and
rivers.

Rainwater harvesting is a system that is gaining speed over time. Areas that experience high
amounts of rainfall will benefit the most from the system and will be able to distribute water
to dry lands with ease. However, the beneficial environmental impact of the system is what
drives it further as of now.

Conclusion

Based upon various studies, we conclude that a sand filtration system will effectively
eliminate all suspended solids and therefore improve the quality of stored rainwater.

Because organic particles are removed from rainwater by the sand filter before
entering the cistern, the potential for bacterial growth is drastically diminished. Such a
filtration system could be easily implemented into the current design and will result in
significant water quality improvements.

It should be mentioned however, that the elimination of suspended solids does not
equate to water potability. To meet EPA (Environmental Protection Agency ) standards for
safe drinking, water samples should be tested by a certified laboratory. Many owners of
rainwater harvesting systems use chlorine, ozone, or UV purification to ensure that their
drinking water is free of pathogens.
ADVANTAGES OF FOREST CONSERVATION

The following are the advantages and necessities of forest conservation.

1. Forest conservation support life on earth.

2. It maintains quality of water and air, the basic essentials of existence of life.
3. Stability in soil is possible by trees, enables the land based plants and animals to live.
4. From their biodiversity grows wealth in the form of food, medicines, essential for
human health.
5. It acts as Carbon sinks absorbing Carbon dioxide and keeps global warning at body.
6. Forests influence climate and educe extremes of temperature. They conserve soil and
regulate moisture and stream flow. It prevents soil erosion and floods.
7. Forests also supply raw materials to so many industries like pulp-paper, news print,
saw milling, matches, medicinal herbs.
8. It is the source of wood for use in houses construction and fuel wood.
9. Forests help in main export items like teak, paper, paper boards, natural resins, seeds
obtained from forests.
10. Forests also source of revenue to the Government in the form of royalty, from leases
of forest products.
11. It also provides employment to a large many people.

EFFECTS DUE TO DEPLETION OF FORESTS

Climate Change – Forest conservation can play a critical role in efforts to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions, alleviate poverty and helps in protecting the disappearing rainforests.

Soil Erosion – Three fourths of the state is farmed, mostly in row-crops. With so much of the
land under cultivation, erosion is a significant ecological and economic factor. Erosion results
in the loss of valuable topsoil, degradation of surface water quality and the siltation of
waterways.

METHODS OF CONSERVATION

1) Aforestation
2) Conservation of resource forests
3) Commercial forestry
4) Social forestry and environmental forestry
5) Captive plantation or agro forestry
6) Plantation of trees of aesthetic/ornamental values